KIET Group of Institutions

B. Tech. (All Programs)

B. Tech. I Year and Applied Sciences
Semiconductor Physics and Devices
Notes

Unit -4- Optoelectronic Devices

A. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current
passes through it. The light is produced through the phenomenon of electroluminescence, where
electrons recombine with holes in a semiconductor material and release energy in the form of
photons (light). LEDs are widely used in many applications, including displays, lighting,
indicators, and more, due to their efficiency, longevity, and ability to emit different colors.

Working Principle of an LED:

1. Structure:
o An LED consists of a p-n junction made from a direct band gap semiconductor
material. When a voltage is applied across the junction, electrons from the n-type
region and holes from the p-type region are injected into the active region of the
diode.
2. Biasing:
o When the LED is forward-biased (positive voltage applied to the p-side and
negative to the n-side), electrons move from the n-type region into the p-type
region, where they recombine with holes.
3. Recombination and Photon Emission:
o In a direct band gap semiconductor, when an electron falls from the conduction
band to the valence band, it recombines with a hole and releases energy. This
energy is emitted as a photon of light, a process known as radiative
recombination.
o The color of the light emitted depends on the band gap energy of the
semiconductor material. A larger band gap emits light with a shorter wavelength
(blue or violet), while a smaller band gap emits longer-wavelength light (red or
infrared).
 4. Electroluminescence:
o The overall process of emitting light when an electrical current flows through the
device is called electroluminescence, which is the core principle behind LED
functionality.

Key Materials Used in LEDs:

• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): Infrared light emission.

• Gallium Phosphide (GaP): Red, yellow, and green light.
• Gallium Nitride (GaN): Blue and ultraviolet light.
• Indium Gallium Nitride (InGaN): Used in high-efficiency white LEDs.

The choice of material determines the wavelength (color) of the emitted light, which is dependent
on the energy band gap of the material.

Advantages of LEDs:

1. Energy Efficiency: LEDs are highly energy-efficient, consuming significantly less power
than traditional incandescent or fluorescent bulbs for the same light output.
2. Long Lifespan: LEDs have a longer operational lifetime, often lasting more than 50,000
hours, which reduces replacement costs.
3. Durability: LEDs are solid-state devices, making them more resistant to shock and
vibration compared to traditional light sources that use filaments or gases.
4. Environmental Benefits: LEDs do not contain hazardous materials such as mercury,
making them safer and more environmentally friendly.
5. Fast Switching: LEDs can be turned on and off almost instantly, with no warm-up time
required, making them suitable for fast electronic devices and indicators.
6. Compact Size: LEDs are small and can be easily integrated into circuits and various
compact designs.

Applications of LEDs:
 1. Lighting: LEDs are used for general lighting (residential, industrial, and street lighting)
due to their efficiency and longevity.
2. Displays: LED displays are common in televisions, computer monitors, mobile phones,
and digital signage.
3. Indicators and Signals: LEDs are used in status indicators, traffic lights, automotive
lights, and other signaling devices.
4. Optoelectronics: LEDs are used in optical communication systems, fiber optics, and
infrared remote controls.
5. Medical Devices: LEDs are used in medical devices for therapies, diagnostics, and
lighting.
6. Decorative Lighting: Due to their ability to produce a wide range of colors, LEDs are used
in decorative lighting applications, including holiday lights and architectural lighting.

LED Colors and White Light LEDs:

• Monochromatic LEDs: LEDs are naturally monochromatic (emit light in a narrow band
of wavelengths), and their color depends on the band gap of the semiconductor material
used.
o Red, green, blue, yellow, and infrared LEDs are produced using different
semiconductor compounds.
• White LEDs: White light can be produced by:
o Phosphor Conversion: A blue or UV LED is coated with a yellow phosphor
material, which absorbs some of the blue light and re-emits it as yellow light. The
combination of blue and yellow light appears white.
o RGB Method: Red, green, and blue LEDs are combined in a single device, and the
light is mixed to produce white light.

B. Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors

Semiconductors can be classified into two types based on the relationship between the conduction
band and the valence band in momentum space: direct band gap and indirect band gap
semiconductors. The distinction between these two types plays a crucial role in their optical and
electronic properties, particularly in applications like light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, and
photovoltaic cells.

1. Direct Band Gap Semiconductors:

In a direct band gap semiconductor, the minimum of the conduction band and the maximum of the
valence band occur at the same momentum (k-value) in the Brillouin zone. This means that an
electron can directly transition from the conduction band to the valence band (and vice versa)
without needing a change in momentum.
 • Key Characteristics:
o Efficient photon emission: Due to the direct transition, these materials are highly
efficient at emitting light. This makes them ideal for optoelectronic devices such as
LEDs and laser diodes.
o Photon absorption is also efficient, as an electron can directly absorb a photon and
jump from the valence band to the conduction band.
o Examples of direct band gap semiconductors: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Indium
Phosphide (InP), Gallium Nitride (GaN), Cadmium Selenide (CdSe).
• Application: Since direct band gap semiconductors can efficiently emit photons, they are
used in devices that require light emission, such as:
o Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
o Laser diodes
o Photodetectors in some cases
o Solar cells with high optical absorption

2. Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors:

In an indirect band gap semiconductor, the minimum of the conduction band and the maximum of
the valence band do not occur at the same momentum value. Therefore, an electron transitioning
between the two bands must involve both a photon and a phonon (a quantum of lattice vibration)
to conserve both energy and momentum.

• Key Characteristics:
 o Inefficient photon emission: Since an indirect transition requires the participation
of a phonon to conserve momentum, the process of photon emission becomes less
efficient.
o These materials are better suited for electronic rather than optoelectronic
applications where photon emission is not needed.
o Photon absorption is also less efficient compared to direct band gap
semiconductors.
o Examples of indirect band gap semiconductors: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge),
Silicon Carbide (SiC).
• Application: Indirect band gap semiconductors are widely used in:
o Electronic devices: Transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits primarily use
silicon due to its well-established processing technology and availability.
o Photovoltaics: Silicon is the most common material used in solar cells despite
being an indirect band gap material, though it requires thicker layers compared to
direct band gap materials to absorb sunlight efficiently.

C. Electron-Hole Pair Generation and Recombination

In semiconductors, the behavior of electrons and holes (the absence of electrons, acting like
positive charge carriers) plays a crucial role in the material's electrical and optical properties.
Electron-hole pair generation and recombination are fundamental processes in semiconductor
physics that directly impact the functioning of devices like diodes, transistors, LEDs, lasers, and
solar cells.

1. Electron-Hole Pair Generation:

When energy is supplied to a semiconductor material, it can excite electrons from the valence band
to the conduction band, leaving behind a "hole" in the valence band. This process creates an
electron-hole pair.

• Energy Source for Generation:

o Thermal energy: At higher temperatures, thermal vibrations in the lattice can
provide sufficient energy for electrons to jump across the band gap. This is called
thermal generation.
o Photon energy (Light): When a semiconductor absorbs a photon with energy
greater than or equal to the band gap, an electron can be excited from the valence
band to the conduction band, generating an electron-hole pair. This process is
fundamental to photovoltaic cells and photo-detectors.
o Electric field (Impact ionization): In a high electric field, an accelerated electron
can collide with atoms and excite other electrons, generating additional electron-
hole pairs, a phenomenon used in avalanche diodes.
 • Conditions for Generation: The energy supplied to the electron must be at least as large
as the band gap energy for it to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. The
newly excited electron can then move freely in the conduction band, while the hole left
behind can also contribute to electrical conduction in the valence band.
• Result of Generation:
o Conduction: The excited electron in the conduction band can contribute to
electrical current as a free carrier.
o Hole as a Positive Charge Carrier: The absence of an electron (hole) behaves as
a positive charge carrier in the valence band.

2. Electron-Hole Recombination:

Electron-hole recombination is the reverse of the generation process, where an electron from the
conduction band falls back into a hole in the valence band, thereby annihilating the electron-hole
pair. This process releases energy in the form of heat or light, depending on the material and
conditions.

• Types of Recombination:
o Radiative Recombination: This occurs when the energy released during
recombination is emitted as a photon (light). This process is central to
optoelectronic devices like LEDs and lasers, where electron-hole recombination
produces visible light or infrared radiation.
▪ Example: In direct band gap semiconductors like GaAs, this process is
efficient because no change in momentum is required for the electron to
recombine with the hole.
 o Non-Radiative Recombination: Instead of emitting light, the energy released is
converted into heat (lattice vibrations or phonons). This is more common in indirect
band gap semiconductors like silicon, where momentum transfer is required
through a phonon, making the recombination process less efficient for light
emission.
▪ Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) Recombination: This is a type of non-
radiative recombination where defects or impurities in the semiconductor
act as recombination centers, trapping electrons or holes and facilitating
their recombination without light emission.
o Auger Recombination: In this process, instead of emitting light or heat, the energy
released during recombination is transferred to another electron, exciting it to a
higher energy level. This electron can then release the energy later through non-
radiative processes. This type of recombination is prominent in heavily doped
semiconductors or at high carrier concentrations.
• Recombination Rate: The rate of recombination depends on the number of available
electrons and holes, which is influenced by factors such as temperature, doping
concentration, and the presence of defects or impurities.

Balance Between Generation and Recombination:

In thermal equilibrium, the rate of electron-hole pair generation equals the rate of recombination,
maintaining a steady-state carrier concentration in the material. However, when an external energy
source (e.g., light, electric field) is applied, this balance is disrupted, leading to either an increase
in the carrier concentration (in the case of generation) or a decrease (in the case of recombination).

Applications:

1. Solar Cells (Photovoltaic Devices):

o Electron-hole pair generation: In solar cells, incoming photons from sunlight
generate electron-hole pairs. These charge carriers are then separated by the built-
in electric field of the p-n junction, resulting in current flow.
o Recombination: Minimizing recombination losses is crucial for improving the
efficiency of solar cells, as recombination reduces the number of charge carriers
available to generate electricity.
2. Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Lasers:
o Recombination: In LEDs, electron-hole pairs recombine radiatively, emitting
photons that produce visible light. Efficient radiative recombination is critical for
LED performance.
o Auger recombination: In high-power laser diodes, Auger recombination can limit
efficiency and cause device heating, making it a challenge to optimize performance.
3. Semiconductor Detectors:
 o Generation: In photodetectors, the absorption of photons generates electron-hole
pairs that are collected as electrical signals, allowing detection of light.
o Minimizing recombination: In detectors, recombination should be minimized to
ensure that the generated electron-hole pairs contribute to the detection process.

D. Non-radiative and radiative recombination in semiconductors

In semiconductors, recombination refers to the process where an electron in the conduction band
recombines with a hole in the valence band. This process can occur via two main mechanisms: radiative
recombination and non-radiative recombination. Each plays a crucial role in the performance of
semiconductor devices, especially optoelectronic devices like LEDs, solar cells, and lasers. Let's explore
both in more detail:

1. Radiative Recombination:

In radiative recombination, when an electron from the conduction band recombines with a hole in the
valence band, the energy released during the transition is emitted as a photon. This process is fundamental
in light-emitting devices, such as LEDs and lasers.
• Mechanism: An electron in a higher energy state (in the conduction band) drops to a lower energy
state (in the valence band), and the difference in energy is released in the form of light.
• Applications:
o LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes)
o Laser diodes
o Photodetectors (reverse process of absorbing photons)
• Characteristics:
o The efficiency of radiative recombination is influenced by the semiconductor material and
its bandgap.
o Direct bandgap semiconductors, like GaAs and InP, exhibit more efficient radiative
recombination because the momentum of electrons and holes match, allowing them to
recombine directly.
o Indirect bandgap semiconductors, like silicon, are less efficient in radiative recombination
since an additional momentum carrier (phonon) is required.

2. Non-Radiative Recombination:

In non-radiative recombination, the energy released during electron-hole recombination is transferred to the
lattice in the form of heat rather than being emitted as light. This process is generally undesirable in light-
emitting devices as it reduces their efficiency.
There are a few primary types of non-radiative recombination mechanisms:
a. Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) Recombination:
 • Mechanism: In this process, recombination occurs via defects or trap states in the bandgap, which
act as intermediate energy levels. Electrons and holes are captured by these defect states, and

• recombination occurs without photon emission. This is a common non-radiative process in real-
world semiconductors due to imperfections and impurities.
• Role of Defects: Defects such as vacancies, interstitials, or impurities create localized states within
the bandgap, facilitating this recombination pathway.
b. Auger Recombination:
• Mechanism: In Auger recombination, the energy released from an electron-hole recombination is
transferred to another electron or hole, which is then excited to a higher energy state within the
conduction or valence band. This excited electron eventually loses energy by thermal relaxation
(emitting phonons, or heat).
• Impact on Device Performance: This process is especially relevant at high carrier densities (as in
high-power laser diodes) and in heavily doped semiconductors.
c. Surface Recombination:
• Mechanism: At the surface of a semiconductor, there are numerous unsatisfied bonds (dangling
bonds) that create trap states. These surface defects can lead to non-radiative recombination.
• Influence: Surface recombination is significant in thin-film devices and nanostructures, where the
surface area is large compared to the volume.

3. Comparison and Influence on Device Performance:

• Radiative recombination is desired in optoelectronic devices that rely on light emission, such as
LEDs and lasers. The efficiency of such devices is often quantified by the internal quantum
efficiency, which is the fraction of electron-hole pairs that recombine radiatively.
• Non-radiative recombination decreases the efficiency of optoelectronic devices. For example, in
solar cells, non-radiative recombination reduces the number of photogenerated carriers that
contribute to the electrical current, thus lowering the overall conversion efficiency.
Factors Affecting Recombination Mechanisms:
• Temperature: Non-radiative processes often increase with temperature, as higher thermal energy
can promote carrier trapping by defects.
 • Doping concentration: High doping can increase Auger recombination, which becomes a limiting
factor in high-performance devices.
• Material quality: Higher defect densities, either from impurities or lattice mismatches, increase
SRH recombination rates.
• Dimensionality and surface area: In nanoscale devices (e.g., quantum dots), surface recombination
plays a significant role due to the increased surface-to-volume ratio.

Understanding and controlling both radiative and non-radiative recombination mechanisms is key to
optimizing the performance of semiconductor devices for various applications, ranging from efficient solar
energy conversion to high-brightness light-emitting diodes.

E. Differences between homo and hetero junction LEDs

In semiconductor light-emitting diodes (LEDs), homo-junction and hetero-junction refer to the nature of
the junction formed between the p-type and n-type regions. The key differences between homo-junction
LEDs and hetero-junction LEDs are related to the material composition of the p-n junction and how this
affects performance, efficiency, and applications.

1. Homo-junction LEDs:

A homo-junction LED is made from a single semiconductor material where both the p-type and n-type
regions are created from the same material.

• Material Composition:
o Both the p-type and n-type regions consist of the same semiconductor material, typically a
single-element or compound semiconductor like silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), or
gallium nitride (GaN).
• Energy Band Structure:
o Since the same material is used, the bandgap across the junction is uniform. The conduction
band and valence band are aligned without any discontinuity at the junction.
• Recombination:
o Electron-hole recombination occurs in the depletion region, but the efficiency is limited by
carrier leakage and the lack of confinement of the carriers.
o Homo-junction LEDs generally exhibit lower radiative efficiency due to the difficulty in
confining charge carriers in the active region.
• Efficiency:
o Homo-junction LEDs are typically less efficient compared to hetero-junction LEDs.
o The efficiency is particularly low in indirect bandgap semiconductors like silicon, where
radiative recombination is not favored.
• Applications:
 o Homo-junction LEDs are not commonly used in modern high-performance lighting or
display applications due to their lower efficiency. They are primarily of historical
significance or are used in low-cost or low-efficiency applications.
2. Hetero-junction LEDs:
A hetero-junction LED is formed by using two different semiconductor materials for the p-type and n-
type regions, creating a junction with a bandgap discontinuity.
• Material Composition:
o The p-type and n-type regions are composed of different semiconductor materials,
typically with different bandgaps. For example, a common hetero-junction LED may use
materials like gallium arsenide (GaAs) for the n-type and aluminum gallium arsenide
(AlGaAs) for the p-type region.
• Energy Band Structure:
o There is a discontinuity in both the conduction band and valence band at the junction due
to the different bandgaps of the materials. This bandgap engineering allows better control
over carrier confinement and recombination.
• Recombination:
o In hetero-junction LEDs, electron-hole pairs are confined to a region with a smaller
bandgap, usually called the active region. This helps in maximizing radiative
recombination (photon emission), leading to higher efficiency.
• Efficiency:
o Hetero-junction LEDs are significantly more efficient than homo-junction LEDs. The
bandgap discontinuity creates an energy barrier that confines the electrons and holes within
the active region, promoting radiative recombination and minimizing carrier leakage.
o This is why hetero-junction LEDs are widely used in modern optoelectronic devices.
• Applications:
o Most modern LEDs, including those used in displays, lighting, and communication
systems, are hetero-junction LEDs.
o Examples include high-brightness GaN-based blue LEDs, AlGaInP-based red LEDs, and
multi-color LEDs used in RGB displays.
F. Construction and working of homo junction LED, Characteristics, quantum efficiency,
advantages, and applications of LED.

Construction:

A homo-junction LED is constructed using a single semiconductor material where both the p-type and
n-type regions are formed from the same material. The junction is created by doping different regions of
the same semiconductor (such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), silicon (Si), or gallium phosphide (GaP)) with
specific impurities to create regions with an excess of electrons (n-type) and regions with an excess of holes
(p-type).
• n-type Region: Doped with donor impurities (e.g., phosphorus in GaAs) to create free electrons.
• p-type Region: Doped with acceptor impurities (e.g., zinc in GaAs) to create free holes.
• p-n Junction: The interface where the p-type and n-type materials meet forms the p-n junction,
which is the core part of the LED. This region has a depletion layer where no free carriers exist.
Working:

1. Forward Bias Operation:

o When a forward voltage is applied across the LED (positive terminal to the p-side, negative
terminal to the n-side), the depletion region narrows, allowing current to flow through the
device.
o Electrons from the n-type region are injected into the p-type region, and holes from the p-
type region are injected into the n-type region.
2. Recombination:
o As the electrons move from the conduction band of the n-region to the valence band of the
p-region, they recombine with holes.
o In the case of direct bandgap semiconductors (like GaAs), this recombination releases
energy in the form of photons (light), which is the basis of light emission in the LED.
o The wavelength (and thus the color) of the emitted light depends on the bandgap of the
semiconductor material used.
3. Light Emission:
o In a homo-junction LED, light is emitted when electrons and holes recombine in the
depletion region.
o Since the same material is used in both regions, the efficiency is lower compared to hetero-
junction LEDs due to poor carrier confinement, leading to some energy losses.
Characteristics of Homo-junction LED:

The I-V characteristics (current-voltage characteristics) of a homo-junction LED describe the

relationship between the current flowing through the LED and the voltage applied across it. These
characteristics are similar to those of a typical diode, with additional features related to the emission of light.
Here's a detailed breakdown:
Forward Bias I-V Characteristics:
1. Threshold Voltage (Turn-on Voltage):
o When the LED is forward biased (positive voltage applied to the p-type region and
negative to the n-type region), initially, little current flows until the applied voltage reaches
a certain threshold, known as the turn-on voltage or threshold voltage.
o The turn-on voltage is typically close to the energy bandgap of the semiconductor material,
converted to voltage:

Where:
Eg is the bandgap energy of the semiconductor (in electron volts),
q is the electronic charge (1.6×10−19C1.6 \times 10^{-19} C1.6×10−19C).
For example:
o
A gallium arsenide (GaAs) LED with a bandgap of 1.43 eV has a threshold voltage around
1.4 V.
o For gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs, which emit blue light, the threshold voltage is higher
(around 2.5-3.5 V), since the bandgap is larger.
2. Exponential Increase in Current:
o After the threshold voltage, the current starts to increase exponentially with a small further
increase in applied voltage, following the Shockley diode equation:
Where:
o I is the forward current,
o Is the saturation current (a small leakage current),
o Vis the applied forward voltage,
o q is the electron charge,
o k is the Boltzmann constant, and
o T is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin).
3. Light Emission:
o As the current increases, electron-hole recombination occurs in the depletion region,
emitting photons. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the forward current.
o Higher forward current results in more radiative recombination and brighter light output.
4. Series Resistance Effect:
o At higher currents, the series resistance of the LED (due to contacts, semiconductor bulk
resistance, etc.) becomes significant. This results in a deviation from the ideal exponential
curve, and the current-voltage relationship becomes more linear.
Reverse Bias I-V Characteristics:
1. Reverse Saturation Current:
o When the LED is reverse biased (negative voltage applied to the p-type region and positive
to the n-type region), only a small reverse saturation current (leakage current) flows. This
current is due to minority carriers diffusing across the junction.

The reverse current is usually very small (on the order of nanoamperes or microamperes), as LEDs are
typically designed for forward bias operation.
2. Reverse Breakdown:
o If the reverse voltage exceeds a certain critical value, the diode undergoes reverse
breakdown, and the current increases dramatically, potentially damaging the LED. LEDs
are not designed to operate in reverse bias, so this region is avoided in typical operation.

Key Points in Homo-junction LED I-V Characteristics:

• Turn-on Voltage (Threshold Voltage): The voltage at which the LED starts emitting light. This
depends on the bandgap of the semiconductor material.
• Exponential Increase in Forward Current: After the turn-on voltage, the current increases
exponentially with applied forward voltage.
 • Light Intensity Proportional to Forward Current: The light output increases with increasing
forward current. However, excessive current can lead to heating and potential damage to the LED
(thermal runaway).
• Reverse Bias Characteristics: The reverse current remains small until breakdown, at which point
the LED can be permanently damaged.

Graphical Representation:
The I-V curve for a homo-junction LED would look similar to a diode, with the following characteristics:
1. Forward Region:
o Exponential rise in current after the threshold voltage (e.g., 1.4 V for GaAs).
o Light emission starts as forward current increases.
2. Reverse Region:
o Small reverse current (leakage) until breakdown voltage.
o No light emission in reverse bias.

Quantum Efficiency of an LED:

The efficiency of an LED can be described using several key metrics, including internal quantum
efficiency (IQE), external quantum efficiency (EQE), and luminous efficiency. The most relevant
formula depends on the specific type of efficiency you're calculating.

1. Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE):

The Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) measures the efficiency of converting injected charge carriers
(electrons and holes) into photons within the active region of the LED.

2. External Quantum Efficiency (EQE):

The External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) takes into account both the internal quantum efficiency and
the efficiency with which photons escape from the LED's surface (i.e., photon extraction efficiency).

Advantages of LEDs:

1. Energy Efficiency:
o LEDs are highly energy-efficient compared to traditional incandescent and fluorescent
lighting. They consume much less power to produce the same amount of light.
2. Long Lifespan:
o LEDs have a significantly longer operational life, often lasting up to 50,000 hours or more,
reducing the need for frequent replacements.
3. Compact Size:
o LEDs are small and can be easily integrated into electronic circuits or small devices.
4. Fast Switching:
o LEDs can be turned on and off quickly, making them ideal for high-speed applications
such as optical communication and traffic lights.
5. Durability:
o LEDs are solid-state devices, meaning they are more resistant to shocks and vibrations
compared to traditional bulbs with fragile filaments.
6. Environmental Friendliness:
o LEDs do not contain hazardous materials like mercury, commonly found in fluorescent
lights. They are more environmentally friendly, both in their operation and disposal.
7. Cool Operation:
o LEDs produce minimal heat compared to incandescent or halogen lights, which lose a
large amount of energy as heat.

Applications of LEDs:
1. Lighting:
o LEDs are used in general lighting for homes, offices, street lights, and automotive
headlights due to their energy efficiency and long life.
2. Displays:
o LEDs are widely used in digital displays, such as in televisions, computer monitors,
smartphones, and advertising boards (LED billboards).
3. Indicators and Signage:
o LEDs are used as indicator lights in various devices like appliances, toys, and electronics
due to their low power consumption and longevity.
4. Optical Communication:
o LEDs are used in fiber-optic communication systems, where light is used to transmit data
over long distances at high speed.
5. Traffic Signals:
o Due to their fast switching speed and visibility, LEDs are used in traffic signals and
warning lights.
6. Medical Devices:
o LEDs are used in medical devices such as phototherapy systems and diagnostic tools,
especially for non-invasive treatments.
7. Automotive Industry:
o LEDs are commonly used in automotive lighting systems, including brake lights, turn
signals, and interior lights, because of their quick response time and durability.
8. Backlighting:
o LEDs are used in LCD screens for backlighting, replacing traditional CCFL (cold cathode
fluorescent lamp) backlights, providing better color rendering and lower energy
consumption.