senior inter physics Text book

CHAPTER - I, WAVES
(Waves, Waves, Waves... All the way the waves !!)

If we tickle the water in a tray with the tip of our fore finger, we find concentric circles of
water running away from the point of disturbance called 'ripples'. When a pebble is dropped in
still water of a pond, concentric circles from the place of disturbance (where the pebble is
dropped) called 'waves' will travel to the edge of the pond. We all are familiar with waves in a
sea. All these are water waves.
One end of a thin rope is tied to a nail stuck in a wall and the other end is pulled a little
and jerked up and down a hump like shape of the rope will be moving to and fro along the rope.
This is the wave in the rope.
Water waves and the waves in ropes and strings are visible.
Sound travels in the form of a wave. How can we say that? When some one is talking in a
room, a person standing beside the wall can hear that sound (people say walls will have ears!!)
because the sound can bend around the corners. Only a 'wave' can bend around the corners of an
obstacle.
Earlier, Light energy is considered to be a propagation of fast moving particles in a
straight path called corpuscles by Isaac Newton. But, in order to explain the phenomenon
exhibited later by light Christian Huygens a dutch physicist proposed that light should be a wave.
Light is a form of an electro magnetic wave. All the other invisible components of electro
magnetic spectrum i.e., γ rays, X - rays, Ultra violet rays, Infrared rays are having a wave nature.
Even radio waves, cosmic rays and micro waves are waves. 'Gravity' is associated with gravity
waves. Earth tremors are associated with 'sesimic waves'.

Later French Physicist Louis de Broglie proposed that not only energy but also matter
will be in the form of waves called 'matter waves'.
Thus the whole of the universe is full of waves. Why? Even the human thoughts are
depicted as 'thought waves'! In Cinemas, the past of a hero or heroine recollect in the form of
concentric circles i.e., 'waves'!
What is a Wave?
When a small stone is dropped in a still water of a lake, we find concentric circles running
from the point of disturbance to the edge of the lake which we call 'waves'.
When the stone is dropped, the amount of water at the point of disturbance will go down because
of the weight of the stone. Once the stone reaches the bottom of the lake, the water which went
down will come up little above the surface of the lake because of 'capillarity' which is the effect
of 'surface tension' (otherwise, wherever a stone is dropped in a lake, there will be a narrow
tunnel). The water which has come up will go down again under the influence of its own weight
i.e., the gravitational force.
Thus when a stone is dropped in a still water, the water that is disturbed will be moving up and
down under the influence of gravitational and surface tension forces along a straight path
between two fixed points i.e., the particles of disturbed water will be making simple harmonic
motion (SHM). This motion of disturbance is propagated to the next amount of the particles
which in turn make SHM which in turn is propagated to the next particles of water and so on. So
what is propagated in the medium (water) in the form of concentric circles (waves) is not the
particles of the medium but the disturbance. This can be proved by placing a small 'leaf' on the
surface of water before dropping the small stone in water. When concentric circles (waves) are
spreading on water, the floating leaf moves 'up and down' at the same place which is due to the
motion of water particles. Thus the particles of the medium are making SHM, about their mean
position, what that is spreading is the 'disturbance' in the form of waves!
Thus, a wave is a propagation of disturbance in an elastic material medium.
Water waves, waves in a rope sesimic waves and sound waves require a material medium for
their propagation and hence they are called 'mechanical waves'. They cannot travel through
vacuum.
Light waves, radio waves, X − rays etc., (electro magnetic waves) do not require a material
medium. They can travel through vacuum with a velocity of 300 ms−1.
Matter waves are assoicated with constituents of matter: Electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms and
molecules.

SOUND - A PRIMARY ENERGY IS A WAVE

Our universe emerged with 'Big Bang' (Any doubt?) which is associated with 'Sound'.
When we approach an Ocean even before we see the Sea, The mystic 'Sound' of the waves is
heard. Why all this? Even the Religious Scriptures. Say in the beginning there is a 'word' i.e.,
sound.
A word is a Sound. The Sound of the word forms all things. And man listens and hears the
word of all things.
'Sound' is a form of energy which is produced by a vibrating body travels through a
'material medium' in the form of a 'wave' and appeals to the sense of hearing 'music' and 'noise'.
Sound is classified as 'music' and 'noise'. Musical Sound is that which is pleasant to hear.
Noise is that which is unpleasant to hear. No one says that Pandit Ravishankar makes 'noise'
while playing on Sitar. No teacher in class room shouts at students 'Dont make music'!
Source of Sound - A Vibrating Body

The source of sound is a vibrating body. A vibrating string in a Veena, Violin and Piano,
vibrating air column in a Flute and Harmonium; vibrating stretched membranes in Tabla and
Mridangam, a Bell struck by a hammer and a vibrating Tuning fork in laboratory produce sound
(Of course music if properly played).

Not all Vibrating Bodies....

Why a vibrating Simple Pendulum can not produce sound? Vibrations whose frequencies
lie between 20 hertz (Hz) i.e., 20 vibrations per second and 20,000 Hz can only be detected by
human ear. These are called audible sounds.
A person delivering a public speech for the first time was shivering (Vibrating) due to
stage fear and a another person in the audience murmering with his friend ''see, how sound is
produced by a vibrating body", do you agree with this statement?
Requires a medium
Sound cannot be propagated through vacuum.
The sound of a gun fired by a standing person on the ground of moon cannot be heard by
another person standing little away from the former. Becuase there is no atmosphere (medium)
on the moon.
Sound travels in the form of a wave for a sound wave to propagate continuously the medium
should be elastic should possess the property of 'inertia' and should be 'frictionless'.
The velocity of sound in liquids is more than its velocity in gases and its velocity in solids is
more than that in the liquids.
The particles of the medium when a sound wave propagates through it executes 'Simple
Harmonic Motion'.
When sound is propagated through a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate about their
mean position and never move away from each other permanently. Each vibrating particle
transmits energy from one point to the other in the medium.
Frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasonic sounds (e.g.: Earthquake waves).
Frequencies above 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic sounds (e.g.: Vibration of Quartz crystal
when alternating current is applied to them).
The sounds emitted by bats are 'ultrasonic' in nature. That is why we cannot hear those
sounds.
Progressive waves
In the process of wave propagation energy is transferred (progressed) from particle to
particle of the medium and hence the waves are called progressive waves.
Progressive waves are classified as
i) Transverse waves
ii) Longitudinal waves
TRANSVERSE WAVES
It is a wave where the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the propagation of energy (disturbance).
for example i) Waves in water
When a stone is dropped in water (at rest), the water particles disturbed move up and down
where as the disturbance is transferred to the next amount of particles which in turn move up and
down. The concentric circles which we see on water surface is the propagation of disturbance
and not the propagation of the water particles which are disturbed initially.
ii) waves in ropes and strings

When a rope tied at one end to a fixed support and the other end is moved up and
down, we find a kink will be travelling from one end to the other. Perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the rope. The 'kink' which is moving along the rope is the
propagation of disturbance which is perpendicular to the direction in which the rope is
moved.
iii) Electro magnetic waves (Light Waves) are considered to be transverse waves.
Transverse waves are associated with crests and troughs.

LONGITUDINAL WAVES
It is a wave where the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of motion
of the propagation of the energy (disturbance).

Let us consider a collection of springs connected to each other (fig 3). If the
spring at one end is pulled suddenly and left, the disturbance travels to the other end.
What happens is the first spring is disturbed from its equilibrium position. As the second
spring is connected to the first, it is also stretched or compressed and the disturbance
travels from one end to the other. Each spring performs small vibrations about its
equilibrium position what that is propagated in the system is the disturbance.
Same situation for a Railway Train
Let us consider a railway train at rest. Different compartments of train are
connected to each other through a spring coupling.
When an engine is suddenly attached at one end of the connected compartments, it
gives a push to the compartment next to it. This push is propagated one compartment to
another without the entire train being displaced from its original position.
What happens is same when a sound wave propagates through a gaseous
medium?
When a sound wave propagates through a gaseous medium the layers of the gas
(air) makes to and fro motion about their mean position just as springs in the above
examples (fig 3) move without their displacement from their original position. What that
is propagated is the sound energy and not the particles of the medium.

Where the particles (layers) of the medium are coming closer (Compressing or
Condensing) are called "Compressions" (C) and those regions where the particles
(layers) of the medium are moving away from each other are called 'rarefactions' (R) (fig
4)
'Compressions' are the regions where the values of density, pressure and temperature
of the medium are above the normal values where as at 'rarefactions' their values will
be below the normal values.
Characteristics of Sound Waves
i) Displacement: It is the extent through which a vibrating particle moves from the mean
position.
ii) Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of a particle.
iii) Period (T): It is the time taken for one complete vibration.
iv) Frequency (υ): Number of Vibrations made per second.
v) Wavelength (λ): It is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs in case
of a transverse wave.
(or)
It is the distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions in case
of a longitudinal wave.
(or)
It is the distance between two successive particles which are in the same phase
(state of vibration).
It is the distance travelled by the wave by the time the vibrating particle (body)
completes one vibration.
Relation between Frequency and Period
Consider a vibrating body executing simple harmonic motion having a frequency
(υ) and period of oscillation (T) i.e. for υ vibrations time taken is 1 second.
1
Time taken for one vibration is seconds
v
But time taken for one vibration is T seconds (Period)

Relation between frequency and angular frequency

To arrive at this relation one should recollect about simple harmonic motion
(SHM) and how it is sponsored by a particle executing uniform circular motion (A
geometrical feat indeed to arrive at the concept of SHM!!)
If a particle 'P' is moving on the circumference of a circle of radius 'a' uniformly
i.e., with a constant angular velocity 'ω', then the foot of the perpendicular PN dropped
from P on one of the diameters AB i.e., the point N will be executing SHM along AB (fig
- 5).

Thus, SHM is the projection of uniform circular motion on any one of the diameters of
the circle.
In the fig - 5 'P' is making uniform circular motion and its projection 'N' is making
SHM.
The angular displacement of P at any instant 't' is given by θ = ωt
PN and PN' are the perpendiculars from P on the diameters AB and CD
respectively. These perpendiculars meet AB and CD at N and N'. As P moves once
along the circumference of the circle, N or N' complete one vibration along their
respective diameters.
(Please observe how one motion in nature is sponsoring another kind of motion
and how elegently the mathematical models devised by human brains in geometrical
form explaining them!)
 2π
Time taken by P to make one complete rotation is
ω
¿
2π
Hence time taken by N or N' to make one vibration = seconds.
ω
i.e., the peirod of a particle moving simple harmonically is

2π 1 2π
T= or =
ω v ω

... Angular velocity or angular frequency of a particle moving simple harmonically

ω=2 πv Displacement of N = ON = x = a cos ωt
Displacement of N' = ON' = y = a sin ωt
(Where 'a' is radius of the circle)
The above equations can be written as
2π
x = a cos ωt = a cos t = a cos 2π υt
T
2π
y = a sin ωt = a sin t = a sin 2π υt
T
Expression for the velocity of a wave in terms of 'frequency' and 'wavelength'
Let 'C' be the velocity of a wave whose frequency is 'υ' and wavelength is 'λ' for
one complete vibration of the particle executing SHM the distance advanced by the
disturbance (or) wave is 'λ'.
Time taken for one vibration is T seconds

PHASE
It is defined as the state or condition with regards to the position and direction of
motion of a vibrating particle from its mean position and expressed in 'radians'.
(for e.g.: When a building is under construction, we usually ask the builder at what
phase (stage) the construction is?)
Phase of a particle executing SHM is the angle traced by the radius vector
(radius connected to a particle moving in specific direction) since the particle has last
passed its mean position in the positive direction.
for example = θ = Phase angle (shown in fig. 5)
(or)
It can also be expressed in terms of the fraction of time period which has elapsed
since the particle left its mean position in the positive direction of motion.
2 πt
∴ Phase= =ωt=θ
T
Phase Difference
In the fig − 6, Q1 and Q2 are two generating particles moving in the same direction with
the same speed along the circumference of a circle whose centre is 'O' and radius 'a'.

Q1N1 and Q2N2 are two perpendiculars on AB. The points N1 and N2 are
executing simple harmonic motion (vibration).

Taking LK as the reference axis, the first vibration crosses P1 in the same
direction when the second vibration crosses K. It means that the first vibration has a
'phase lead' over the second one or the second vibration 'lags' behind the first by phase
angle (This small angle of phase or change in phase is called 'Epoch')
Hence displacement equations of N1 and N2 are given by
y1 = a sin ωt
y2 = a sin (ωt −∈ )
The angle ∈ is known as phase difference.
If the phase difference between the first and second particles is 2Π radians, then
the second particle will cross the reference axis after one complete period T seconds
later than the first. In other words, the second particle will behave similar to the first one,
provided the phase difference is 2Π. Such particles, which differ in phase by 2Π, are
said to be 'in phase'. In case the phase difference between the two particles is Π, then
they are said to be 'out of phase'.

Relation between 'Phase difference' and 'Path difference'

Wavelength (λ) is defined as the distance between any two successive particles
vibrating in the same manner (or) in the same phase (or) differing in phase by 2Π. In
other words, for path difference of λ between two particles, the phase difference is '2Π'
radians.
2π
In case, the path difference is x, the corresponding phase difference ∈ is, x
λ
2π
Thus, phase difference = × path difference
λ
Equation of a progressive wave
The simplest type of wave motion is simple harmonic motion. In wave motion all
the particles of the elastic medium virbrate simple harmonically with different phases. In
such a medium if one particle is displaced due to a periodic vibration (disturbance) other
particles also get displaced. Therefore a comprehensive equation for displacement
connecting all particles can be obtained.
For a particle executing simple harmonic motion with an amplitude 'a' and
angular frequency 'ω' the displacement 'y1' at any instant 't' is given by
y1 = a sin ω t
2π
= a sin t
T
= a sin 2Π vt
Consider any particle of the medium executing simple harmonic motion with a
phase difference '' or path difference 'x' from the first particle. The displacement of
second particle 'y2' is given by y2 = a sin (ωt −∈ ), a and ω being same as in the first
particle.

Thus we have
y2 = a sin(ωt − Kx) for a wave moving towards right
similarly Y'2 = a sin(ωt + Kx) for a wave movinig towards left.
Characteristics of a progressive wave
1. Each particle of the medium vibrates about its mean position of rest and is not carried
away by the wave.
2. Each particle of the medium reaches the maximum displacement (amplitude) a little
later than the previous one.
3. The waves do not die down i.e., there is no damping.
4. If the paritcles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation of the
wave, it is said to be longitudinal wave. On the other hand if the vibration is normal to
the direction of wave propagation, it is known as transverse wave.
5. The particles of the medium vibrate 'Simple harmonically'.
6. The wave motion resembles a sine curve.

7. The distance between any two successive particles which are in same state of
vibration is 'wavelength' and is denoted by 'λ'.
8. Phase difference between two particles separated by a distance 'λ' is 2Π radians.
9. The velocity of the particle is

10. The velocity of the wave c=

'ρ' is the density of the medium.
√ E
ρ
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the medium,

Stationary waves (or) Standing waves

Suppose two persons walking on a very narrow plank (over which only one can
walk at a time) stretched across a stream in opposite directions, when they came face
to face with each other, the progress of their march will come to a halt or stationary.
Similarly, when two progressive waves with similar characteristics travelling along a
straight line but in opposite directions interfere their progress and energy come to a
stand still and such a wave pattern is called Stationary or Standing Wave.
When a progressive wave moving forward, meets an obstacle it gets reflected
and travels in the opposite direction and if these forward and backward waves interfere,
stationary (or) standing wave is formed (fig - 7).

Thus, standing waves are formed due to superposition of two progressive waves
of same characteristics moving in opposite directions.
Definition: When two progressive waves of same frequency, amplitude and velocity
travelling along same straight line but in opposite directions interfere, the crests and
troughs in case of transverse waves and compressions and rarefactions in case of
longitudinal waves come to a stand still such that the energy is not propagated in the
medium but confines to certain region.
This wave pattern is called a 'Stationary Wave'. The positions of the particles where
there is no displacement are called 'NODES' (No Displacement) N1, N2, N3, ......... etc.
and the positions of the particles having maximum displacement A1, A2, A3, ...... etc.
are called 'ANTINODES.'
Distance between two successive nodes or two successive antinodes is equal to half
the wavelength.
 λ
N1N2 = A1A2 =
2
λ
Distance between a node and antinode is
4
λ
N1A1 = A1N2 = N2A2 =
4
The rate of transfer of energy across any section of stationary wave is 'Zero'.

Equation of standing wave:

Suppose the two wave trains are represented by equations

(since there is a phase change of Π on reflection + is taken)

Resultant displacement after interference
y = y1 + y2
= a sin (ωt − ∈ ) + a sin (ωt +∈ )
= 2a cos ∈ sin ωt

2π
The resultant wave is also 'simple harmonic' with amplitude 2a cos x
λ
λ 2λ
When x= , etc., amplitude is maximum.
2 2
These points are 'antinodes'. Where values of '∈' are Π, 2Π, 3Π etc.
λ 3λ
When x= , etc., amplitude is zero and these points are 'nodes'.
4 4
π 3π 5π
Where values of ∈ are , , etc.
2 2 2
In stationary waves:
The amplitude of different particles is different and energy associated with a stationary
wave is ρa2ω2, that is energy of a stationary wave is twice the energy of a progressive
wave.
In a stationary wave the free end of the vibrating system is an 'antinode' and the fixed
end corresponds to a 'node'.
In a standing wave, energy is not transported across the nodes. In between the nodes
the energy alternates between vibrational KE and elastic PE.
Do you know that the air columns in the "flute" and "sehnai" are stationary waves
when they are in action!
They are called organ (music) pipes. "Organ" is the term associated with musical
effect, for example the musical instrument "mouth organ".
ORGAN PIPES:
Organ Pipes are of two types.
1) Open Organ Pipe: Here both the ends of pipe are open and hence at both the ends,
"anti nodes" are formed.
Ex: Flute
2) Closed Organ Pipe: Only one end is open (If both the ends are closed, it is no more a
pipe!). Hence at the open end an "antinode" and at the closed end "node" is formed.
Ex: Sehnai.

Vibrating Air Columns

Case 1: Closed Pipe (Pipe closed at one end and open at the other end)
In Fig-8 nodes of vibration are shown indicating the formation of stationary
waves of different frequencies for the same length of air column. In pipes closed at one
end, free vibrations at closed end occur and the particles of the air are kept static. At the
open end, maximum vibrations are possible without any pressure changes, because
any variations in pressure will be neutralized by atmospheric pressure. Referring to fig
8(i) mouth of the tube always corresponds to antinode "A" and closed end a node "N".

λ
Hence the length of the pipe (l) is related to the wavelength (λ) by l= , or λ=4 l
4
Therefore, the frequency of the air column
 c c
v 1= = This frequency is called fundamental frequency.
λ 4l
If the external periodic force is changed, the mode of vibrations also change, as
shown in the figures 8 (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).
In fig 8 (ii) there is another antinode besides a node in between the closed end
and open end for the same length 'l'.

Hence, the frequnecy ratio in the above mode of vibrations in closed pipes is 1 : 3 :
5:7
Except the first frequency, the other frequencies are called OVER TONES.
Case 2: Pipe open at both ends

In fig-9, a pipe open at both ends is shown. The mode of vibration of air column in this pipe is
such that there are two antinodes one at each end with a node in the middle (fig 9(i)).
λ
The length of the tube is l= , or λ=2 l
2
 c
Frequnecy ν 1= ; this frequency is the fundamental frequency.
2l
In fig 9(ii), length of air column 'l' corresponds to one wavelength λ.

c
The frequency of vibration: ν 2=
l
This frequency is first overtone.
Similarly in fig 9(iii)

Thus the frequency ratio in case of pipe open at both ends is 1 : 2 : 3 : 4

In case of closed pipe, the frequency ratio is 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 i.e., odd multiples of fundamental
frequency.
In case of open pipe, the frequency ratio is 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 i.e., both odd and even multiples of
fundamental frequency.
Thus the number of "overtones" produced in open pipe are more than that produced in
closed pipe. Where the number of overtones are more, better the musical effect.
Thus open organ pipes produce better musical effect.
BEATS
If one stands besides a sea, it is found that the sea waves are "rising" and "falling" along
with that one hears the sound that is varying between "maximum" and minimum. Whenever the
waves are rising (waxing) the sound heard is maximum and when they are falling (waning) the
sound heard is minimum.
The same "waxing" and "waning" of sound occurs when two sound waves interfere (in
what way?) which is called the phenomenon of BEATS.
If two waves of same frequency travelling along the same straight line but in opposite
direction superpose standing or stationary waves are produced. This is called interference in
space.
When two sound waves of slightly differnt frequencies travelling in the same medium
along the same direction when superimposed on each other give rise to a resultant sound whose
intensity will not be uniform. A listener would hear a regular rise and fall of the sound i.e. the
intensity of sound successively waxes to a maximum and minimum just as the sound of rise and
fall of sea waves varies between maximum and minimum successively.
This is called the phenomenon of "Beats".
One waxing and the subsequent waning of sound constitute a 'Beat'.
In one wave the compressions and rarefactions will be closer where as in another wave
they are spaced little apart. At certain instant two compressions or two rarefactions arrive
together to the ear of the listener and the sound heard is maximum (louder). At a later instant the
compression of one wave reaches with rarefaction of the other wave to the ear of the listener and
the sound heard is minimum (feeble) i.e., when two waves of slightly different frequencies are
superimposed, when a compression of one wave comes over the compression of the other, two
amplitudes reinforce each other and the sound waxes to a maximum. But when a compression
comes over a rarefaction, the amplitude of one cancels the amplitude of the other such that the
resultant amplitude is zero and the sound waves to a minimum.
The phenomenon of 'Beats' is the interference of sound waves in time.
The number of 'Beats' produced are equal to the difference in frequencies of the sound waves
interfering.
If υ1 and υ2 are the frequencies of interfering sound waves then the number of beats produced
are n = υ1 ~ υ2
for example, if there are two sound waves of frequencies 49 Hz and 56 Hz (fig. 10) the
number of beats produced are 56 − 49 = 7

Explanation
The sound wave of frequency 56 Hz in one second produces 56 compressions and 56
rarefactions, the total being 112.
Similarly, the total number of compressions and rarefactions produced per second by the
sound wave of frequency 49 Hz are equal to 98.
The difference of the number of compressions and rarefactions between the two waves is
112 − 98 = 14
1
In seconds the number of vibrations produced by the wave of frequency
14
1
56 Hz = 56 × =4
14
1
The number of vibrations produced by the wave of frequency 49 Hz = 49 × = 3.5
14
When both these wave interfere, in 1/14 seconds, the compression of one wave falls on the
rarefaction of the other (the difference in the number of vibrations being 0.5) producing
minimum amplitude i.e., minimum intensity of sound.
2
Similarly in seconds, the number of vibrations produced by the wave of frequency 56
14
2
Hz = 56 × =8
14
2
The number of vibrations produced by the wave of frequency 49 Hz = 49 × =7
14
i.e., when both the waves, interfere the compression of one wave falls over the
compressions of the other wave, producing maximum amplitude i.e., maximum intensity of
sound.
2
Thus in seconds, one maximum and one minimum sound i.e., one 'Beat' is produced.
14
14
The number of 'Beats' produced in one second is equal to = 7 which is equal to the
2
difference of frequencies of interfering waves 56 − 49 = 7.
Applications (uses) of Beats
1. To determine the unknown frequency of sound note or a tuning fork.
2. In tuning musical instruments.
3. To detect the presence of harmful gases in mines.
Note: (i) For human being to distinguish between two sounds, the interval between them should
not be less than 1/10th of a second i.e. the human ear cannot hear more than 10 beats for second.
(ii) When a tuning fork is failed, its frequency increases.
(iii) When a tuning fork is loaded with wax its frequency decreases.
Tune it man!
Beats in musical instruments produce pleasant musical effect. That is why in musical
concerts especially 'Violin concerts', the players will 'tune' their Violins to nearly same
frequency!

DOPPLER EFFECT
Is the Universe expanding?
Astronomers in earlier days were not able to decide whether the Universe is steady (static)
state or in motion (dynamic). An Austrian scientist C.J.Doppler in 1842 found change in colour
of stars in the galaxy and their colours are shifting towards red (Red shift). As colour of light
depends on frequency and as red colour has lesser frequency, Doppler concluded that light waves
of stars are moving away from the observer i.e., the universe is not only in motion but
expanding. This has been established later by Hubble through his 'Hubble Telescope'.

Doppler extended the same argument to the sound energy also and showed that there is an
apparent change in frequency (pitch) of a sound wave whenever there is a change in relative
motion between the source of sound and the listener.

To a listener standing near a railway track, the pitch of the sound from the whistle
(shrillness or cuteness) of an approaching train appears to be increasing. Similarly, the pitch of
the sound of the whistle appears to fall when the train is moving away from the listener. The
same effect is found when the listener moves towards the source of sound, the number of waves
that fall on his ear for every second is greater than number of waves that fall when he is at rest.
Thus, the pitch of the sound which he hears is greater than when he is at rest. Similarly, when he
moves away from the source, the number of waves per second he receives will be lesser and thus
the pitch appears to fall. Similar changes in pitch occur when the listener is stationary and the
source moves.
This phenomenon of apparent change in frequency of a sound wave due to relative motion
between the source and the observer is called the ''Doppler effect''.
Different cases of apparent change in frequency.
Let 'S' be a source of sound, and 'O' be the observer (Listener). Let 'υ' be the frequency of
the sound wave emitted by the source and 'λ' be its wavelength and 'C' be the velocity of sound in
the medium.
Let 'Vs' and 'Vo' be the velocities of source and observer (listener) respectively.
Case 1: Source at rest, observer in motion
i) Source at rest, observer moving towards the source

X X
S V0 O
When the source (S) and the observer (O) are at rest, the number of vibrations received by
c
the listener per second are υ =
λ
When the observer is moving towards the source at rest with velocity Vo in addition to the
V
number of vibrations υ, he will receive 0 vibrations per second.
λ
The total number of vibrations received (falls on his ear) per second i.e., apparent
frequency

This, apparent frequency υ' > ν i.e., the apparent frequency increases.
c
If λ' is the apparent wavelength, and since λ' =
v'

i.e., λ' < λ i.e., the apparent wavelength decreases.

ii) Source at rest, observer moving away from the source
 When the source is at rest and the observer is moving away from the source with velocity
V0, substituting the value of velocity of the observer (−V0) in equation (i). (negative sign
indicates the opposite direction of motion of the observer)
X X V0
S O

Since υ' < υ, apparent frequency decreases.

The apparent wavelength from equation (ii)

λ' > λ i.e., apparent wavelength increases.

Case 2: Observer at rest, and source in motion
i) Observer at rest and source is moving towards the observer
X Vs X
S O
Let the source move towards the observer at rest with a velocity Vs.
As shown in fig−11, the effect is to shorten the wavelength. When the source is moving
towards, the observer at rest with a velocity Vs, then for each vibration, the source is moving
V
towards the observer, the wavelength decreses by a distance s (distance = velocity × time)
v

Hence the apparent frequency becomes

 i.e., υ' > υ , the apparent frequency increases and also

i.e., λ' < λ, i.e., the apparent wavelength decreases.

(ii) Observer at rest, source is moving away from the observer
Here considering the velocity of the source as (−Vs) in equation (v)

υ' < υ i.e., the apparent frequency decreases and the apparent wavelength is

λ' > λ, i.e., the apparent wavelength increases.

Case 3: Source and Observer both moving along the same straight line
Let the observer be at rest and the source is moving towards the observer with a velocity
Vs.
Now, the apparent frequency from equation (v) is
v=
'
[ C
C−V s ]
v=f (say )

Now, if the observer is also moving in the same direction as source (away from the
source with velocity Vo), the apparent frequency
v=
'
C[
C−V 0
f ]
'
i .e . , v =
[ C−V 0
C−V s ]
v ……….(vii)

If the observer is moving in opposite direction to the source

C +V 0
'
i .e . , v =
C−V s
v
[ ]
Note: The equation (vii) can be considered as a general equation (formula) for obtaining
apparent frequency for all the cases discussed above taking the +ve or -ve sign for velocities of
the source (Vs) and observer (Vo) appropriately.
The treatment of Doppler effect is same in light and sound except in case of sound, the
velocity of wind is also to be considered unless it is negligible.
 If the wind velocity is W, the apparent frequency

['
i .e . , v =
C−V 0+ W
C−V s +W] v Uses of Doppler effect:

1) It is used in accurate navigation of air craft.

2) In war, for bombing enemy bases accurately.
3) The speed of an automobile is found using this principle by traffic police.
4) For tracking an artificial satellite.
Limitation of Doppler effect
Doppler effect can be applied only when the relative velocity between the source of the
sound and the listener is less than the velocity of sound in the medium.
Note: Doppler effect in light finds application in spectroscopy and astrophysics.
i) In the study of 'binary stars' by spectroscopical methods.
ii) In finding the speed of the stars.
iii) In arriving at the theory of expanding universe.
iv) To study the nature of Saturn rings recently, Doppler effect is used effectively to
locate new planets away from solar system.

Sound Waves
A word is a sound. The sound of the word forms all things. And man listens and hears the
word of all things! Sound is a form of energy which is produced by a vibrating body travels
through a material medium in the form of a 'wave' and appeal to the sense of hearing.

Source of sound - a vibrating body

The source of sound is a vibrating body. A vibrating string in a Veena, Violin and Piano;
vibrating air column in a Flute and Harmonium; Vibrating stretched membranes in Tabla and
Mridangam; A bell struck by a hammer; and a vibrating tuning fork produce sound. When we are
talking the vocal cords in our throat vibrate and produce sound.

Audiable - Inaudiable sounds

The number of vibrations made per second by a vibrating body is called 'frequency'. The unit
of frequency is 'hertz' (Hz) named after Henrich Rudolf Hertz who produced 'Radio Waves' for
the first time in a laboratory.
A normal human being can hear sounds of frequency ranging between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
These sounds are called 'Audiable sounds'. Sounds whose frequency is less than 20 Hz are called
'Infra sounds', and sounds of frequency more than 20,000 Hz are called 'Ultrasonic sounds'. We
cannot hear these sounds. Bats and dogs can hear Ultrasonic sounds.

Medium is a must
Sound travels through solids, liquids and also gases. It can not travel through vacuum.
For e.g. if a person standing on the surface of moon fires a gun, a person standing at a
distance cannot hear that sound as there is no atmosphere there i.e., for sound to propagate there
should be an elastic material medium.

Two types of sound

Sound is classified as 'Music' and 'Noise'. Musical sound is that which is pleasant to hear.
Noise is that which is unpleasant to hear. No one says that Pandit Ravisankar playing on Sitar is
popular in making 'Noise'. No teacher in a class room shouts at students 'Don't make music'!.

Sound travels in a wave form

How can you say that? A person talking in a room can be heard by a person out side beside
the wall of the room. Only a wave can bend around the corners of a wall (an obstacle).

Waves progress through a medium

While sound is travelling through a medium energy is transferred from particle to particle of
the medium and hence propagating sound waves are called progressive waves.

Transverse and Longitudinal waves

Progressive waves are of two types.
i) Transverse waves: Here the particles of the medium vibrates perpendicular (and hence
transverse) to the direction of motion of the propagation of the sound
energy and the wave is associated with 'Crests' and 'Troughs'.

ii) Longitudinal waves: Here the particles of the medium vibrates in the same direction (i.e.,
along and hence longitudinal) as that of the propagation of sound and this wave is associated
with 'Compressions' and 'Rarefactions'.
Transverse wave

* 'Compressions' (on condensations) are the places in the medium where the values pressure,
density and temperature are above the normal values and 'rarefactions' are the places in the
medium where the above parameters are below the normal values when the longitudinal wave is
propagated.
* Sound travels only as a longitudinal wave in a gaseous medium where as it may be either
longitudinal or transverse in solids and liquids.
Characteristics of sound waves:
i) Displacement: It is the extent through which a vibrating particle moves from its mean position.
ii) Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of a vibrating particle.
iii) Period (T): It is the time taken for one complete vibration; unit: second.
iv) Frequency (υ): Number of vibrations made per second; unit: hertz (Hz).
v) Velocity (c): It is the distance travelled by the wave in one second; unit: ms-1
λ 1
c= But =v
T T
c = υλ
vi) Wave length (λ): It is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs in case of a
transverse wave (or) it is the distance between two consecutive compressions (or) rarefactions in
case of a longitudinal wave.
(or)
It is the distance between two consecutive particles which are in the same state of vibration
(Phase). (or)
It is the distance travelled by the wave by the time the vibrating body completes one vibration.
vii) Phase: It is the state or the condition with regard to the position and direction of motion of a
vibrating particle from its mean position and expressed in 'radians'.
viii) Intensity (I): It is the average rate of transfer of energy per unit area normal to the direction
of propagation of a wave; units: watt per meter-2 (Wm-2)
Wave intensity depends upon the amplitude (a) of the wave; I ∝ a2 If amplitude of a wave is
doubled, wave intensity (2 × 2 = 4) increases by four times.

Equation of a progressive wave

Since particles in a wave are executing Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM), progressive
wave is represented by the equation of a particle making SHM i.e., Y = a sin ωt.
Here Y is displacement; a = amplitude and ωt = phase.
If the wave is having a change in phase ∈, in the beginning only.
Y = asin (ωt -∈ ) .......... (i)
angular velocity ω = , T - period of vibration λ
1
But T = ; ω = 2Πυ
ν
c c
But υ = ; ω = 2Π ....... (ii)
λ λ
For a path difference of λ the phase difference is 2Π for a path difference of x, the phase
2π
difference = x................. (iii)
λ
2π
substituting (ii) and (iii) in (i) Y = a sin (ct ± x) ............... (iv)
λ
+x, indicates that wave is travelling along +X direction and -x, indicates that wave is
λ
travelling along -X direction. But c = υλ =
T
The equation (iv) can be written as Y =a sin 2 π ( )
t x
±
T X
............ (v)
(By using the above equations, the values of Y, a, λ, υ, T, c of a wave can be obtained)
Stationary or a standing wave - Waves in a flute
When two progressive waves of same frequency, amplitude and velocity travelling in the
same medium along a straight line but in opposite directions interfere, the crests and troughs in
case of Transverse waves and compressions and rarefactions in case of Longitudinal waves come
to a 'stand still' such that energy is not propagated in the medium but conforms to a certain
region. This wave pattern is called 'Stationary wave'.

Nodes, Antinodes
The positions of the particles where there is no displacement (N1, N2, N3, N4...) are called
'Nodes' (no displacement) and the positions of the particles having maximum displacement (A1,
A2, A3, A4...) are called 'Anti nodes'.
Distance between two successive nodes or two successive antinodes i.e., equal to half the
wave length.
λ
i.e., N1N2 = A1A2 =
2
λ
Distance between a node and antinode =
4
λ
i.e., N1A1 = A1N2 = N2A2 =
4
The rate of transfer of energy across any section of a stationary wave is 'zero'.
* Sound waves produced in a 'flute' are stationary waves.
Organ (Musical) Pipes
The vibrations of a cylindrical column of air can be taken as made up of two progressive
longitudinal vibrations moving with equal and opposite speed super imposed on each other.
Case i) Closed pipe (Pipe close at one end): In pipes closed at one end, no free vibrations at
closed end occur, and the particles of the medium (air) are kept static. At the open end,
maximum vibrations are possible without any pressure changes. Mouth of the tube always
corresponds to 'Antinode' (A) and the closed end to a 'Node' (N). Let the length of the pipe be 'l'.

In figure (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v),

* The first frequency is called 'fundamental note' (or note), the other frequencies are called
'overtones' and all are called 'harmonics' (harmonic means the musical effect).
υ1 : υ2 : υ3 : υ4 : υ5 = 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 : 9
Thus, the frequency ratio of mode of vibrations in closed pipes is odd multiple of
fundamental note.
case ii) Open pipes (pipes open at both ends):
for figures (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v),

υ1 : υ2 : υ3 : υ4 : υ5 = 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5
Thus, the frequency ratio of mode of vibrations in open pipes is both odd and even multiples
of fundamental note i.e., in open tubes over tones are more in number. More the number of
overtones, better will be the musical effect. Hence, the musical instruments like, Flute, Sehnai,
Nadaswaram are open organ pipes ('Organ means musical instrument').
Vibrations in strings
A metalic wire where length is more and radius is very less, is considered to be a string. The
musical instruments like Veena, Violin and Guitar are fitted with strings under tension.
If a string of length 'l', stretched between two points is plucked at its middle, a transverse
wave travels along the string and reflects at either fixed end and forms a stationary wave, such
that at the ends of the string 'Nodes' are formed and at the middle an 'Antinode'.

If T is the tension in the string, and 'm' is the mass per unit length of the wire, the velocity of
transverse wave in the string c =
Laws of transverse vibrations
√ T
m

These Laws can be verified by using an instrument called 'Sonometer'.

Your talk can be understood only when...
When you are talking with others, they can follow your speech only when the time interval
between two words is atleast 0.1 seconds otherwise, your speech will be heard as 'noise.'
1 1
ν= = =10 i.e., if one delivers more than 10 words in a second, that talk cannot be
T 0.1
understood.
Free or Natural Vibrations
When a tuning fork is vibrated by striking one of its prongs gently (Why?) with a rubber
hammer the prongs dance to and fro about their mean position. These vibrations of the tuning
fork are called 'free' or 'natural' vibrations.
The fork frequency is inversely proportional to the square of the length of the prongs and
directly proportional to the thickness of the prongs.
Even the vibrations of a stretched string when it is plucked are natural vibrations. Shorter the
vibrating length, greater will be its frequency.
Why the frequencies of a standard tuning forks are 256, 480, 512... etc. and not 250, 400
and 500?
Forced Vibrations
When the stem of a vibrating tuning fork is kept against the top of a table a much louder
sound will be heard than would be the case of the vibrating tuning fork was held in the air. The
resulting vibrations of the table are called 'forced vibrations.' Here the particles of the table are
forced to vibrate under the influence of external periodic force of the tuning fork. The frequency
of the table will be that of the tuning fork.
Here the natural frequency of the external periodic force (vibrating tuning fork) and the
vibrating body (table) in which forced vibrations are produced need not be equal that the bodies
should be in contact with each other.
In stringed instruments like Veena, Guitar and Violin the strings under tension are stretched
over Hollow boxes so that the boxes and the air enclosed in them will undergo forced vibrations
when the instrument is played by plucking the strings and the music heard is full of 'melody'.

Sympathetic Vibrations - Resonance

Soldiers marching towards a bridge are asked not to go in step (left, right... left, right...) but to
disperse and walk normally. If they march in step, and if the natural frequency of their marching
in step is equal to the natural frequency of the bridge which is stretched between two points like
a stretched string, sympathetic vibrations may be produced in the bridge and it vibrates with
greater and greater amplitude and may collapse.
Here the phenomenon is called 'Resonance' in which two vibrating bodies of nearly equal
frequencies without actual contact between them and if one is vibrated, the other picks up those
vibration and vibrate with greater and greater amplitude.

Can we change the frequency of a tuning fork?

The frequency of a tuning fork depends on its size. The length of the prongs of tuning fork of
frequency 512 Hz will be less that of the tuning fork of frequency 256 Hz.
If a small amount of wax is attached to one of the prongs of a tuning fork, its frequency
decreases as the size of the fork has increased.
If one of the prongs of a tuning fork is filed, since its size has decreased, the frequency of the
tuning fork increases.
Beats - Here the intensity of sound will not be the same.
When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies travelling in the same medium along
the same direction comes one over the other gives rise to a resultant wave whose intensity of
sound will not be uniform and the listener will hear a regular rise and fall of the sound i.e., the
intensity of sound successively waxes to a maximum and waves to a minimum. One waxing
(maximum) and the subsequent waving (minimum) of sound constitute a 'Beat'.
The number of beats produced is equal to the difference of frequencies of interfering waves.
If υ1 and υ2 are the frequencies of two sound notes, the no. of beats (n) = υ1 υ2.
When two musicians are playing the Sehanai, if the sound wave of one Sehanai interferes
with the sound wave of another Sehanai, beats are produced and the musical effect experienced
by the listeners will be very pleasant. Beats give 'rhythemic effect' to music which we find in a
'Western music'!
For the beats to be heard distinctly, they should reach the ear atleast by of a second i.e., the
human ear cannot hear more than 10 beats per second.
Intensity of sound
Intensity of sound depends on the 'amplitude' of sound wave. Greater the amplitude, greater
will be the intensity. Intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude. If the amplitude of a
sound wave is doubled, the intensity will be quadrupled.
Loudness
It is the hearing experience of the listener which depends on the medium in which the sound
is travelling, the condition of the medium like its extent, temperature, humidity and also on the
condition of listener like deafness etc.
If intensity is the cause loudness is the effect.
Pitch
It is the shrillness or cuteness of sound which depends on the frequency. Greater the
frequency greater will be the pitch.
Pitch of woman's voice is greater that of male's voice. Pitch of the child's voice is greater
than that of female voice.
Lion and Mosquito
The intensity of 'roaring of a Lion' is greater than the buzzing of a bee or humming of a
Mosquito, but the pitch of the later is greater and irritating than the roaring of a lion.
Quality or Timbre
Though all are stringed instruments, one is able to differentiate the music played on Violin,
Sitar, Guitar or Piano because of the mode of vibration of the strings of the instruments i.e.,
number of 'overtones' produced (overtones are the number of loops produced in the given length
of a wire or air column).
One is able to recognize a person's voice without seeing the person because of the quality of
the voice ie the number of overtones produced by the voice. More the number of overtones,
better will be the musical effect.
Doppler Effect
To a listener standing near a railway track, the pitch (shrillness) of an approaching train's
whistle appears to be increasing. Here the number of sound waves that reach his ear per second
(i.e., frequency) is greater.
Similarly, the pitch of the sound of the whistle appears to fall when the train is moving away
from the listener. Here the number of waves received per second will be less.
This phenomenon of apparent change in the frequency of a wave due to the relative motion
between the source and the observer is known as 'Doppler Effect' named after the Austrian
Scientist C.J. Doppler.
Doppler's formulae
Let c be the velocity of sound, Vo is the velocity of the observer, Vs is the velocity of
source, λ the original wavelength and υ the original frequency.

Doppler Effect - Applications

i) In controlling the speed of aeroplanes:
From the apparent frequency (υ') recorded by the relevant apparatus in the airport, the speed of
the aeroplanes can be controlled.
 If υ' is greater it means the plane is reaching the airport speedily. Similarly, by knowing the
apparent frequency, the war planes can be directed by giving signals from the ground, so that
they can bomb the targets.
ii) Regulating the traffic
Traffic police can stand at one place and from the apparent frequency of the sound emitted by
the motor vehicles crossing them, their speeds can be found.
iii) Even the speeds of stars - Support to the theory of expanding Universe
In fact, Doppler used his theory to know whether the stars in the galaxy are receding away
from the earth (or) moving towards the earth. By applying Doppler's theory it is found that the
stars are moving away from the earth and thus Doppler effect has supposed the theory of
'Expanding Universe'.

WAVE MOTION
Questions – Answers

Very Short Answer Questions

1. What does a wave represent?
A: A wave is a disturbance which moves in space, transports, energy and momentum from one
point to another without transmitting matter.

2. Distinguish between Longitudinal and Transverse waves.

A:

3. What are the parameters used to describe a progressive harmonic waves?

A: The parameters of progressive wave are 1) Amplitude 2) Angular Velocity 3) Frequency 4)
Time Period (T) 5) Wave length (λ) 6) Velocity (V) 7) Phase (Ø) 8) Propagation constant (k).

4. Obtain an expression for the wave velocity in terms of these parameters.

5. Using dimensional analysis obtain an expression for the speed of transverse waves in a
stretched string?
A: Speed of transverse wave (V) ∝ Ta mb where T is tension in the string, m is linear density.
Dimensional formula for V = [LT−1],
T = [MLT−2], m = [ML−1]
[LT−1] = [MLT−2]a [ML−1]b
= [Ma La T−2a Mb L−b]
[LT ] = [Ma + b L a-b T−2a ]
−1

M0 = M a + b ⇒ a + b = 0 ______ (1)
L1 = L a-b ⇒ a−b = 1 ______ (2)
−1
T =T 2a
⇒ -1 = -2a
1
⇒ a = ______ (3)
2
From (1), (2) & (3)
1 1
a= , b= -
2 2

6. Using dimensional analysis obtain expression for the speed of sound waves in a medium.
A: Velocity of Wave (V) = λa Tb
V = [LT−1], λ = [L], T = [T]
[LT−1] = [La Tb] ⇒ L1 = La ⇒ a = 1
T−1 = Tb = +b = -1
λ
V = =νλ
T

7. What is the principle of super position of waves?

A: Two or more waves overlap at a point, the resultant displacement of any particle is equal to
the vector sum of displacement of all the waves.

8. Under what conditions will a wave be reflected?

A: If a wave incident on a boundary between two media, a part of incident wave returns back
into the initial medium (reflection) and a part of incident wave will be refracted. During
refraction they obey Snell's Law wave will be reflected if it falls on rigid surface. Because at
rigid surface the particles of the medium does not vibrate.
9. What is the phase difference between the incident and reflected waves when the wave is
reflected by a rigid boundary?
A: At rigid boundary the phase difference between incident and reflected waves is π. That is a
crest reflects as through and vice - versa.
10. What is a stationary or standing wave?
A: When two waves of same amplitude, frequency and velocity moving in opposite directions
are superposed, the phenomenon of standing waves is observed.

11. What do you understand by the term node and antinode?

A: The points at which particles never displace from their mean position (minimum
displacement) are called as node. The points at which the displacements very between zero and
maximum in opposite direction are called antinodes.

12. What is the distance between a node and an antinode?

λ
A: Distance between a node & an antinode is .
4
13. What do you understand by natural frequency or normal mode of vibration?
A: An elastic body vibrates with a definite constant amplitude and definite single frequency
known as its natural frequency and vibrations are known as natural vibrations.

e.g.: A tuning fork struck with a rubber hammer vibrates with its natural frequency.
14. What are harmonics?
A: The frequencies which are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency are called
harmonics.

15. A string is stretched between two rigid supports. What frequencies of vibrations are
possible in such a string?
A: If a string is stretched between two rigid supports, the possible frequencies are f, 2f,
3f,.... so on, where 'f' is natural frequency of vibration of string.

16. If the air column in a long tube, open at both ends, is set in vibration. What
harmonics are possible?
A: The frequencies of harmonics present in an open pipe are integral multiples of
fundamental or natural frequency of the air column. They are f, 2f, 3f, ............
17. If the air column in a tube, closed at one end, is set in vibration. What harmonics are
possible?
A: The frequencies of harmonics present in a closed pipe are 3f, 5f, 7f ............ (2n − 1)f,
where 'f' is natural frequency.

18. What are beats?

A: When two sound waves of nearly equal frequency are superposed, they will create a
waxing (maximum) and waning (minimum) of sound. This effect is called beats. Beat
frequency = n1 ~ n2

19. Write down an expression for beat frequency and explain the terms there in.
A: Beat frequency = n1 ~ n2
n1, n2 are frequencies of two sound waves.
20. What is ''Doppler effect"? Give an example.
A: The apparent change in frequency of source of sound due to relative motion between
the source and observer is known as ''Doppler effect".
e.g.: The whistle of approaching train appears to have high pitch. Similarly as the train
moves away from us the pitch of whistle sound decreases.
21. Write down an expression for the observed frequency when both source and
observer are moving relative to each other in the same direction.
A: When both source and observer are moving relative to each other in the same
direction, the apparent frequency is

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What are transverse waves? Explain with an example.

A: If the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of

the waves, the waves are called transverse waves. These waves can propagate
through solids and liquids.
e.g.: Vibrations in strings, ripples on water surface and electromagnetic waves. During
transverse vibrations, the particles may move upwards (or) downwards from their mean
positions.
The uppermost point of the wave, where the particle is having maximum positive
displacement is called crest and the lowest point, where the particle is having maximum
negative displacement is called ''trough". Crests and troughs are appear alternatively.
The velocity of the particle is maximum at mean position and zero at extreme position.
The distance between two adjacent crests (or) troughs represents the wavelength (λ) of
the wave.
2. What are longitudinal waves? Give illustrative examples of such waves?
A: In longitudinal waves particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of
propagation of the wave. These waves can propagate through solids, liquids and gases.
e.g.: Waves on springs, sound waves. When a longitudinal wave travel through a
medium, the medium divided into alternate compressions (C) and rarefactions (R). The
region where the particles of the medium are crowded is called a compression, where
the pressure and density are maximum. The other region where the particles of the
medium are widely separated is called rarefaction, there the pressure and density are
minimum. In air sound waves travel as longitudinal waves.

3. Write an expression for a progressive harmonic wave and explain the various
parameters used in the expression.
A: A plane progressive wave can be represented by
y = A Sin (ωt ± Ø)
where y = displacement at any given time
A = amplitude of the wave
ω = angular velocity
Ø = phase constant
+ve indicates wave is propagating in negative X − direction. −ve indicates wave is
propagating in positive X - direction. Other forms are
y = A Sin (2πnt ± Kx) (... Ø = Kx)
Where K is called propagation constant.

4. Explain the modes of vibration of a stretched string with examples.

A: Consider a wire of length 'l' is stretched between points A and B. Let 'T' be the
tension in the string. If the wire vibrates as a single loop, then frequency of vibrations is
known as fundamental frequency and is denoted by (υ).

υ1 is called fundamental frequency (or) 1st harmomic.

If the string vibrates in two loops, then frequency of the string is known as first overtone or
second harmonic, is given by
In stretched string the ratio of harmonics are 1 : 2 : 3 ............
e.g.: Sonometer.
5. Explain the modes of vibration of an air column in an open pipe.
A: Consider open pipe of length 'l'. In fundamental mode of vibration two antinodes and
one node is formed. Then
λ
l= => λ1 = 2l
2

In the next mode of vibration three antinodes and two nodes are formed. Then
length of the pipe

Similarly in the next mode four antinodes and three nodes are formed. Then length
of pipe
Hence in case of open pipe, harmonics are in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 3 : ....

6. What do you understand by resonance? How would you use resonance to determine
the velocity of sound in air?
A: If the natural frequency of a vibrating body is equal to the frequency of periodic force,
then the body vibrates with increasing amplitude. This phenomenon is called
resonance. Consider a closed tube in which length of air column can be changed.
λ
The first resonating length of air column is l1 + e = ..................... (1)
4
Where 'e' is called end correction.
The second resonating length of air column is
7. What are standing waves? Explain how standing waves may be formed in a stretched string?
A: Two progressive waves of same amplitude, same frequency travelling in opposite direction
superimpose over each other produce stationary or standing wave.
When a stretched string is fixed at both ends is plucked perpendicular to the length, then
resulting transverse wave travels along the length of string and get reflected at rigid end. The
reflected wave is having same amplitude and frequency as incident wave. The waves are
represented by
y1 = A sin (ωt - kx) y2 = -A sin (ωt + kx)
According to principle of superposition
y = y1 + y2 = A sin (ωt - kx) - A sin (ωt + kx)
 By plucking the stretched wire at various positions standing waves are produced as shown in
figure.

8. Describe a procedure for measuring the velocity of sound in stretched string.

( Ml ) is fixed between
A: Let us consider a string of mass 'M', length 'l' and linear density 'µ' ¿

two rigid supports with some tension 'T'. When it is plucked at the middle, the transverse wave
is produced. Speed of this wave depends on the restoring force in the medium (provided by
tension 'T'), and on the inertial property (provided by linear density). The velocity of transverse
wave

V=
√ T
μ

But, practically velocity of wave is measured by adjusting the length of string until the stationary
wave is produced in it. Then V = n λ or υ λ

9. Explain using suitable diagrams, the formation of standing waves in a closed pipe. How may
this be used to determine the frequency of a source of sound?
A: A closed pipe is a cylindrical tube with air as medium inside it. One end is closed and other
end is open.
Let a longitudinal wave be sent through a closed pipe. It gets reflected at closed end. Both
incident and reflected waves superposed along the length of the pipe and stationary waves
formed. Node is formed at closed end, where the displacement is zero. At open end the air
particles are free to vibrate, so antinode is formed.
The frequency of sound υ can be calculated by

The ratio of frequencies in closed pipe are υ1 : υ3 : υ5 ........... = 1 : 3 : 5 : .............

10. What are 'beats'? When do they occur? Explain their use, if any.
A: When two sound notes of nearly equal frequency travelling in the same direction superposed
to produce regular waxing and waning in the intensity of combined wave. This effect is known
as "beats".
Beat frequency = υ1 − υ2

Formation of beats
Let us take two tuning forks of nearly same frequencies 256 Hz and 254 Hz.
When two sound waves are in same phase, then maximum intensity of sound is produced.

After
1
4
second, first tuning fork completes 64 vibrations
256
4 (
=64 ) while second fork

comopletes 63 vibrations. At this instant waves are not in same phase, produce minimum
 2 1
intensity of sound. After sec (or) sec first fork completes 128 vibrations, second fork
4 2
completes 127 vibrations. The waves again meet in phase, produce waxing (or) maximum
3
intensity of sound. After seconds, the waves again meet in opposite phase. So, minimum
4
4
sound is heard. After or 1 second the number of vibrations are 256, 254 respectively,
4
intensity of sound becomes maximum.
Here the intensity will become two times maximum and two times minimum.
That is two beats will be heard in 1 second.
Beat frequency is 2 beats per second equal to the difference of frequencies of two tuning
forks.
Uses
1) Beats can be used to tune musical instruments.
2) Dangerous gases in mines can be detected by using beats.
11. What is "Doppler effect"? Give illustrative examples.
A: The apparent change in frequency of sound due to relative motion between source and
observer is called Doppler effect.
Examples:
1) When a train is approaching, the pitch of horn of train to be increased and that of train is
going away the pitch of sound decreases.
2) Doppler shift is also expressed in terms of wavelengths. If Radiation is shifted towards red
colour called redshift then its wavelength increases. It indicates the stars are moving away and
universe in expanding.

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the formation of stationary waves in stretched strings and hence deduce the laws of
transverse waves in stretched strings.
A: Two progressive waves of same amplitude, same frequency travelling in opposite direction
superimpose over each other produce stationary or standing wave. When a stretched string is
fixed at both ends is plucked perpendicular to the length, then resulting transverse wave travels
along the length of string and get reflected at rigid end. The reflected wave is having same
amplitude and frequency as incident wave.
The waves are represented by
y1 = A sin (ωt - kx) y2 = -A sin (ωt + kx)
According to principle of Superposition
y = y1 + y2 =A sin (ωt - kx) - A sin (ωt + kx)
By plucking the stretched wire at various positions standing waves are produced s
shown in figure.
Equation of fundamental frequency:
In the first mode of vibration the wire vibrates with one loop.

Laws of vibrations in stretched string:

I Law: The fundamental frequency of vibrating string is inversely proportional to the
length of the string, when tension and linear density are constant.
1
υ ∝  υl=constant
l

II Law: The fundamental frequency of vibrating string is directly proportional to square

root of tension in the string.
υ
υ ∝ √T  =constant
√T
when length, linear density are constant.
III Law: The fundamental frequency of vibration is inversely proportional to square root
of linear density, when length, tension are constant.
1
υ∝  υ √ μ=constant
√μ
2. Explain the formation of stationary waves in air column closed in open pipe. Derive
the equation for the frequencies of harmonics produced.
A: Consider open pipe of length 'l'. In fundamental mode of vibration two anti nodes and
one node is formed. Then

In the next mode of vibration three antinodes and two nodes are formed. Then length of pipe

Similarly in the next mode four antinodes and three nodes are formed. The length of pipe
Hence in the case of open pipe, harmonics are in the ratio of 1:2:3:…….

3. How are stationary waves formed in closed pipes? Explain various vibrations and obtain
relations for their frequencies.
A: A closed pipe is a hallow cylindrical pipe is closed at one end and open at other end.
consider a pipe of length l. Let V be the velocity of sound in air. When longitudinal waves are
produced in closed pipe, it gets reflected at closed end and a node is formed at closed end,
antinode is formed at open end. In the first mode of vibration one node and one antinode is
formed and its frequency is called fundamental frequency.

In the next mode of vibration two nodes and two antinodes are formed. Then
υ5 is called 5th harmonic (or) second overtone. The ratio of harmonics in closed pipe are 1 : 3 :
5 : ........

4. What are beats? obtain an expression for beat frequency. Where and how are beats made
use of?

A:

Beats: When two sound notes of nearly equal frequencies travelling in the
same direction superposed to produce regular waxing and waning in the intensity of
combined wave. This effect is known as beats.
Beat frequency = n1 ~ n2 or υ1 ~ υ2
Expression for beat frequency:
Let us consider two waves y1 and y2 of nearly equal frequency n1 and n2, each of
amplitude 'a' superpose each other then resultant wave is
y = y1 + y2 = a sin ω1 t + a sin ω2 t
= a [sin 2Πn1 t + sin 2Πn2 t]

Importance of Beats
1) Beats can be used in tuning of musical instruments.
2) Beats are used to produce special effects in cinematography.
3) Beats are used in detecting dangerous gases in mines.
4) Beats are used in hetrodyne receivers range.
5. What is Doppler effect? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency of sound
heard when the source is in motion with respect to an observer at rest.
A: Def: The apparent change in frequency of sound due to relative motion between the
observer and the source of sound is called "Doppler effect".
Let 'S' is a source of sound moving, away with a velocity 'Vs' from stationary
observe. Let 'υ0' be the frequency of sound produced by the source and 'T0' be the time
period. Let the observer has a device to count the number of crest compressions of
wave produced.
At time t = 0, the source produces a crest. Let the distance between source and
observer is 'L' and velocity is 'V'.
L
Time taken by the crest to reach obser t1 = ............. (1)
V
The second crest is produced after a time interval 'T0'
The distance travelled by the source during time interval T0 is 'Vs T0'
The total distance between source & observer = L + Vs T0

[
Time taken to detect 2nd crest t2 = T 0+
V ]
L+V s T 0
.............(2)
If source produces (n + 1)th crest at time nT0, then time taken T0 detect the
Ie., The apparent frequency decreases. If source is moving towards the observer with velocity
Vs

i.e. the apparent frequency increases.

6. What is doppler shift ? obtain an expression for the apparent frequency of sound
heard when the observer is in motion with respect to source at rest.
A: Doppler Shift: The difference between apparent frequency heard by observer and
actual frequency produced by the source is called 'Doppler Shift'. Let 'S' is source at
rest produces a sound of constant frequency 'υ0', To be the time period of wave, V0 be
the velocity of observer. At time t = 0, source produces a crest. The distance between
source and observer is 'L' and velocity of sound is 'V'.
L
The time taken by the observer to detect the crest is t1 = (1)
V
2nd crest is produced after a time period T0.
During this time observer moves a distance V0T0.
Time taken by observer to detect crest is t2
i.e., apparent frequency υ <υ 0

when the observer is moving from source take V0 as –ve. Then

i.e apparent frequency increases.

Problems
1. A stretched wire of length 0.6 m is observed to vibrate with a frequency of 30 Hz in
the fundamental mode. If the string has linear mass 0.05 kg/m. Then find,
a) Velocity of propagation of transverse waves in string
b) The tension in the string.
Sol. l = 0.6 m, υ = 30 Hz, µ = 0.05 kg/m

2. Two progressive transverse waves given by y1 = 0.07 sin Π (12x − 500 t) and y2 =
0.07 sin Π (12x + 500 t) travelling along a stretched string and form nodes and
antinodes. What is the displacement at the nodes, antinodes, wavelength of standing
wave?
Sol. y1 = 0.07 sin Π (12x − 500 t)
y2 = 0.07 sin Π (12x + 500 t)
Dilsplacement at node = 0
Displacement at antinode = 2A = 2 × 0.07 = 0.14 m

λ = 0.16 m

3. A vertical tube is made to stand in water so that the water level can be adjusted.
Sound waves of frequency 320 Hz are sent into the top the tube. If standing waves are
produced at successive water levels of 20 cm and 73 cm, what is the speed of sound
waves in the air in the tube?
Sol. υ = 320 Hz, l1 = 20 cm, l2 = 73 cm
V = 2n (l2 - l1)
= 2 × 320 (73 - 20) × 10-2
= 640(53) × 10-2
V = 339 m/s
4. A train sound its whistle as it approaches and a frequency of 184 Hz as it crosses a
level crossing. An observer at the crossing measures a frequency of 219 Hz as the train
approaches and a frequency of 184 Hz as it leaves. If the speed of sound is take to be
340 m/s. Find the speed of the train and the frequency of its whistle.
Sol. V = 340 m/s, υ'= 219 Hz, υ'' = 184 Hz

5. A closed organ pipe of 70 cm long is sounded. If the velocity of sound is 331 m/s, what is the
fundamental frequency of vibration of the air column?
Sol: Given L = 70 cm = 0.7 m
V = 331 m/s
Fundamental frequency,
V 331

6. An open organ pipe of 85 cm long is sounded. If the velocity of sound is 340 m/s, what is the
frequency of 3rd harmonic?
Sol: Given L = 85 cm = 0.85 m
V = 340 m/s
Frequency of 3rd harmonic
V 340

Chapter-2: RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Styles of light
The study of 'Light' as energy opened new vistas for human thought. The famous scientist who
has shown with child's sense of wonder has shown the light as energy was Sir Isaac Newton.
God said 'Let there be Light'. There was no light! Instead, there was Newton and then it was all
Light.
Light Reflects: A ray of light incident on a polished surface like a mirror comes back into the
same medium. We see our images in mirrors because of this style & exhibited by light called
'Reflection'.
Light bends: A tall man with long legs, when stands in a lake finds his legs have been shortened
(an illusion). Place a coin at the bottom of a beaker and pour water in the beaker and look into it;
The coin appears to be raised along with the bottom of the beaker (again illusion). These
illusions are due to another style exhibited by light called 'refraction'. Which is due to the light
rays travelling from one transparent medium to the other bend.
* Refraction of light requires minimum two transparent media.
* A light ray travelling from rarer medium (of lesser refractive index) to a denser medium (of
greater refractive index) bends towards the normal.
* A light ray travelling from denser to rarer medium bends away from the normal.
When light 'misbehaves'....
A refracting light ray suddenly reflects totally after overcoming critical condition which results
in the form of illusions like 'mirages' and 'loomings'.
A light ray OA from an object O (figure) in water incident normally travels without bending into
air. A light ray OB incident at an angle i, bends away from the normal, when it enters into air
with an angle of refraction r; Now as angle of incidence increases, angle of refraction also
increase. For a particular angle of incidence C, the refracted ray grazes the surface of
separation such that the angle of refraction is 90º.

Now, the angle of incidence C is called 'Critical angle.' Critical because, now we cannot say
whether the refracted ray belongs to denser (water) medium or rarer (air) medium. This ray is
some what like a cat on a wall or patient in critical condition. At critical state, the refractive index
of water with respect to air according to Snell's Law is:

(Greater the refractive index, lesser will be the critical angle)

Now, if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (even by few seconds), the
refracted ray (earlier) reflects into the denser medium (water) as if the surface of separation is a
perfect mirror. This phenomenon is called 'Total Internal Reflection' (TIR).
Optical fibre - a light pipe
An optical fibre is a flexible transparent fibre device used for either image or information
transmission in which light is propagated by Total Internal Reflection.

Newton and Prism

On a fateful day, when Isaac Newton passed the Sun's rays (white light) through that wonder
device called 'glass prism' (which was used as a paper weight in those days) the light ray was
split into seven of its constituent colours (exhibited its another style) seen in the rainbow
(VIBGYOR) the brilliant and beautiful colours of the rainbow formed in the blue SKY (SKY is
blue due to scattering of light) is explained by the simple experiment with prism on earth.
(Earlier Newton explained the motion of celestial bodies in heaven by observing the fell of apple
on the earth.

Dispersion - Spectrum
The white light when passed through a glass prism splits into seven of its constituent colours
is called 'Dispersion' and the coloured pattern is called 'Spectrum'. The instrument which
produces and measures the spectrum is called 'Spectrometer.' When different substances are
heated to their incandescence and the light emitted is passed through the prism of the
Spectrometer, each substance will give its characteristic spectrum.

Spectra - the 'finger prints' of matter

Millions of human beings are born every second on earth. But, one characteristic that will not
replicate even in case of 'twins' is 'finger prints.' Similarly, every substance in the Universe will
have its characteristic spectrum.
Fraun hofer lines
These are the dark lines observed in Sun's absorption spectrum. From these lines elements
like H2, O2, Na etc and Helium in abundance was found in the Sun's atmosphere, the light gas
which has already escaped earth's atmosphere (Gravity).

Present and Future of Stars

Spectral analysis is used to study the chemical composition, state of motion and
temperature of the planets, Sun and other stars. Days have gone when stars predict the fates
and future of a human being. Instead, man is revealing the present and future (Jatakam) of
stars.

Chapter-2: RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Questions – Answers

Long Answer type Questions

1. a) Define Snells' law. Using a neat labelled diagram derive an expression for the
refractive index of the material of an equilateral prism.
b) A ray of light, after passing through a medium, meets the surface separating the
medium from air at an angle of 45° and is just not refracted. What is the refractive index
of the medium?
A: Snell's Law:
1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of
incidence lie in same plane.
2) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction (r) is
constant.
sin i
=n
sin r 21
Where n21 is a constant and is called refractive index of the second medium with
respect to the first medium.
Expression for refractive index of a prism:

Let us suppose that ABC is a glass prism.

A = Refracting angle of the prism
n21 = Refractive index of glass w.r. to air
PQ = Incident ray.
QR = Refracted ray in the prism
RS = Emergent ray
The normal to AB and AC meet at N.
i = Angle of incidence at the first surface
r1 = Angle of refraction at the first surface
r2 = Angle of refraction at the second surface (if light enters 2nd surface)
e = Angle of Emergence
δ = Angle of deviation (Angle between PQ and RS)
In the quadrilateral AQNR,

The total deviation δ = Sum of deviations at the two faces.

δ = (i - r1) + (e - r2)
or
δ = i + e - (r1 + r2) (4)
Substituting Equation (3) in this,
δ = i + e - A (5)
This shows that the angle of deviation, δ depends on angle of incidence, i. The graph
between i and δ (i - δ curve) is a Parabola as shown in the figure. The value of δ
decreases to a minimum called angle of minimum deviation (Dm) and then increases.

At δ = Dm = angle of minimum deviation, it was found experimentally that

i = e and r1 = r2 = r
Putting these in equations (3) and (5),

This is equation for angle of incidence in terms of angle of the prism and angle of
minimum deviation.
When the light ray is passing from medium 1 (air) to medium 2 (glass), the refractive
index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is given by

b)
A: Ray is not just refracted
Hence, the angle given is critical angle
ic = 45°, n21 = ?
Critical angle formula: n21 = sin ic

Refractive index of the medium is 1.414

2. Draw a neat labelled diagram of a compound microscope and explain its working. Deduce an
expression for its magnification.
A: Compound Microscope: Compound microscope consists of two convex lenses. The lens
facing the object is called objective. The lens facing the eye is called Eyepiece.
Working: The ray diagram of compound microscope is as shown in the figure.
The object AB is outside its focus of objective.
Hence, it forms a real, inverted and magnified image A'B' just inside the focus of
eyepiece. Then the eye piece acts as a simple microscope and forms a final image A"B"
at the distance of near point (D). The final image A"B" is virtual, well magnified and
inverted.
Expression for magnification of compound Microscope: The Magnification of Compound
Microscope (M) is equal to product of magnifications of its objective (mo) and eye piece
(me)
m = mo .me …… (1)
Magnification of objective: As the image formed is real, the ratio of size of image to size
of object is magnification.

Where 'L' is distance between the foci of objective and eyepiece. As fo and fe are very
small, L can be taken as distance between the objective and the eyepiece.
Magnification of Eyepiece:
Eyepiece acts as simple microscope.

Where L is distance between objective and eyepiece.

D is distance of near point,
fo = focal length of objective and
fe = focal length of eyepiece

3. a) Using a neat labelled diagram derive the mirror equation. Derive linear magnification.
b) An object is placed at 5 cm from a convex lens of focal length 15 cm. What is the position and
nature of the image?
A: Derivation of mirror equation:
Consider a concave mirror. P is its pole. F is its Focus. C is its centre of curvature. AB is an
object infront of the mirror. A'B' is its image formed by the mirror.
PF = f = focal length of concave mirror
PB' = v = image distance
PB = u = object distance

In figure, the triangles A’BF, MPF are similar triangles. Hence the ratio of their corresponding side will be
equal

The triangles A'B'P, ABP are also similar triangles. Hence, the ratio of their corresponding sides
will be equal.

From sign convention distances from P against the direction of incident light are negative.
B'P = -v, FP = -f, BP = -u
Putting these in equation (3), we get

This is called mirror formula

Linear Maginfication: The ratio of height of the image (h') to height of the object (h) is called
linear Magnification (m).
h'
i.e., m=
h
−v
In the case of mirror m=
u

(b)
A: u = -5 cm ; f = +15 cm, v = ?

The nature of image is virtual because of (-) sign of v.

4. Obtain an expression for the combined focal length for two this convex lenses kept in contact
& hence obtain an expression for the combined power of the combination of the lenses?
A: Combined Focal Length of two thin lenses in contact

Consider two thin convex lenses A, B kept in contact. Their focal lengths are f1, f2 respectively.
O is the point object. For our convenience, if only lens A is there, the image of O could be I1.
Now I1 acts as virtual object for the lens B which forms the image I. Object distance is u. Image
distance of I is v and image distance of I1 is v1
Applying thin less formula to the first lens A, we get
1 1 1
− = …………….(1)
V1 u f 1
This is the equation for combined focal length (f), of two thin convex lenses kept in contact.
Expression for combined power:
As per the definition of power of a lens,

P = P1 + P2
This is expression for combined power (P) of two thin convex lenses of powers (P1, P2) kept in
contact.

Short Answer type Questions

1. Define critical angle. Explain total internal reflection using a neat diagram.
A: Critical Angle: When a light ray is passing from denser medium to rarer medium, the angle of
incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction becomes 90° in rarer.
Equation for critical angle is
sin ic = n21
Where n21 = refractive index of the denser medium with respect to rarer medium.

Total Internal Reflection: When a light ray is passing from denser medium to rarer medium if the
angle of incidence is greater than its critical angle (i > ic), it gets reflected into the same denser
medium without any refraction. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
In figure, total internal reflection taken place at the point O4.
An optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection.
2. With a neat labelled diagram explain the formation of image in a simple microscope.
A: Simple Microscope: A simple Microscope consists of only one convex lens of small focal
length. It is also called as magnifying glass.

In this the object is placed between the principal focus F and the optic centre of the convex lens.
Formation of image can be explained by two ray diagram. The light ray coming from the object
parallel to principal axis refracts at lens and passes through second principal focus F'. Another
light ray from the object passes through the optic centre of the lens undeviated. These two rays
meet on the back side of the object to form the image. Hence, the image formed is virtual, erect
and magnified as shown in the figure. The closest comfortable distance for viewing the image is
the distance of the near point D = 25 cm.

3. Explain the formation of a mirage.

A: Mirage: An optical phenomenon in which light rays are bent to produce a displaced image of
distant object is called mirage.
Mirages are formed due to total internal reflection of light at air of less density in lower levels on
hot summer days. When the ground is too hot, the air in lower levels gets heated and its density
decreases. As a result, its refractive index and optical density decreases. That means, on hot
summer days, rarer medium (air of less refractive index) is formed at lower levels and denser
medium (air of higher refractive index) remains at higher levels. Now the light rays coming from
denser medium to rarer medium and satisfy the condition, i > ic and hence total internal
reflection takes place. As a result an observer gets an impression that reflection of distant
objects is occurring due to presence of water. But water will not be there. It is an optical illusion
called mirage.

4. Explain the cartesian sign convention for mirrors

A: Cartesian sign convention: The following cartesian sign convention is used for measuring
various distances in the ray diagrams of spherical mirrors:
1) Object is always placed to the left of mirror.
2) All distnaces are measured from the pole of the mirror.
3) Distances measured in the direction opposite to that of the incident ray are negative.
4) Distances measured along Y-axis above the principal axis below the principal axis are
negative.

Define focal length of a concave mirror. Prove that the radius of curvature of a concave mirror is
double its focal length.
A: Focal Length (f): The distance between the focus F and the pole P of the concave mirror is
called focal length (f) of the concave mirror.

To Show that R = 2f for concave mirror:

Consider a concave mirror of pole P, focus F and centre of curvature C. When a light ray
parallel to its principal axis is incident at M, the reflected ray passes through its focus F. The line
joining M and C is normal to the mirror at M.

The perpendicular drawn from M on to principal axis is MD.

MD
Then in triangle CMD, tanθ=
CD
 MD
And in triangle PMD, tan2 θ=
FD
As θ is very small,
tan θ = θ and tan 2θ = 2θ
MD
then, θ= or CD=2FD
CD
As D is very close top,
DC = PC = R = Radius of curvature
and DF = PF = f = Focal length
Radius of curvature = 2 Focal length
R
or R=2 f or f =
2

6. Explain the formation of rainbow

A: Rainbow: The multicoloured arc that appears in the sky, opposite to sun on a rainy day is
called rainbow. Rainbow is the combined effect of dispersion, refraction and total internal
reflection of sunlight by spherical water droplets of rain in atmosphere. The water drops in
atmosphere acts as small prisms and cause dispersion and total internal reflection of sunlight to
form rainbow.
The primary rainbow is a 3 step process:
1) Sunlight is first refracted as it enters a raindrop, which causes different colours.
2) These refracted rays strike the inner surface of the drop and get internally reflected because
their angle of incidence (i) is greater its critical angle (ic).
3) These internally reflected rays again get refracted at the opposite surface and come out.
As Red is less deviated, red from upper level drops comes straight to observer and appears on
top. As violet is deviated more, it comes from lower level drops and appears at bottom.
The secondary rainbow is also formed due to double internal reflection of sunlight in the rain
drops. This appears faint and the colours in it will be in reverse order.
Why does the setting sun appear Red?

A: Sunset appears Red: Sunlight passes through the atmosphere before it reaches us. Sun light
is composed of seven colours (VIBGYOR). In the evenings, when the sun is near the horizon,
the rays have to travel longer path in the atmosphere to reach us. The dust, smoke and water
vapour present in the atmosphere scatter away these colours differently depending on their
wavelengths. Scattering is more if wavelength is less. As red has longer wavelength, it scatters
less. Thus red comes to us straight while other colours get scattered into space. That is why,
setting sun appeared red.
Very Short Answer type Questions
1. Define focal length and radius of curvature of a concave lens.
A: Focal Length (f): The distance between the optic centre of concave lens and its principal
focus (f) is called focal length (f) of the concave lens.
Radius of curvature(R): The linear distance between pole and centre of curvature is called
radius of curvature.

2. What is optical density and how is it different from mass density?

A: Optical density: The property of a medium to slow down the speed of light is called optical
density. A medium of heigher refractive index has more optical density. Water is denser
compared to air (rarer).
Mass density: Mass per unit volume of a substance is called mass density. There is no direct
relation between mass density and optical density. A medium of less mass density may have
less or more optical density.
3. Define 'Power' of a convex lens. What is its units?
A: Power of convex lens: The tangent of angle by which a convex lens converges a beam of
light, of unit breadth at its optic centre, to its focus is called power of the convex lens (P).
Power of a lens is equal to reciprocal of its focal length (f).
1
P= Unit: The SI unit of power of a lens is Dioptre. Its symbol is D.
f

4. A small angled prism of 4° deviates a ray through 2.48°. Find the refractive index of the
prism.
A: A = 4°, Dm = 2.48, n21 = ?
Formula: For a thin angled Prism,
Dm = (n21 - 1)A
2.48 = (n21 - 1) 4
n21 = 1.62
5. What is 'dispersion'? Which colour gets relatively more dispersed?
A: When a composite beam of light passes through a prism, it splits up into its constituent
colours. This phenomenon is called dispersion of light. Dispersion of white light gives VIBGYOR
colours. The violet colour with less wavelength disperses (deviates) more

6. What is myopia? How can it be corrected?

A: Myopia or near sightedness: The optical defect of human eye in which the light from a distant
object is converged to a point in front of the retina and not on to the retina is called myopia or
near sightedness. It is caused due to too much convergence of light rays by the eye lens.
 7. What is hypermetropia? How can it be corrected?
A: Hypermetropia (or) Farsightedness: The optical defect of human eye in which the incoming
light from an object is converged to a point behind the retina and not on to the retina is called
hypermetropia or farsightedness. It is cause due to less convergence of light rays by the lens.

CHAPTER-3: WAVE OPTICS

"Light + Light" need not always give more light, but may in certain circumstances give
'darkness'. - Max Born
Light when passed through a pinhole it will have particle nature. The same light when
passed through two pinholes of same nature adjacent to each other it will have wave nature.
Does it mean the Light knows whether it is passing through a single pinhole or two holes even
before it passes through them? Does it mean that Light possesses consciousness?

Interference of Light
Young Double slit experiment:
Light passing through a pinhole passes through an arrangement of two pinholes similar in
all respects kept at certain distance from the source when caught on a screen the Light on the
screen instead of having same intensity, form dark and bright bands. Here the light from one
hole is interfering with that of the other and the phenomenon is called 'Interference'. This crucial
experiment was done by Thomas Young.

Young's Double Slit Experiment

* The phenomenon of Interference could not be explained by Newton's Corpuscular theory.
* The property of interference can be exhibited only by 'Waves'. So, Christian Huygens confirmed that
Light propagates only as a wave and proposed 'Wave theory of Light'.
* Interference of Light waves is the modification of Light intensity due to the superposition of two or
more coherent Light waves.
* Two waves are said to be 'coherent' if they are in phase with each other or have a phase difference that
remains constant with time.
 Let the amplitude of each wave is 'a' and 'δ' be the phase difference between them by the time t, they
reach the screen.
* If y1, y2 are the displacements of the waves after a time t then y1 = a sin ωt and
y2 = a sin (ωt + δ) where ω is the angular frequency of the waves.
* If these two waves superimpose interfere the resultant amplitude.
y = y1 + y2 = a sin ωt + a sin (ωt + δ)
* It can be proved y = R sin (ωt + δ) where R is the amplitude due to interference.
R=a √ 2(1+cosδ)* Since the intensity of light (I) is equal to the square of the amplitude

( δ
2 ) δ
I =2 a2 2 cos 2 =4 a2 cos 2 Special cases
2
1. If δ = 0, 2Π, 2(2Π), .... n(2Π)
Intensity of light I = 4 a2 [cos2( 0/2 )] = 4 a2
Intensity of Light will be maximum. Bright bands will form.
2. If δ = Π, 3Π, 5Π ....., (2n + 1)Π
Intensity of light I = 4 a2 [cos2 Π/2 ] = 0
Intensity of light will be zero and dark bands will form
Dλ
* Band width β= where D is the distance between the coherent sources (slits) and the screen
d
λ - wave length of light d - distance between the slits.
Applications
1. The wavelength of monochromatic light can be determined.
2. The difference in wavelength between two closely placed spectral lines can be found.
3. The refractive indices of liquids and gases can be determined accurately.
4. Whether the outer surfaces of objects are perfectly smooth and plane can be determined.
5. The refractivity of prisms and lenses can be found.
6. Thickness of transparent substances like thin glass plates can be determined. Just before sunrise, if the
mountains in east obstruct the sun, and we can observe at the edges of the mountains a bright silvery
glow.

Diffraction of Light
Will light rays bend?
* Just before sunrise, if the mountains in east obstruct the sun, and we can observe at the edges of the
mountains a bright silvery glow.
* If the fingers of a hand are kept closely and observe a far off light source through the narrow gaps
between the fingers, we can observe thin lines of light in the forms of bands.
* If light rays are passed through a pinhole or a narrow slit or a sharp edge like a razor blade, in the dark
zones of their shadows dark and bright fringes can be seen.
* It means whenever light is made to pass at the edges of sharp objects, it will bend and spreads through
certain extent in their shadows. This spreading or bending of light around the edges of obstacles is called
the phenomenon of 'Diffraction'.
* Diffraction can be explained only by a wave theory. Diffraction occurs as a result of the superposition of
secondary wavelets from a continuous section of a wave front that has been limited by an aperture or
opaque obstacle.
Condition for diffraction of Light
 2
b
The condition for observing diffraction of light waves by an obstacle or an aperture or a slit is L=
4λ
Where 'L' is the distance between the obstacle and the screen where the diffraction effects can be
observed , λ is the wavelength of light and 'b' is the size of the obstacle.

Explanation: Hyugens-Fresnel Principle

Let us consider a wavefront S. P is the point at which the resultant amplitude due to the wavefront is
to be found. 'dS' is the area of an element of the wave front.

→ According to Huygens- Fresnel Principle.

→ Diffraction occurs when a wavefront is partially obstructed.
→ All the points in an obstructed portion of the wavefront act like secondary sources.
→ The secondary waves from these sources are coherent.
→ The amplitude 'dA' at P due to the element 'dS' depends on the distance 'r' and the angle θ (called
obliquity) between the normal 'n' to the wavefront and the line that joins 'dS' and P.
→ The resultant amplitude 'A' at 'P' due to the whole wave front is obtained by integrating over the entire
wavefront 'S'.
A = ∫ dA
Diffraction is studied under two classes
1. Fresnel Diffraction 2. Fraunhofer Diffraction.
Fresnel Diffraction:
Here, the source and the screen are at finite distances from the diffracting aperture or obstacle.Hence
the wavefronts that fall on the diffracting aperture and those that leave it and proceed to the screen are
not plane. No lenses are required to observe Fresnel Diffraction. The light rays are not parallel.
Fraunhofer Diffraction:
Here, both the source and the screen are at infinite distances from the diffracting aperture or
obstacle. Hence, the incident and the diffracted wavefronts are plane wavefronts. This can be realised by
using convex lenses one on either side of the diffracting aperture or obstacle.
General Conditions:
Let 'L' be the distance between the screen and the obstacle, 'b' is the size of the obstacle and 'λ' is the
wavelength of the light.
2
b
* if < < 1, Fraunhofer diffraction can be observed
4λ
2
b
* if = 1, Fresnel diffraction can be observed
4λ
 2
b
*If > ¿1 , Geometrical optics approximations hold good
4λ

Applications of diffraction
* Diffraction gratings (multiple slits) are used to determine the wavelength of light.
* X - ray diffraction methods are used to find the wavelength of X - rays.
* The structure of crystals are determined by diffraction techniques involving X - rays, electrons and
neutrons.
* In medical diagnosis, diffraction of ultrasonic waves is used to determine the size and shape of ulcers
and tumours.
* Diffraction of ultrasonic waves is used to find the velocity of sound waves in organic and inorganic
liquids.
Polarization
Waves are of two types. 1. Longitudinal waves 2. Transverse waves.
Interference and diffraction established that light is a wave but these phenomenon have not shown which
type of waves are light waves.
Earlier, Huygens assumed the light waves are longitudinal nature, but the phenomenon of 'Polarization'
exhibited by light later, established that it is a transverse wave. This fact is established by the following
experiment.
Experiment

In this experiment light from a source (S) is made to incident on tourmaline crystal T1 which is cut parallel
to its principal axis. Now light passes through the crystal and falls on the screen with certain intensity.
Now even if S is rotated in its place there will not be any change in the intensity of light emerging out of
the crystal. Now if another tourmaline crystal T2 similar to T1 placed parallel to T1. Certain facts will be
revealed if the following observations are made
* If both crystals are rotated at a time through equal extent, both their axes will be parallel to each other.
There will not be any change in the intensity of emerging light.
* If T1 is kept vertically and without moving it if T2 is rotated, the intensity of emerging light will
gradually decrease. If T1 and T2 are mutually perpendicular no light is emitted i.e., intensity of light will be
zero. If T2 is further rotated, light emerges from it once again and it reaches its maximum intensity when
T1 and T2 are parallel to each other.
* This experiment confirms that light wave is a 'Transverse wave'.
* Light rays emerging from the source of light will be vibrating randomly in all directions.
The above experiment shows that Light waves after passing through T1 are travelling in a single
direction which means the other components are completely destroyed.
* The light wave having vibrations in all directions after passing through tourmaline crystal having
vibration only in a single direction is called 'Polarization'. Polarization occurs because of vibrations in a
single direction.
* The plane in which light vibrations are absent is called 'polarising plane'.
* The plane where light vibrations occur is called 'vibrating plane'.
* Plane polarization can be produced by i) reflection ii) refraction and iii) double refraction.

Double refraction
A Scientist by name Enasmus-Bartholinus observed two refracted rays instead of one when light is
passed through a calcite crystal.
* If an ink mark is made on a paper over which a calcite crystal is kept and observed vertically, two
refracted images of the ink mark are seen. Now if the crystal is rotated slowly in its place, one of the
images will be stationary which is called 'Ordinary image' and the second image rotates along with the
crystal. This is called 'extra ordinary image'.
* The light rays associated with ordinary image obey 'Laws of refraction'. Refractive index remains
constant.
* The light rays associated with extraordinary image will not obey 'Laws of refraction'.
The value of refractive index will not be constant and it will be changing with angle of incidence..

Polariods
→ The polarizing materials which are made artificially are called 'Polaroids'This is a commercial name.
→ Polaroid's are used to produce 'Polarization of light' and also to analyse Polarized light.
→ Polaroid's are used in 3D-Cinemas, Polarized Spectacles. These eye glasses will decrease the intensity of
sun light and protect the eyes.
→ Polarized light is used to measure optical rotation in Glucose solution, and to study helical structure in
nucleic acids.
→ Polarized light is used to find structure of atoms, their size and shape in matter.

Chapter-3: Wave Optics

Questions – Answers

Short Answer Questions:

1. Explain how plane polarized light is obtained by reflection?
A: (1) All the light vectors vibrating in different directions of an unpolarized light can be grouped into two
mutually perpendicular components.
i) Vibrations parallel to the plane of the paper called arrow (↔) components.
(ii) Vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the paper called dot (.) components.
The ordinary light (unpolarized light) is represented by showing arrows and dots simaltaneously.
(2) In fig. an unpolarized light AB falls on transparent medium like glass. The reflected ray consists of dot
components only.

The vibrations of light vectors are perpendicular to plane of incidence. The amount of polarized light
depends on angle of incidence i.
(3) For a particular angle i the reflected light is completely polarized. This angle is known as Brewster's
angle. At Brewsters angle reflected ray and refracted ray are mutually perpendicular. The relation between
refractive index µ and Brewster angle is µ = tan i.
When light falls on a transparent medium with Brewsters angle then we will get polarized light by
reflection.

2. Explain double refraction (Birefringence) of light.

A: Double refraction: When light passes through quartz or calcite. Crystal the refracted ray is divided into
two parts called ordinary ray and extraordinary ray. Both the rays are plane polarized. Their plane of
vibrations are perpendicular to each other.

r1 = Angle of refraction for ordinary ray r2 = Angle of refraction for extraordinary ray
1) Ordinary ray: The light ray which follows Snell's law is called ordinary ray. For this ray refractive index µ
and velocity of light is same through out that medium. Secondary wavefront of ordinary ray is spherical.
2) Extraordinary ray: The light ray which does not obey Snell's law is called extraordinary ray. For this ray
refractive index and velocity changes with direction. It does not follow Snell's law. Extraordinary ray will
have different refractive indices depending on direction of travel or angle of incidence. The secondary
wavefront of extraordinary ray is ellipsodial. Along the optical axis of the crystal the e-ray and o-ray have
same speed.
When a calcite or quartz crystal is rotated then the image formed by extraordinary ray will rotate around
the image formed by ordinary ray.

3. Mention some applications of diffraction.

A: 1) The wavelength of light is measured accurately by using diffraction gratings. This technique can be
used for monochromatic light or for composite light.
2) Wavelength of X - rays can be accurately measured by using X - ray diffraction techniques.
3) Structure of crystalline solids can be determined by using X - ray. Electron and Neutron diffraction.
4) Velocity of sound in liquids can be estimated with the help of ultrasonic diffraction techniques.
5) Ultra sound scanning is based on diffraction of ultrasonic sound waves.

4. What are the applications of polarization of light?

A: 1) Polarized light is used to test and measure optical activity of the crystals like quartz.
2) Optical activity of organ substances like glucose solutions etc., is measured with polarized light.
3) Polarized light can be used to study the helical structure of nuclear acids.
4) Polarizing glasses reduces the intensity of light falling on the eyes and reduces the damaged or retina.

Chapter-4: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Questions – Answers

Very Short Answer type Questions

1. What is meant by the statement "charge is quantized?"
A: The minimum charge that can be transferred from one body to another is equal to
charge of an electron. So, the charge always exists as an integral multiple of charge of
electron i.e. Q = ± ne. Then charge is said to be quantized.
Where n = 1, 2, 3, .....; e = 1.6 × 10-19 C .

2. Repulsion is sure test of charging than attraction. Why?

A: A charged body can attract opposite charged body and a uncharged body (or neutral
body). But repulsion exists only between two like charges. Hence repulsion is sure test
than attraction.

3. How many electrons constitute 1 C of charge?

A: Charge q = ± ne
1 C = ± n(1.6 × 10−19)

4. What happens to the weight of a body when it is charged positively?

A: When a body is positively charged it loses electrons, hence its weight decreases.

5. What happens to the force between two charges, if the distance between them is (a)
halved (b) doubled.
 (ii) If d2 = 2d1

i.e. distance is doubled force is decreased by four times.

6. The electric line of force do not intersect. Why?

A: The electric line of force do not intersect. If they intersect, the intersecting point
should have field in two directions, which is not possible.

7. Consider two charges +q and -q placed at B and C of an equilateral triangle ABC. For
this system total charge is zero. But electric field at A, which is equidistant from B and C
is not zero. Why?
A: Charge is a scalar, total charge Q = -q + q = 0. But electric field intensity is a vector.
So, they must be add up vectorially at given point. Thus intensity is non zero.
8. Electrostatic field lines do not form closed loops. If they form closed loops then work
done in moving charge along a closed path will not be zero. In above cases can you
guess the nature of electrostatic force?
A: The electrostatic force is a conservative force.

9. State Gauss Law.

1
A: Total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to times the charge
ϵ0
enclosed by the surface.
 1
ϕ total= (q)
ϵ0

10. When is electric flux negative and when it is positive?

11. Write the expression for electric intensity due to infinite long charge wire at radial
distance 'r' from the wire.

12. Write the expression for electric intensity due to an infinite plane sheet of charge?
σ
Ans. E= where σ is surface charge density
2 ϵ0
13. Write the expression for electric intensity due to a charged conducting spherical
shell at points outside and inside the shell.

Short Answer type Questions (SAQ)

1. State and explain Coulomb's inverse square law in electricity.
A: The force of attraction of repulsion between two stationary charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. Force acts along the line joining the two
charges.
 The electrostatic force between two charges depends on the nature of the medium
between them.

2. Define intensity of electric field at a point. Derive an expression for the intensity due
to a point charge.
A: The force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at a point in the electric field
is called intensity of electric field.

Consider a point charge 'q' is placed at a point 'O', be the electric field strength at point
P, is at a distance of 'r' from 'O'. A test charge q0 is placed at point 'P', then force acting
on charge q0 due to q is
 Where r^ is unit vector along OP . Due to positive charge field is away from it. Due to
negative charge field is towards it, field is non-uniform.

3. Derive an equation for the couple acting in a uniform electric field.

A: Consider a dipole of moment 'p' in a uniform electric field E, situated at an angle 'θ'
with the field. A positive charge 'q' experiences a force qE in the direction of field and
negative charge experiences equal force qE, but in opposite direction.
Thus net force on dipole is zero. These forces constitute a couple. They will produce
torque on the dipole.

Torque τ = Force × Perpendicular distance

= (qE) (2a sin θ)
= (q × 2a) E sin θ
= pE sin θ ( p = q × 2a)
τ =P × E

Direction of torque is normal to the plane of the paper.

τ max = pE ( ∵ θ = 90°)
4. Derive an expression for the intensity of the electric field at a point on the axial line of
an electric dipole.
A: Consider an electric dipole with charges q, - q with separation 2a between them. Let
P be a point on the axial line at a distance 'r' from the centre of dipole.
The intensity of electric field at point 'P' is Eaxial = E+q + E−q .
Electric field intensity due to +q, -q at point P is

5. Derive an expression for the intensity of electric field at a point on the equitorial plane of the
electric dipole.
A: Consider an electric dipole with charges -q, +q with a separation '2a' between them. Consider
a point 'P' at a distance 'r' from centre. Electric field due to +q at P is

Electric field due to -q at P is

6. State Gauss's Law in electric field and explain its importance.
1
A: Gauss's Law: Total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to times net
ϵ0
charge enclosed by the surface.

Importance:
* Using Gauss's law we can find field due to a distribution of charge.
* It is used to calculate electrostatic field when the system has symmetry.

Long Answer type Questions

1. Define electric flux. Applying Gauss's Law and derive the expression for electric
intensity due to an infinite long straight charged wire. (Assume that electric field is every
where radial and depends only on the radial distance r of the point from the wire).
A: Electric flux: The number of electric line of force passing through the given area and
perpendicular to the surface is called electric flux (φ).
Let us consider an infinitely long thin straight wire, having uniform linear charge density
(λ).
Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface ABCD of length 'l' and radial distance 'r' with its
axis coinciding with the charged wire.
Its direction will be radially outwards if λ is positive.
Its direction will be radially inwards if λ is negative.
Let us consider Gaussian surface PQRS in the form of a horizontal cylinder

3. Applying Gauss's Law derive the expression for electric intensity due to a charged
conducting spherical shell at (i) a point outside the shell (ii) a point on the surface of the
shell (iii) a point inside the shell.
A: Consider a charged spherical shell of radius R and of uniform charge density σ.

(i) Field outside the shell:

Consider a spherical Gaussian surface around the conductor of a distance of 'r' from
the centre. Let 'P' be a point on the Gaussian surface. Flux through the
ii) Field at a point on the shell:
If the point 'P' lies on the spherical shell r = R

(iii) Field at a point inside the shell:

If point 'P' lies inside the shell with centre as '0'. Flux through this surface is
 The field inside a uniformly charged shell at all points inside is zero.

Chapter-5: ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Electric charges and fields

Questions – Answers

Very Short Answer type Questions

1. Can there be electric potential at a point with zero electric intensity? Give an example.
A: Yes, inside a charged hallow spherical conductor.

2. Can there be electric intensity at a point with zero electric potential? Give an example.
A: Yes, a point on the equitorial line of an electric dipole.

3. What are meant by equipotential surfaces?

A: An equipotential surface is a surface with constant value of potential at all points on the
surface.

4. Why is the electric field always at right angles to the equipotential surface? Explain.
A: If the electric field is not normal to the equipotential surface, then workdone in moving a
charge from one point to the other will not be zero, which is a contradiction. Thus the field is
normal to equipotential surface.

5. Three capacitances 1 µF, 2 µF, 3 µF are connected in parellel. (a) What is the ratio of
charges? (b) What is the ratio of potential differences?
A: (a) q ∝ C ⟹ q1 : q2 : q3 = C1 : C2 : C3
=1:2:3
(b) V1 : V2 : V3 = 1 : 1 : 1
In parallel combination potential (V) differences = Constant.

6. Three capacitors of capacitances 1 µF, 2 µF, 3 µF are connected in series.

(a) What is the ratio of charges?
(b) What is the ratio of potential differences?
A: In series combination charge q = constant.
(i) q1 : q2 : q3 = 1 : 1 : 1
7. What happens to the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor if the area of its plates is
doubled?

i.e. when the area is doubled, the capacity is also doubled.

8. The dielectric strength of air is 3 × 106 V/m at certain pressure. A parallel plate capacitor with
air in between the plates has a separation of 1 cm. Can you charge the capacitor to 3 × 10 6 V?
A: No, the dielectric strength of air means the maximum electric field that the medium will
withstand.
Emax = 3 × 106 V/m d = 1 cm = 10−2 m
V = Ed = 3 × 10 × 10 = 3 × 104 V
6 −2

Given V = 3 × 106

E > Emax, which is not possible.

Short Answer type Questions

1. Derive an expression for the electric potential due to a point charge.
A: Consider a point charge q at 'O'. Let us consider a point 'P' at a distance 'r' from 'O'. Let a unit
positive charge is placed at a point 'Q' at a distance 'x' from 'O'. The electric field is along the
direction OQ . The force on unit positive charge is

The amount of workdone to move a unit positive test charge from Q to P through small distance
dx against the field direction is dW = −F dx ………(2)
Total workdone in moving a unit positive test charge from infinity to point 'P' is
3. Derive an expression for the potential energy of an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric
field?
A: Consider a dipole with charges q1 = +q, q2 = −q placed in a uniform electric field. The dipole
experiences torque.

Let 'dW' be the small amount of workdone in rotating the dipole through dθ without any angular
acceleration.
dW =~¿ dθ
dW = pE sin θ dθ
Total workdone to deflect from θ1 to θ2 is
This workdone is stored as potential energy in the dipole. If the dipole is initially parallel
to E and turned through an angle 'θ', the workdone is
W = pE(cos 0° − cos θ)
W = pE(1 − cos θ)
The pE of the dipole in this displaced position is
U = U0 + W = −pE + pE − pE cos θ
= − pE cosθ

4. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

A: A parallel plate capacitor consists of two conducting metal plates P1, P2 each of area
A. The two plates kept close to each other at a distance 'd' and parallel to each other.
Let +σ , −σ be the surface charge densities of two plates, P1, P2 respectively. The
electric field in between the two plates will be
Where C0 is the capacitance without dielectric.
C is the capacitance with dielectric.
k is dielectric constant.

5. Explain the behaviour of dielectric in an external field.

A: The material which does not allow the charge carriers to pass through them are
called dielectrics or insulators.
e.g.: Water, wood, air, mica etc.
All dielectrics are of two types. 1) Non - polar dielectrics
2) polar dielectrics.
Non - Polar Dielectrics: In these dieletrics positive charge centre coincides with negative
charge centre in the absence of electric field. So, the net dipole moment of molecule is
zero.
e.g.: O2 molecule. Such dielectric is placed in an external electric field 0, the positive
charge centre will be displaced in the direction of the field and negative charge centre
will be displaced opposite to the field. Now each molecule is said to be polarized.

Polar Dielectrics: In case of polarised dielectrics, all positive charge centres and
negative charge centres are separated. So, they will develop resultant dipole moment.
In the absence of external electric field these dipole moments are random and resultant
dipole moment is zero. When they are placed in external electric field the resultant
dipole moment exists. Dipole moment per unit volume is called Polarisation.
P = χ E , χ = Susceptibility.
Long Answer type Questions
1. Define electric potential. Derive an expression for the electric potential due to an
electric dipole and hence the electric potential at a point (i) on the axial line of electric
dipole (ii) on the equitorial line of electric dipole.
A: Electric Potential: The amount of workdone by the external force in bringing a charge
from infinity to a point is called electric potential.
Electric Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges (+q, −q) are separated by a distance
(say 2a) is called electric dipole.
Potential due to a dipole: Consider an electric dipole with charges −q, +q are separated
by a distance of 2a. Let 'P' be a point at a distance of 'r' from centre of dipole. Join qP,
−qP and OP. The line OP makes an angle θ with the axis of dipole.

Potential at any point on the axial line:

At any point on the axial line V =V 1+V 2

Potential at a point on the equitorial line:
At any point on the equitorial line = V1 + V2
2. Explain series and parallel combination of capacitors. Derive the formula for
equivalent capacitance in each combination.
A: Capacitors in series: If a number of capacitors are connected in such a way that the
charge on the plates every capacitor is same. Such combination is known as series
combination.
Let C1, C2, C3 be the capacitances of three capacitors are connected in series.
Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential differences across C1, C2, C3 respectively. Then
potential difference across the combination is
V = V1 + V2 + V3

Capacitors in parellel:
If a number of capacitors are connected in such a way that the P.D. between the plates
of everyone of them is same, then the capacitors are said to be connected in parallel.
Let C1, C2, C3 are three capacitors connected in parallel. Potential difference across
them is equal to V. Let q1, q2 and q3 be charges on plates of capacitors C1, C2, C3
respectively.
q = q1 + q2 + q3
CV = C1V + C2V + C3V
C = C1 + C2 + C3
If C1 = C2 = C3 then Cp = 3C

3. Derive an expression for the energy stored in a capacitor. What is the energy stored
when the space between the plates is filled with a dielectric
a) with charging battery disconnected?
b) with charging battery connected in the circuit?
A: When a capacitor is charged, workdone in charging will be stored in the form of
electrostatic potential energy. Let q be the charge on plates of capacitor and 'V' be the
potential difference between plates. The workdone 'dW' in charging the capacitor with
an additional charge is
dW = V dq.
a)When battery is disconnected, charge remains constant, but capacity increases

The energy stored will be decreased by 'k' times.

b) When charging battery remain connected the potential difference acorss the capacitor
remains same, but capacity and charge increases.

i.e., the energy stored will be increased by k times.

Chapter -6: CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Questions – Answers

Very Short Answer type Questions

1. Define mean free path of electron in a conductor.
A: Mean free path of electron: The average distance covered by an electron between two
successive collisions is called the mean free path.

2. State Ohm's law and write its mathematical form.

A: Ohm's law: At constant temperature, the electric current flows through a conductor is
proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
V = iR

3. Define resistivity or specific resistance.

A: Resistivity or Specific Resistance: Resistance of a conductor of unit length (1 m) and of unit
area of cross section (1 m2) is called resistivity (ρ) of material of the conductor.
RA
ρ=
l
Its SI unit is Ω m.
4. Define temperature co - efficient of resistance.
A: Temperature co - efficient of resistance: The ratio between the change of resistance of a
conductor per unit rise of temperature and its initial resistance is called temperature co - efficient
of resistance (α) of the conductor.
RT = R0 [1 + α (T - T0)]
The SI unit of temperature co - efficient of resistance is K-1.

5. Why is manganin used for making standard resistors?

A: For manganin, temperature co - efficient of resistance (α) is very very less. So change in
resistance of the manganin wire with temperature is almost negligible. So it is used to prepare
standard resistance.

6. Write the colour code of a carbon resistor of resistance 23 Kilo Ohms.

A: Red stands for 2, Orange stands for 3.
23 Kilo Ohms = 23 × 103 Ohms
7. Why are household appliances connected in parallel?
A: Advantages of parallel connection:
1) Different appliances can take different currents depending on their resistances.
2) If one of the appliances fails or burns out, other appliances work as usual. If the appliances
are connected in series, same current flows through all of them.
If one of them burns out, others won't work. That is why, household appliances are connected in
parallel only.

8. Derive an expression for the effective resistance when three resistors are connected in (i)
series ii) parallel.
A: Resistors in Series:

When resistors are connected end to end such that same current passes through them, they are
said to be connected in series. Let us suppose that three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3
are connected in series as shown in the diagram. Same current I passes through them.
From Ohm's Law:
Potential drop across R1 is V1 = IR1
Potential drop across R2 is V2 = IR2
Potential drop across R3 is V3 = IR3
Total potential drop across the combination is V = V1 + V2 + V3 or V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
If the combination acts as a resistor of equivalent resistance R with current I.
V = IR
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
or R = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in parallel:
When resistors are connected end to end such that same potential drop is formed on
them, they are said to be connected in parallel.
Let us suppose that three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in
parallel as shown in the diagram. Some potential drop V exists on each of them.
From Ohm's law:

9. State Kirchoff's laws for an electrical network. Using these laws deduce the condition
for balance in a Wheatstone bridge.
A: Kirchoff's Rules:
Junction Rule: At any junction in an electric circuit, the sum of currents entering the
junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the junction.
Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving
resistors and cells in the loop is zero.
Wheatstone's Bridge:
The circuit shown in the figure is called Wheatstone's bridge. It has four resistors R1, R2, R3 and
R4. AC is battery arm, BD is galvanometer arm. The galvanometer G detects current.
If the resistors are adjusted such that the galvanometer current Ig = 0, the bridge is said to be
balanced.
Applying Kirchoff's junction rule at D, we get
I1 = I3 ...................... (1)
Applying Kirchoff's junction rule at B, we get
I2 = I4 ...................... (2)
Applying Kirchoff's loop rule to closed loop ADBA, we get
- I1 R + 0 + I2R2 = 0
I 1 R2
or = ………..(3)
I 2 R1
Applying Kirchoff's loop rule to closed loop CBDC, we get
I4R4 + 0 - I3R3 = 0
But I1 = I3 & I2 = I4
I2R4 - I1R3 = 0
I 1 R4
or = ………..(4)
I 2 R3
Equating the RHS of equation (3) and (4), we get
R2 R4
= ………..(3)
R1 R3

This is the balance condition of Wheatstone's bridge to make Ig = 0

10. Show the variation of current versus voltage graph for (GaAs) and mark the (i) Non - linear
region (ii) Negative resistance region.
A: The current voltage graph of a semi conductor like Gallium - Arsenide (GaAs) is as shown in
the figure. When voltage increases, current in it varies peculiarly.
i) In lower part of the voltage change current increases but not propartionally. This is called non -
linear region.
ii) In later part if voltage increases, current decreases. This is called negative resistance region.

Long Answer type Questions

1. State the working principle of potentiometer. Explain with the help of circuit diagram how the
e.m.f. of two primary cells are compared by using the potentiometer.
A: Potentiometer: Potentiometer is a device used to measure emf of a cell without drawing any
current from it.
Construction: Potentiometer consist of a wooden board on a uniform manganin wire of length 4
m is fixed in parallel rows between two binding screws A and C by the side of a meter scale. A
jockey is also provided with it to make a contact at any point of the wire.
Principle: The potential drop between the starting point and any point of the wire is directly
proportional to the length l of the wire between the two points.
ε = φl
Where φ is potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire.
Comparison of emfs of two cells: The primary circuit consists of a battery B, a rheostat Rh, a
plug key K1. Rh can be adjusted to provide a constant current to the potentiometer wire. The
secondary circuit of the consist of two way key, two cells (ε1, ε2) and a galvanometer G as
shown in the diagram.

First the key K1 is closed to give a current to potentiometer wire. The cell ε1 is included in the
circuit by connecting 1 and 3 of the two way key.
ε=φl
Where φ is potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire.
Potentiometer experiment to determine internal Resistance of a Cell: The primary circuit
provides constant current (I) to the potentiometer wire. The secondary circuit of the
potentiometer is as shown in the diagram.
First the key K1 is closed. Keeping K2 open the position of the jockey is adjusted until the
galvanometer shows null deflection. Its balancing length l1 of the wire is noted. Now the key K2
is closed to include R in the circuit.
Again the position of the jockey is adjusted for null deflection of the galvanometer. Balancing
length of the wire l2 is noted.
In the first case, the cell is in the circuit,
ε = φl1 .................... (1)
Where φ is potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire.
The balancing length l1 of the wire is found by adjusting position of its jockey for null deflection
of the galvanometer G.
ε1 = φl1 .................... (1)
Now 2, 3 are connected to do the experiment with cell ε2. Its balancing length l2 is noted.
ε2 = φl2 .................... (2)
Dividing Eq (1) by Eq (2), we get
ε 1 l1
=
ε 2 l2
The emfs of the given cells can be compared by using this equation.
2. State the working principle of potentiometer. Explain with the help of circuit diagram how the
potentiometer is used to determine the internal resistance of the given primary cell.
A: Potentiometer: Potentiometer is a device used to measure emf of a cell without drawing any
current from it.
Construction: Potentiometer consists of a wooden board on which a uniform manganin wire of
length 4 m is fixed in parallel rows between two binding screws A and C by the side of a meter
scale. A jockey is also provided with it to make a contact at any point of the wire. The potential
drop between the starting point and any point of the principle: wire is directly proportional to the
length l of the wire between two points.
ε = φl1 .................... (1)
In the second case, R is in parallel to the cell. The terminal voltage is given by
V = φl2 .................... (2)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2)
Internal resistance r can be calculated from this formula.
3. In a house three bulbs of 100 W each are lighted for 4 hours daily and six tube lights of 20 W
each are lighted for 5 hours daily and a refrigerator of 400 W has worked for 10 hours daily for a
month of 30 days. Calculate the electricity bill if the cost of one unit is Rs. 4.00
A: Work in KWH = Power in KW × Time in hours

W = 30[1.2 + 0.6 + 4] KWH

W = 30 × 5.8 KWH
W = 174 KWH
Electricity Bill = W in KWH × cost per unit = 174 × 4.00 = Rs. 696

Chapter-7: MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

Questions – Answers

In this chapter, we will study the effect of magnetic field on moving charges, how the
particles can be accelerated to very high energies in cyclotron and how currents and
voltages are detected by a galvanometer. Based on BIE model paper this chapter has a
weightage of (2 + 8) marks, (2 + 4 + 4) marks.

2 Marks Questions
1. State Ampere's law and Biot-Savart law.
A: Ampere's Law: Total magnetic flux coming out of a current carrying conductor
enclosed in a perpendicular plane is μ0 times the algebraic sum of currents enclosed by
all the conductors in that plane.

Biot - Savart's Law: Magnetic induction (dB) at a point due to an element of current at
any point 'r' from the conductor is
2. A circular coil of radius 'r' having N turns carries a current i. What is its magnetic
moment?
A: Magnetic induction at the centre of the coil

M is called Magnetic moment

3. What is the force on a conductor of length L, carrying current i placed in a magnetic

field of induction B? When does it becomes maximum?
A: Force on a conductor in a magnetic field is F = Bil sinθ
θ is angle between length of the conductor (L) and magnetic field direction ( B). Force is
maximum when θ = 90º. i.e. Fmax = Bil

4. A current carrying circular loop is placed in a uniform external magnetic field, if the
loop is free to turn, what is its orientation when it achieves stable equilibrium?
A: The loop achieves stable equilibrium when torque τ = 0. i.e.
i.e. τ =M × B=0
Magnetic moment (M) and magnetic field (B) are parallel to each other, then loop exists
in stable equilibrium.

4 Marks Questions
1. Derive an expression for the magnetic induction at a point on the axis of a current
carrying circular coil using Biot - Savart's law.
A: Let us consider a circular loop of radius R carrying a current I. Let P is a point on its
axis at a distance of x from centre 'O'. The magnetic induction at 'P' due to an element
'dl' at a distance of 'r' from P is
2. Obtain an expression for the magnetic dipolemoment of a current loop.
A: Let us consider a rectangular loop of length 'b', breadth 'a', is placed in a uniform
magnetic field B. 'θ' is the angle between field and normal to the loop. Forces on lengths
of loop are F1 and F2.
F1 = F2 = BIb
Current passes through loop in opposite direction. So, F1 and F2 forms a couple. Total
moment of couple
Compare it with τ =P × E in case of electric dipole, then magnetic moment of current loop is M
= I A for one turn For 'n' turns M=nIA

Direction of this magnetic moment is into the plane of the paper.

4. Distinguish between Ammeter and Voltmeter.
A

Chapter – 9: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Questions – Answers

Very Short Answer type Questions

1. Define magnetic flux?
A: The total number of lines of magnetic induction crossing any closed area is known as
the magnetic flux linked with the given area.
2. State Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
A: Faraday's law: "The magnitude of the induced emf in the circuit is equal to the time
rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit".
−d ϕ B
ε=
dt
3. State Lenz's law.
A: Lenz's law: The direction of induced emf is such as to oppose the change in
magnetic flux that produces it.
4. Define Inductance.
A: Inductance is a coefficient of electromagnetic induction and is an intrinsic property of
a material just like capacitance.
5. What do you understand by 'self inductance'?
A: The strength of current passing through the coil at any time (I) the amount of
magnetic flux linked with all the turns of the coil at that time.
Therefore, self inductance of a coil is numerically equal to the amount of magnetic flux
linked with the coil when unit current flows through the coil.
6. Number of turns in a coil are 100. When a current of 5 A is flowing through the coil
the magnetic flux is 10-16 Wb. Find self inductance of the coil.

7. What did the experiments of Faraday and Henry Show?

A: Faraday arrived at the following three conclusions.
(a) The galvanometer shows deflection only when there is a relative motion between the
coil and the magnet.
(b) The direction of deflection (i.e. of induced current in the coil) is reversed if the
direction of relative motion between the coil and the magnet is reversed.
(c) The deflection in the galvanometer increases if the magnet and the coil are rapidly
moved w.r.t. each other.
8. What happens to the mechanical energy when a conductor is moved in a uniform
magnetic field?
A: The mechanical energy spent in sliding the conductor is converted into electrical
energy.
9. What are Eddy currents?
A: The induced circulating currents produced in a metal itself is due to change in
magnetic flux linked with the metal are called eddy currents. These currents were
discovered by Foucault, so they are known as Foucault currents. The direction of eddy
currents is given by Lenz's law.
Short Answer type Questions
1. Obtain an expression for the emf induced across a conductor, which is moved in a
uniform magnetic field which is perpendicular to the plane of motion.
A: Expression for induced emf:
XPQY is a thick copper strip bent into shape as shown in figure. CD is thick copper wire
resting on the arms PX and QY. The closed area is PCDQ.
The magnetic field B is perpendicular to the plane PCDQ. When the wire CD moves
with a velocity v, there is increase in area and increase in magnetic flux.

Initial area = PCDQ; final area = PC'D'Q

Length of wire = AB = l; distance moved = dx;
Time taken = dt; Velocity of wire v = dx/dt.
Change in area (dA) = PC'D'Q - PCDQ = CC'DD' = l × dx
Change in magnetic flux dφ = B (dA') = B (l × dx) = Bldx.

The -ve sign shows that the induced emf opposes the change in magnetic flux.
Numerically E = Blv.
2. Obtain an expression for the mutual inductance of two coaxial solenoids.
A: Expression for mutual inductance of two coaxial solenoids:
 Consider two coaxial solenoids A & B. A is the primary solenoid and B is the secondary
solenoid. It is assumed that there is no leakage of magnetic flux.
Total number of turns of primary solenoid = N1
Area of cross section = A, length of primary coil = l

3. Obtain an expression for the magnetic energy stored in a solenoid in terms f the magnetic
field, area and length of the solenoid.
A: Expresion for the magnetic energy stored in a solenoid:
1) Suppose the current "I" flowing through the inductor (coil) of inductance L.
This work done is stored as the energy in the magnetic field (UB).
1
∴ UB= L I 2
2
6) If the solenoid of length l and area A is placed in uniform magnetic field B, then B =
µ0nI. Where n is number of turns per unit length.

4. Describe the ways in which Eddy currents are used to advantage.

A: Eddy currents are used to take advantage in certain applications like:
a) Magnetic braking in trains: Strong electromagnets are situated above the ails in some
electrical powred trains. When the electromagnets are activated, he eddy currents
induced in the rails oppose the motion of the train. As there re no mechanical linkages,
the braking effect is smooth.
b) Electromagnetic Damping: Certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of non
magnetic metallic material. When the coil oscillates, the eddy currents enerated in the
core oppose the motion and bring the coil to rest quickly.
c) Induction furnace: It can be used to produce high temparatures and can be utilized to
prepare alloys, by melting the constituent metals. A high frequency alternating current is
passed through a coil which surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy currents
generted in the metals produce high temperature sufficient to melt it.
d) Electric power meters: The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter rotate due to
the eddy currents. Electric currents are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced
by similar varying currents in a coil. You can observe the rotating shiny disc in the
power meter of your house.
e) Dia thermy: The statement of some of the diseases lies in warning the tissues. These
tissues, which are lying deep in the body, cannot be supplied heat by ordinary methods.
In such a case, a coil is wound around the part of the body to be treated. A high
frequency (50 MHz) ac is passed through it and the heat produced due to the resulting
eddy current goes to deep into the body.
Long Answer type Questions
1. Describe the working of a AC generator with the aid of a simple diagram and
necessary expressions.
A: Alternating Current (ac) generator:
A generator is a machine used for generating electric current by converting
electromagnetic mechanical energy into electrical energy using induction. When the
current produced by a dynamo charges continuously in magnitude and periodically in
direction, several times per second, the current is known as the alternating current and
the machine which produces is called the a.c. generator.
Principle: In a closed circuit, the magnetic flux changes, an induced emf (e) is produced
which lasts for the time the flux (fB) is changing.
−d ϕ B
i .e . , ε=
dt

Construction: It consists of the following four main parts.

i) Armature: Armature abcda (also called the coil) consists of a large number of turns of
insulated copper wire wound over a soft iron core. It can revolve around an axle
between the two poles of a strong magnet.
ii) Field Magnet: The magnetic field is supplied by a permanent magnet in small
dynamos and by an electromagnet in the case of big (commercial) dynamos. The poles
of the magnet are shown as N-S in the figure.
iii) Slip rings: R1 and R2 are two hollow metal rings held at different heights. The end 'C'
of the armature coil is connected to the ring R1 . The end 'd' of the coil is passed
through R1 without touching it and is connected to R2 these rings rotate with the
rotation of the armature coil.
iv) Brushes (or) sliding contacts: B1 & B2 are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods.
These are called brushes. B1 is in constant touch with R1 & B2 is in constant touch with
R2. It is with the help of these brushes that the current is passed on from the armature
and the rings to the external circuit of resistance R. Brushes are stationary i.e. they do
not rotate with the rotation of the coil.
Working: The working of the ac generator will be clear from fig (a). As the armature coil
is rotated, the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes. Therefore, an induced emf is
developed in the armature coil. Let us suppose that the armature abcda is rotating
clockwise. So that the arm ad moves inwards and bc moves outwards. Then applying
Fleming's right hand rule, we see that the current flows in the armature as shown in
figure.
2. Outline the path -breaking experiments of Faraday and Henry and highlight of
contributions of these experiments to our understanding of electromagnetism.
A: Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux through a closed circuit, an induced emf
is setup in the circuit. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction. Faraday
and Henry conducted a series of experiments to explain the electromagnetic induction.
I. Magnetic coil experiment:
1) The circuit consists a coil C1 connected in series with a galvanometer.
2) When the N-pole of magnet is moved towards the coil C1, the galvanometer shows
deflection. The deflection shows there is current in the circuit.
3) When the N-pole of magnet comes to rest, the galvanometer shows no deflection.
4) The similar results are obtained when S-pole of a magnet is moved towards or away
from the coil C1.
5) When the N-pole of magnet is moved away from coil C1, the galvanometer shows
deflection in other direction.
6) When the magnet is moved fast, the deflection in the galvanometer is large & when it
is moved slowly the deflection is small.
7) The induced current may be also produced by moving the coil C1 to a stationary
magnet.
8) This experiment clearly demonstrate the electromagnetic induction. Whenever there
is a relative motion between magnet & coils, the magnetic flux linked with coil changes
and hence an induced current is produced due to which the galvanometer shows a
deflection.
II. Coil -Coil experiment - Current induced by current:
1) As shown in fig. coil C1 is connected with galvanometer and coil C2 is connected
with battery.
2) When the coil C2 is moved towards or away from C1, the galvanometer shows
deflection due to current is produced in coil C1.
3) When the coil C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved, the galvanometer shows deflection
due to current induced in coil C1.
4) When two coils C1 & C2 are in relative motion, that induces electric curent.
III. Coil - Coil experiment - Current induced by changing current:
1) Two coils, C1 & C2 are held stationary, Coil C1 is connected to galvanometer G and
coil C2 is connected to a battery through a tapping key K.
2) First, the battery circuit is closed by pressing the tap key K1 and then broken, the
galvanometer shows deflection in one direction and then in the other.
3) When the key K is kept pressed continuously, there is no deflection in the
galvanomter.
4) The deflection is produced in the galvanometer only at make or break of the current
in the coil C2.
PROBLEMS
1. What happens to the mechanical energy when a conductor is moved in a uniform
magnetic field?
2 2 2
B L V
A: Mechanical energy P=
r

Where B = uniform magnetic induction

l = length of conductor
v = velocity of conductor.
r = resistance of the rectangular loop
2. A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.0 cm2 placed inside
the solenoid normal to the axis. If the current carried by the solenoid changes steadily
from 2.0 A to 4.0 A in 0.1s, what is the induced emf in the loop while the current is
changing?

3. A jet plane is travelling towards west at speed of 1800 km/h. What is the voltage
difference developed between the ends of the wing having a span of 25 m, if the earth's
magnetic field at the location has a megnitude of 5 × 10-4 T and the dip angle is 30°.
km 5 −1 −1
A: there V =1800 =1800 × m s =500 m s
h 18
e = ?, l = 25 m, R = 5.0 × 10-4 T and θ = 30°
e = Blv = Vlv, where v is vertical component of the earth's field.
= (R Sin θ) lv = 5.0 × 10-4 × sin 30° × 25 × 500 = 3.1 Volt.
4. A square loop of side 10 cm & resistance 0.5 Ω is placed vertically in the east-west
plane. A uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up across the plane in the north-east
direction. The magnetic field is decreased to zero in 0.70s at a steady rate. Determine
the magnitudes of induced emf and current during this time interval.
A: The angle θ made by the area vector of the coil with the Magnetic field is 45°.

final flux, φmin = 0.

The change in flux is brought about in 0.70 s. From the magnitude of the induced emf is
given by
5. A 10 m long metallic rod is rotated with an angular frequency of 400 rad s-1 about an
axis normal to the rod passing out one end. The other end of the rod is in contact with a
circular metallic ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T parallel to the axis
exists every where. Calculate the e.m.f. developed between the centre and the ring
A: Here l = 1 m, ω = 400 s-1, B = 0.5 T, e = ?
Note that linear velocity of one end of rod is zero and linear velocity of other end

6. Current in a circuit falls from 5.0 A to 0.0 A in 0.1 s. If an average emf of 200 V
induced, give an estimate of the self-inductance of the circuit

Chapter-10: ALTERNATING CURRENT

Questions – Answers

Very Short Answer type Questions

1. A transformer converts 200 V ac into 2000 V ac, calculate the number of turns in the
secondary if the primary has 10 turns.
A: VP = 200 Vac ; VS = 2000 Vac; NP = 10 turns; NS = ?
V s Ns 2000 N s
= ⟹ =
V P NP 200 10
NS = 100 turns.

2. What type of transformer is used in the 6 V bed lamp?

A: The step down transformer is used.
3. What is the phenomenon involved in the working of a transformer?
A: The phenomenon of mutual induction is involved between primary and secondary coil of the
transformer.

4. What is transformer ratio?

A: The ratio of output emf to the input emf of a transformer is called transformer ratio i.e. E2/ E1
(or) the ratio of number of turns in the secondary coil to the number of turns in the primary coil
is called transformer ratio i.e. N2/N1.
5. Write the expression for the reactance of
(i) An inductor and (ii) A capacitor.
A: (i) Inductive reactance XL = ωL
1
ii) Capacitive reactance X c =
ωC
6. Define power factor? On which factors does power factor depend?
A: The ratio between the average power (Pav) and the current apparent power (Pap = ERMS
IRMS) is called the power factor.

7. What is meant by wattless component of a current?

A: When the phase difference between voltage & current is π/2, cos φ = 0 and power P = 0 even
though a current is flowing in the circuit. This current is called wattless component of current.

8. What does a LCR series circuit have minimum impendance?

A: 1) When curent is maximum.
2) At resonant frequency,
LCR series have minimum impedance.
9. What is the phase difference between voltage & current when they are power factor in LCR
series circuit in unity?
A: At resonance frequency, the phase difference between voltage & current is 0°. The power
factor, Cos φ is unity.

Short Answer type Questions

1. Obtain an expression for the current through an inductor when an AC emf is applied.
A: 1) Consider a pure inductor of inductance L. Let the alternating emf of instantaneous value E
= E0 Sin ωt be applied to the inductor.
2) Let the instantaneous current at anytime 't' is 'I'.
Where k is a constant of integration. As the average value of 'I' over one cycle is zero, which
gives the value of k = 0
6) The instantaneous current through the inductor is,

This is the expression for instantaneous current through a circuit consisting of a pure inductor.
2. Obtain an expression for the current in a capacitor when an A.C. emf is applied.
A: 1) Consider a capacitor 'C'. Let an alternating emf of instantaneous value, E = E0 sin ωt be
applied to the capacitor, due to this an AC flows through the capacitor.

2) Let the instantaneous current at anytime 't' is I through the capacitor, 'q' is the charge on the
capacitor at that 't'.
4) Differentiating it w.r.t time.

3. State the principle on which a transformer works. Describe the working of a transformer with
necessary theory.
A: Principle: A transformer works on the principle of 'Mutual Induction'. Transformer is a device
used to transform low voltage high current to high voltage low current and vice versa.

Construction:
1) A transformer consists of two insulated mutually coupled coils of wire wound on a
continuous iron core.
2) One of the coil is called "Primary Coil" and the other one "Secondary Coil". The
primary 'P' is connected to a source of emf and the secondary to a load.
3) The core is made of closed rectangular steel laminates assembled, to provide a
continuous magnetic paths.
Working:
1) When AC passes through the primary, an alternate magnetic field is formed in core.
2) Due to alternating flux linkage an emf is induced in secondary. This is due to mutual
induction.
Theory:
1) let N1 and N2 be the number of turns in the primary and the secondary. E1 and E2
be the induced emf's in the primary and secondary respectively.
3) If N2 > N1, the transformer is a step-up transformer, shown in fig (a).
If N2< N1, the transformer is a step-down transformer, shown in fig (b).
4) The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of Output power to Input power.
Output power
i.e., efficiency of the transformer =
Input power
Long Answer type Questions
1. Obtain an expression for impedance and current in series LCR circuit. Deduce an
expression for the resonating frequency of an LCR series resonating circuit.
A: 1) Consider a circuit containing inductance 'L', capacitance 'C' & resistance 'R' in
series.

2) Let an alternating e.m.f. E = E0 Sin ωt be applied to a circuit containing a resistor R,

a capacitor capacitance C and an inductor of inductance I connected in series as shown
in figure.
3) Let I be the current, q be the charge at any instant t.
11. The frequency response curve LCR circuit is as shown in figure. It shows that current is maximum at
resonant frequency f0.

Problems:
2. In a series LCR circuit R = 200 W and the voltage and the frequency of the mains
supply is 200V and 50 Hz respectively. On taking out the capacitance from the circuit
behind the current lags behind the voltage by 45°. On taking out the inductor from the
circuit the current leads the voltage by 45°. Calculate the power dissipated in the LCR
circuit.
A: Given V = 200 V; R = 200 Ω

Power dissipated in the LCR circuit

2
V 200× 200
P= =
R 200
∴ P=200 W

2. A 100 Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply.

(a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit?
(b) What is the netpower consumed over a full cycle?
A: EV = 220 V ; R = 100 Ω ; F = 50 Hz.
E 220
(a) The rms value of the current I V = V = =2.2 A
R 100
(b) Power consumed over a full cycle = (IV)2 = R = (2.2)2 × 100 = 484 W.

3. a) The peak voltage of an ac supply is 300 V. What is the rms voltage?

(b) The rms value of current in an a.c. circuit is 10 A. What is the peak current?

Chapter-11: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Questions – Answers
Very Short Answer type Questions
1. What is the average Wavelength of X - Rays?
A: 0.1 A° to 100 A°

2. Give any one use of infrared rays.

A: Uses: 1) In reading the secret writing of ancient walls.
2) In knowing the molecular structure.
3) In taking photographs during night and foggy conditions.

3. If the wave length of electromagnetic radiation is doubled. What happens to the energy of
photon?

4. What is the principle of production of electromagnetic waves?

A: An accelerated charge produces electric and magnetic fields which vary both in space &
time. The two oscillating fields act as sources of each other and sustain each other. This results
in the propagation of electromagnetic waves through space.

5. What is the relation between the amplitudes of the electromagnetic fields in free space for an
electromagnetic wave?
A: The amplitude ratio of electric and magnetic fields in free space is

6. What are the applications of Microwaves?

A: 1) For radar system in air - craft navigation.
2) In long distance communication.
3) In microwave ovens.

7. Microwaves are used in radars. Why?

A: Because of their smaller wavelength, microwaves do not bend around the corners of an
obstacle and also do not spread. So microwaves are transmitted as a beam signal in particular
direction.
8. Give two uses of infrared rays.
A: Uses: 1) Photography through haze and fog and in night.
2) Thermography.
9. The charging current for a capacitor is 0.6 A. What is the displacement current across the
plates?
A: According to property of continuity, charging current = displacement current = 0.6 A.

Short Answer type Questions

1. What is green house effect and its contribution towards the surface temperature of earth?
A: Radiations coming from the sun heats up the earth surface. In turn the earth radiates heat
radiations (or) IR radiations. Because of its low frequency these IR radiations are reflected back
to earth surface by clouds and carbondioxide present in earth atmosphere. Due to these heat
radiations the surface temperature of earth increases. This phenomenon is called Green house
effect.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. State six characteristics of electromagnetic waves. What is Green house effect?
2) They do not require any material medium (or) vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel with
the same speed equal to speed of light.
Speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is given by the equation.

Where µ0 and ε0 are permeability and permitivity of free space. In material medium, the speed
of electromagnetic waves is given by the equation.
1
V=
√ με
Where µ and ε are permeability and permitivity of medium.
3) The electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel through space and this energy is
shared equally between electric and magnetic fields.

5) Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of super position. They show the properties of
reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation.
6) Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
7) Electromagnetic waves transport linear momentum as play travel through space.
U
P=
C
U = energy transformed by e.m. waves.
C = Velocity of light
8) The amplitude ratio of electric and magnetic field is constant and is equal to velocity of e.m.
waves in free space.

9) The electric field (E) of an electromagnetic wave is responsible for the optical effects.
Therefore electric field vector (E) is called light vector.
Green house effect:
The heating of earth's atmosphere due to IR rays reflected by the layer of CO2 in atmosphere is
called Green house effect.
2. Give the brief history of discovery of knowledge of electromagnetic waves.
A: Sources of electromagnetic waves: Waves of energy that are caused by the acceleration of
charged particles and consists of electric and magnetic fields vibrating transversely and
simultaneously at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation are called
electromagnetic waves. These waves are produced in the following physical phenomena.
1) An oscillating charge emits on electromagnetic wave which has the same frequency of that of
the oscillating charge.
2) An accelerated charge emits an electromagnetic wave.
3) Electromagnetic waves are produced when fast moving electrons hit a target of high atomic
number.
Nature of Electro magnetic waves: Electromagnetic wave is transverse in nature. It can be
shown from Maxwell's equations that electric and magnetic fields in on electromagnetic wave
are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. It is as shown in the figure.

The electromagnetic wave propagating along the Z direction. The electric field Ex is along the X-
axis and varies sinusoidally with Z at a given time (t). The magnetic field By is along the Y-axis
and again varies sinusoidally with Z. The electric field & magnetic field Ex and By are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction Z of propagation. We can write Ex and By as
follows.
Ex = E0 Sin (kz - ωt)
By = B0 Sin (kz - ωt)
There k is related to the wavelength λ of the wave by the usual equation

The relation ω = ck is the standard one for waves. This relation is often written in terms of
frequency ν and wavelength (λ) as
It is also seen from Maxwell's equation that the magnitude of the electric and magnetic field in
on electromagnetic wave are related as
F0
∴ B 0=
C
Hertz's equation:
Even though Maxwell's theory was advanced in 1865, Heinrich Hertz, 1888 actually
demonstrated the production and detection of electromagnetic waves by electrical means.

The above figure shows the experimental arrangement used by Hertz. Two large metal spheres
S and S', are connected to two large metal plates P and P' respectively. The spheres are
connected to an induction coil.
By causing a discharge between the spheres, the current distribution in the plates in such that
an electromagnetic wave (EM) is generated with its electric vector parallel to the gap SS'. The
radiation that produced was detected by 'Hertz' by using an open wire loop which acted as a
resonator. The EM wave reaching at the gap GG' of the detector has an electric field strong
enough to establish a high potential difference between this gap and cause a spark.
When the detector gap GG' is at right angles to the source gap SS'. No electromagnetic
radiation is detected. The sensivity is maximum when the gap GG' is parallel to gap SS'. This
clearly demonstrates the state of polarisation. Leading to the direction of propagation

Problems
1. A radio can tune into any station in the 7.5 MHz to 12 MHz band. What is the corresponding
wavelength band?
2. What physical quantity is the same for X-rays of wavelength 0-10m, red light of wavelength
6800 A° and radiowaves of wavelength 500 m?
Sol: The speed in vacuum is the same for all. This speed is 3 × 108 ms-1.

3. The amplitude of the magnetic field part of a harmonic electromagnetic wave in vacuum is B0
= 510 T. What is the amplitude of the electric field part of the wave?

4. About 5% of the power of a 100 W bulb is converted to visible radiation. What is the average
intensity of visible radiation?
a) At a distance of 1 m from the bulb?
b) At a distance of 10 m?
Assume that the radiation is emitted isotroptically and neglect reflection.
Sol: Power converted into visible radiation.

Chapter -12: 12. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

(Electron Story)

Fundamental Particle of Electricity: The discovery of electron plays an important role in

the development of 'Modern Physics'. While performing certain experiments in the field of
electrolysis (passing electricity through liquids and analysing the constituents of liquids). Michel
Faraday (who never had even proper schooling) well known as 'Father of electricity' showed that
each ion taking part in electrolysis has a fixed charge. Later, it was left to the Irish Physicist,
John Stone Stoney to determine the magnitude of this charge. To this unit of charge he gave the
name 'Electron'. While passing electricity through gases (when Faraday passed electricity
through liquids, why not through gases?). 'Sir William Crookes' in 1870 discovered 'cathode
rays' which consist of streams of negatively charged particles.
 Later, in 1897, Joseph John Thomson (well known as J.J.Thomson) continued his
experiments on passage of electricity through gases and confirmed the phenomenon observed by
William Crookes. He further established that atom in matter has a structure which consists of
these negatively charged particles and named them as 'electrons'. J.J.Thomson, well known as
'Father of electron' has established that electron is a 'particle' for which he was awarded Nobel
Prize in Physics for the year 1906. It is very interesting to know that his son G.P.Thomson was
also awarded Nobel Prize in Physics for the year in 1937 for showing that the electron is a
'wave'.
'Discovery of electron' has paved the way for a new branch of physics called 'Atomic
Physics'.
Electron Bio - Data
Sir J.J.Thomson under took a quantitative study of cathode rays. He named the cathode
ray particle as 'electron'. He discovered a unique common characteristic of these rays - that
whatever be the gas inside the discharge tube the ratio of its charge (e) to its mass (m) i.e. e/m of
these particles (electrons) was constant. It was observed that these rays could be deflected by
both electric and magnetic fields and direction of these deflections showed that the rays were
negatively charged.
e
J.J.Thomson's value for (specific charge) for cathode ray particle (electron) was
m
1.7589 × 1011 coulomb kg-1.

The ratio of e/m is independent of the material of the cathode and anode, voltage V applied
and the nature of the gas inside the discharge tube used in the experiment by J.J.Thomson which
shows that electron is a common constituent of all matter.
Later the charge 'e' on the electron was measured by R.A. Millikan in 1913 by his 'oil drop
experiment' to be equal to 1.6 × 10-19 coulomb.
e
Knowing the values of ' ' and 'e' for an electron, the mass of the electron was found to be
m
9.1 × 10-31 kg (so small!!).
Electrons are found to be travelling with speeds ranging from about 0.1 to 0.2 times the speed of
light (3 × 108 ms-1).
Electron Volt (eV)
Charged particles are given high energy by accelerating them in a very high electric fields.
The energy of the particles is measured in terms of electron - Volts.
'Electron Volt is the energy acquired by an electron in falling through a potential of one
Volt.
Since 1 Joule = 1 coulomb × 1 volt.
1 electron volt = electronic charge in 1 coulomb × 1 volt.
1 electron volt = 1.6 × 10-19 Joule.
Electron emission
Different methods of producing electrons:
i) Discharge tube phenomena.
ii) Thermionic emission: Metals consist 'free electrons' which are responsible for their
conductivity. By suitably heating (supplying thermal energy) the metals the free eletrons will
come out of them.
iii) Field emission: Strong electric fields of the order of 108 V m-1 are applied to a metal and
free electrons can be pulled out of the metal.
iv) Photoelectric emission: Substances when exposed to electro magnetic radiation such as
visible, ultraviolet, infrared light, X - rays, γ - rays absorb the radiations and electrons are
emitted from the surface of the substance.
This phenomenon is called 'photoelectric effect' and electrons emitted are called photo -
electrons.
Photoelectric effect: Einstein's 'NOBEL'

The world renowned physicist Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) was awarded the 'Nobel Prize'
in Physics for the year 1921 for his theory of 'photoelectric effect' and not for his much
acclaimed 'Theory of Relativity'. Both these theories along with the theory on 'Brownian motion'
were published by Einstein in 1905 (miracle year). To commemorate the centanary of these
theories which have influenced the modern physics, the united nations declared 2005 as World
Year of Physics (WYP). The aim of WYP is to raise the world - wide awareness of Physics.
Discovery - Hertz's observations
In 1887, when Hertz (whose name was immortalized by giving it for the unit of frequency)
was producing the first 'radiowaves', he observed that when light is incident on one of the metal
plates placed in an evacuated tube, electrons were liberated from the illuminated plate and their
strength was found to depend on the intensity of light.
Ultraviolet light - A sponsor
In 1888, Hallwachs found that when ultraviolet light was incident on a neutral zinc
plate it became positively charged.
When the same light was incident on a negatively charged zinc plate, it is losing
its charge.
When incident on a positively charged zinc plate, it became more positively
charged. Then he concluded that only negatively charged particles can be emitted from
the surface of the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.

Experimental study of photoelectric effect

To study the photoelectric effect an experimental arrangement is shown in the
figure below.

In fig (1), two zinc plates S and P enclosed in a vacuum tube are connected to a
battery B and an ammeter A. When a beam of light strikes on the plate S which is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery, electrons are emitted by the surface of
S and are drawn to the anode P maintained at a positive potential with respect to S. The
current due to these electrons is detected and measured by the ammeter A. This
current is a measure of the number of electrons collected at the anode P.
The alkali metals like Sodium, Potassium, Cesium emit photoelectrons even to
rays from the visible part of the spectrum, where as Zinc, Cadmium etc, emit
photoelectrons only to ultraviolet light.
Light of short wavelength (greater frequency) has more energy and is thus more
effective in producing the photoelectrons. The effect is also found in non - metals, but as
they are highly electro negative waves of very short wavelength are required.
Photoelectric effect is also observed in liquids and gases.
More and more experiments
 In 1889, J.J.Thomson, the father of electron showed that e/m value, of the emitted
particles was the same as that of electrons.
This effect was an instantaneous phenomenon.
The time between the incidence of radiation and the ejection of electrons is of the order
of 10-9 seconds.
The experiments conducted by Richardson and Compton showed that
i) The rate of emission of electrons i.e., the strength of the photoelectric current, is
proportional to the intensity of light.
ii) The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons depends only on the frequency
of the light and has nothing to do with the intensity of light. These are called Laws of
photoelectric effect.
For every metal, there is a particular minimum frequency of the incident light, below
which there is no photoelectric emission, whatever be the intensity of radiation. This
minimum frequency which can cause photoelectric emission is called the 'threshold
frequency'.
Threshold frequency is different for different metals for most metals, it lies in the
ultraviolet region, but for alkali metals like Potassium, it is in the visible region.
How can a 'wave' emit a particle?
Photoelectric effect is an interesting phenomena where light is converted into
electricity which became a puzzle for classical physics. The wave theory of light, in
which light is considered to be a 'wave' had been established just a hundred years
before and for a full century had been winning victory after victory. Then, how can a
'light wave' when incident on a metal plate emit a 'particle electron'? The physical
theories of the nineteenth century could not account for this.
Einstein enters on the scene!
In 1905, Albert Einstein a brilliant young man of 26 years old, employed as a
clerk in a patent office at Berne in Germany with heroic mind explained the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect. This explanation made the down fall of many
theories of classical physics. Here Einstein made use of 'Quantum theory of Radiation'
propounded by Max Planck in 1900, which was then only five years old but very much
neglected.
 Einstein assumed that light interacts with matter in the form of 'Quanta', the
discrete packets (particles) of energy called 'Photons' (from the Greek for 'light'). When
light incident upon the surface of a metal, the electrons bound to the surface absorb the
energy of one Quantum at a time. When a photon is incident on a metal surface, an
electron is emitted and the phenomenon is called 'Photoelectric effect' and the electron
is called 'Photoelectron'.
Einstein's Photoelectric equation
Metals consist of 'free electrons' which move about at random inside them.
Though the electrons are free, they cannot escape from the metals of their own accord.
It requires a minimum amount of energy for a free electron to come out from a metal.
This minimum amount of energy is different for different metals and is called 'work
function' for the given metal. Usually, the free electrons in a metal do not possess
sufficient energy to escape from it.

According to Einstein, when light of frequency υ is incident on a metallic surface,

Photons of energy hυ strike the metal (h is Planck's constant). A photon gives its energy
hυ to the electron and if this energy exceeds the 'work function' of the metal, the
electron is ejected out of the metal. If the energy hυ of the striking photon is less than
the work - function, no electron is ejected. The minimum energy required hυ0 where υ0
is the 'Threshold frequency' and it depends on the nature of the metal.
If the frequency of the incident light is just equal to the threshold frequency i.e.,
υ = υ0. Then the electron is just ejected out of the metal but its velocity is zero. If υ is
greater than υ0, then the difference in the energy (hυ - hυ0) is used in giving kinetic
energy to the photoelectron.
If mass of a photoelectron is m, and its velocity is v, then

This is Einstein's Photoelectric equation.

Explanation of Laws of Photoemission

If we assume that one photoelectron is ejected by one photon, we observe that
the number of photoelectrons emitted per second from a metal depends on the number
of photons incident on it per second. The number of photons incident per second on a
surface depends on 'intensity of light'.
Thus, the rate of emission of photoelectrons depends on the intensity of incident
light (I Law).
Since hυ0 is constant for a given metal, we find that from Einstein's Photoelectric
equation.
The kinetic energy of the photoelectron

Thus, the kinetic energy of the photoelectron depends on υ, the frequency of the
incident light (II Law).
Einstein's Photoelectric equation was experimentally verified by 'Millikan' in 1916, for
which he was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics for the year 1923.
Photoelectric cell

It is an arrangement to convert light energy into electric energy (fig 2). This cell consists
of a glass on Quartz bulb which is evacuated. It further consists a semi - cylindrical silver plate
'B' coated with Potassium or Cesium known as 'emitter' and a wire A of Platinum or Nickel
called the collector (anode) fixed along the axis of the cylinder. Positive potential is applied to
the collector A and the Photo - electron emitted from the cylinder B are attracted by it.
The Photo - current produced in the circuit is detected by the Galvanometer 'G'.
For quantitative work, the bulb is exhausted to the highest degree of vacuum. The
sensitivity in this case is less. If however, the cell is filled with an inert gas Argon at low
pressure, the sensitivity is increased.
Uses are so many!!
1. Photocells are used for 'automatic switching on and off of street lights.
2. Used in light meter in cameras to measure intensity of light.
3. Used in automatic closing and opening of doors.
4. Used in counting devices which counts every obstruction for light beam. Thus photocells
count the number of persons entering into a building.
5. Used in fire alarms. When the light from a fire falls on the photocell, the current developed in
the circuit makes the siren to produce alarm.
6. Used in burglar alarm utlraviolet rays are made to fall on the photocell continuously. A person
entering into the room obstruct these rays, and electric bell rings.
7. Used to produce sound from the films in cinema theatres.
8. Used for scanning and telecasting in TV cameras.
9. Used for controlling the temperature in furnaces.
10. Used to find defects like holes and vacancies in metal sheets.
11. Used in complexion meters (colour identification) and traffic regulators.
Dual nature of matter
In order to explain the phenomenon like interference, diffraction and polarisation by
light, radiation is assumed to be possessing wave like particles.
But phenomena like 'Photo - electric effect' which can be explained on the basis of Quantum
theory has to assume that radiation behaves like a particle (Quanta or Photon) when it interacts
with matter. Thus, with the introduction of Quantum theory physicists were obliged to admit a
dual nature, Wave and a Particle for radiant energy.
A similar situation arose with matter, when in 1924, the French Physicist Louis De
Broglie put forward the bold suggestion that matter like radiation has dual nature i.e., matter
which is ordinarily considered as made up of discrete particles like molecules, atoms, protons,
neutrons and electrons may exhibit wave like properties under appropriate conditions. These
waves are called Matter Waves.
De Broglie's Hypothesis
While developing a theory of radiation in terms of light quanta on photons De Broglie
was lead to the new conception of matter waves by the following considerations.
i) Nature loves symmetry: According to this principle matter and radiation (energy) the two
fundamental forms in which nature manifests must be mutually symmetrical, as radiation
exhibits dual nature wave and particle, matter also might possess the same dual nature.
ii) Analogy between mechanics and optics: While explaining the hydrogen spectrum by Bohr's
theory, electron is assumed to move round the nucleus in orbits which are characterized by
periodicity. Thus he found there is a close analogy between mechanics and optics. Mechanics
dealing with particles is analogous to geometrical optics for light rays.
Reflections, such as above led De Broglie to make a bold suggestion in his doctoral
thesis in 1929. In his thesis he explained that there was a close connection between
waves and corpuscles (particles) not only in case of radiation but also in case of matter.
MATTER WAVES
A moving particle always got a wave associated with it and the particle is
controlled by the wave just as photon is controlled by waves. To study the path of a
beam of monochromatic radiation, wave theory is used where as to calculate the
amount of energy associated with the same beam, we use the photon or Quantum
theory.
Similarly, the electrons are particles i.e., their charge, mass and energy are
observable in particle form. But in order to find the path of a beam of electrons and how
it is reflected by objects, we must treat it as though it is a wave. It is to be noted that the
energy is carried by the electrons and not by the waves associated with them.
De Broglie's wavelength (λ)
A photon of frequency υ is considered to be having energy E = hυ (according to
Planck's theory), h - Planck constant.
According to the theory of 'Relativity' E = mc2, where m is the mass of the
photon and 'c' is the velocity of the photon.
E = mc2 = hυ

In a similar way De Broglie said that a particle of mass m, moving with a velocity v
should be associated with wavelength λ such that
h h
λ= or λ=
mv p

λ is called De Broglie's wavelength and mv = p, the momentum of the particle.

Wavelength of Electron:
If an electron is moving with a velocity 107 ms-1 in a discharge tube, it has a
wavelength equal to

Which is the order of the wavelength of X - rays.

Here 6.62 × 10-34 = h, the Planck's constant.
9.1 × 10-31 kg = m, the mass of electron.
The accuracy of Louis de Broglie's suggestion of matter waves was verified
experimentally by Davission and Germer in 1927, by their diffraction experiments with
electrons (Diffraction shows the wave nature).
De Broglie's equation - significance
 h
λ=
mv
i) De Broglie wavelegnth (λ) of a particle is inversely proportional to the mass (m) of the
particle. Particle of lesser mass will have greater wavelength.
ii) De Broglie wavelength of a particle (λ) is inversely proportional to the velocity (v) of
the particle. Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater will be its wavelength.
Experimental demonstration of wave nature of electron
Davisson and Germer Experiment
The first experimental proof of the 'wave nature of electron' was demonstrated in
1927 by two American physicists C.J. Davisson and L.H. Germer.
The basis of their experiment was that since the wavelength of an electron is of
the order of spacing of atoms in a crystal, there should be 'Diffraction effects' when a
beam of electrons when incident on a crystal.
Experimental arrangement
Figure - 3 below shows the experimental arrangement made by Davisson and
Germer.

By a potential difference between anode A and cathode C, the electrons from hot
filament F are accelerated. The narrow beam of electrons I emerging from the anode A
is allowed to fall on the surface of a nickel crystal 'Ni'. The electrons, acting like waves,
are scattered in all directions by the atoms in the crystal. By allowing the scattered
electron beam to enter into a detector 'D', the intensity of electron beam 'S' scattered in
a given direction is measured. Detector D is arranged on a graduated circular scale 'CS'
that it can be rotated around the crystal. A sensitive galvanometer is connected to the
detector D and the deflection of galvanometer is directly proportional to the intensity of
electron beam entering the detector.
The detector D is rotated to different positions on the circular scale and the
intensity of the scattered beam is measured for different values of scattering angle (i.e.,
angle between the incident beam and the scattered beam).
Observation
When the electron beam is incident normally on the surface of the nickel crystal,
the electrons are scattered in all directions which show that they are acting like waves.
The intensity of scattered beam depends on the scattering angle , which is the angle
between the incident and scattered beam.
 It is found that when Φ = 50° and V = 54 volts, the intensity of scattered beam
becomes maximum. However, as the accelerating potential is increased, the intensity of
scattered beam starts decreasing and at about 68 volts, the intensity almost comes
down to zero.

Fig-4 above shows the polar graphs i.e. the graph between scattering angle Φ and the intensity of
scattered electron beam. The intensity of the electron beam in a given direction is proportional to
the distance of the curve from the origin 'O'. The appearence of a bump (lump) (from the graphs)
in a particular direction is due to the constructive interference of electrons scattered from
different layers of regularly spaced atoms of the crystal. This confirms the wave nature of
electron.
G.P.Thomson (son of J.J.Thomson) was awarded 'Nobel Prize' in 1937 along with
Davisson for their experiments of uncertainity is certain diffraction of electrons by crystals.
Heisenberg's Uncertainity Principle
If we see Taj Mahal in full moon night and in dark night when no one is looking will it be
different? If we look at electrons in motion, will there be any difference in their behaviour? -
Quantum theory says yes, there will be a difference. From the vast depths of knowledge in
Quantum theory, a jewel called 'Uncertainity Principle' was brought out by a great scientific
visionary by name 'Werner Heisenberg', a Jerman physicist. Heisenberg who learnt lessons in
mountaineering in childhood later studied physics and taken Quantum theory to greatest heights
of scientific thought.
Heisenberg, whom scientific world praises as 'saint among scientists' is a path finder in
prescribing limits to 'accuracy'. The matter - wave picture is clearly explained in the Heisenberg's
'Uncertainity Principle'.
According to this principle
Statement: "The position and momentum of an electron (or any other particle) cannot be
measured, (rather it is impossible) at the same time exactly".
There is always some uncertainity '∆x' in the specification of position and some
uncertainity "∆P" in the specification of momentum.

Explanation of the principle:

The exact position and the exact velocity (rather momentum) of any subatomic particle
cannot be found exactly at the same time.
For example to find out where exactly an electron revolving around the nucleus with certain
velocity in an orbit is, we have to focus a light particle i.e., a photon on it. Since electron and
photon are particles of same size, when they collide the position of the electron changes.
Similarly, if we try to stop the electron in the orbit and try to find its position, the energy in
the photon will be absorbed by the electron and its velocity (momentum) changes. It means if we
know the position of an electron, its velocity is not known. Similarly if we know the velocity of
an electron, its position is not known. Thus the behaviour of electron is always uncertain. In fact
subatomic particles and the whole universe (or nature) with which it was, made depends on
'Uncertainity'.
The uncertainity in the universe is not due to the inaccuracy in our observation or the lack
of precession in the apparatus we use for observation. Uncertainity is certain in the universe.
When we are looking at Taj Mahal in moonlight or in dark night, 'Uncertainity' will be
there which is so small (almost negligible) and hence we cannot observe it.

Moreover, when compared to the size of the monument (Taj) the size of the photons
focussed on it during night is almost negligible.
Conclusion:
Style of Physicists!
Dual Nature: 'Matter' and 'energy' are inter convertible, according to the equation
E = mc2 derived by Albert Einstein, the icon of acheivements of 20th century science.
'Matter' and 'Energy' have dual nature i.e. they can be either in the form of 'waves' or
'particles'. Some one asked the famous Quantum Physicist Erwin Schrodinger how it is possible?
He answered depending on time and circumstances they behave like that. The person further
asked him sarcastically professor, do you mean to say that on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday
they behave like 'Waves' and on Thursday, Friday and Saturday (Sunday being holiday) they
behave like 'Particles'? Please tell me clearly wheather matter and Energy' will be in the form of
'waves' or 'particles'.
For which the great scientist answered (laughing) - Matter and energy will not be either in
the form of 'waves' or 'particles' but they will be in the form of "WAVICLES"!!
WAVE + PARTICLE → WAVICLE!!
 The great book 'What is life?' written by Erwin Schrodinger inspired 'Watson' and 'Crick'
(Biologists) to discover 'DNA molecule' !!
Uncertainity Principle:
According to uncertainity principle in Quantum Theory there is no place for cause and
effect in nature. Albert Einstein who beleived in the 'certainity' in the universe created by God
worried and disagreed with this principle and said "God is not playing dice". Which means in the
game of dice, there is no 'certainity' and every thing depends on chance.

For Einstein's statement, Niels Bohr, the architect of 'Atomic structure basing on Quantum
theory' and thus beleived in uncertainity principle reacted this.
"Who is Einstein?, to ask God to play dice?
It is very interesting to know after so many years, the famous living cosmologist 'Stephen
Hawking', continuing the discussion on uncertainity principle making the statement that "God
not only play dice but also throw them into space in such a way that he may not be able to find
them".
The famous book 'A Brief History of Time' by Stephen Hawking should be read by every
student of science (especially physics student) to enjoy the beauty of the Universe!!

Chapter-13: ATOMS
(Atoms... Atoms... Atoms)

"Rome was not built in a single day" - So the structure of an ATOM.

Introduction
From the earlier days, man has been wondering about the structure of "MATTER". It is
now well known that all material bodies are made up of very very small particles called
"ATOMS".
The smallest particle of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction is called an atom.
A substance that contains atom of only one kind is called an "element" those containing more
than one kind of atoms are called "compounds". The smallest part of a compound is called a
"Molecule". For example, Copper (element) consists of one kind of atoms i.e. Copper atoms.
However, water (compound) composed of two kinds of atoms i.e. Hydrogen and
Oxygen. The smallest part of water consists of two atoms of Hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen
together (H2O molecule).
 The word "ATOM" is derived from the Greek language. "A" means of "not" and
"tomogeneous" means to cut. Together Atom - 'not to cut'. Atom is supposed to be spherical in
shape (as nature prefers symmetry). According to John Dalton, father of Atomic theory atom is
not only indivisible but also invisible further Dalton thought that the tiny atom spherical in shape
is rigid like a marble. It is interesting to note that the assumptions of Dalton about "Atom" are
proved to be wrong in later days. It is sad that Dalton never saw an atom in his life time!!
Atoms of different elements differ in mass, size and chemical properties. For example an
atom of Copper is heavier than that of Aluminium.
What is the structure of Atom?
i) Thomson's Model
In 1897 J.J.Thomson discovered "Electron" a negatively charged particle from his
experiments on the passage of electricity through gases at low pressure. Thomson argued that
electron should be a part of matter i.e. an atom. Since matter is electrically neutral, Thomson
concluded that atom also should have a positive charge equal and opposite to that of electrons.
Then how the electrons and positive charge are arranged in an atom?

"Watermelon", an inspiration!
On a fine summer evening, when J.J.Thomson was enjoying a "Watermelon" salad on a
lake side, he observed that the black seeds in Watermelon are embedded in the red coloured juicy
pulp. Then, he thought why not the electrons like seeds in the Watermelon are embedded in a
sphere of uniform positive charge which is like the red juicy portion.

Note: Somewhere, it is told that Thomson's model of atom as "Thomson's Plum pudding model.
Plums as "electrons" and pudding as "positive charge".
Accordingly J.J.Thomson proposed his model of an atom in 1898.
 Thus an atom spherical in shape consists of positive and mass (since electrons are of
negligible mass) distributed uniformly over the entire body of the atom with negative electrons
embedded in this continuous positive charge.
Although it is the first scientific study of "Structure of an atom" this model had following
defects.
a) This is a "Static Model" i.e. in this model the positive and negative charges are stationary. So
they will be attracted towards each other, thus destroying the individual charges.
b) It could not explain the large angle of scattering of "alpha particles". When they are passed
close to the atom - A crucial experiment conducted by Ernst Rutherford, (interestingly
J.J.Thomson's research student) in 1906.
c) It could not explain the presence of discrete spectral lines emitted by hydrogen and other
atoms.
Rutherford's α - Particle Scattering Experiment
In 1906, in order to detect the structure of the atom, Rutherford proposed a classic
experiment and the apparatus to investigate the scattering of alpha (α) particles. A narrow beam
of high energy α particles (Helium nuclei) from a radioactive source 'Radon' was incident on a
thin sheet of gold (0.2 µm thick). An α particle is the nucleus of helium atom - the helium atom
with its electrons removed. Therefore, it is a positively charged particle gold was used because, it
can be cut into thin sheets easily and also the nucleus of gold is heavy and can produce large
deflections of α particles.

The range of α particles in air is limited to about 5 cm. Therefore, the whole apparatus
was kept in vacuum. So that α particles would not be prevented from reaching the detector.
The angle θ of the deviation of an α particle from its original direction is called scattering
angle.
From the experiment it was found that
i) a very few particles were scattered at an angle greater than 90º. Some even reflected back i.e. a
deflection of 180º.
ii) Some of the α particles were deflected through small angles.
iii) Most of the α particles passed straight way through the gold foil with no change of direction.
Thomson model fails: The large angle scattering canot be explained on the basis of Thomson's
model.
Conclusions of Rutherford's Experiment:
i) Rutherford argued that the large angle scattering of α- particles could happen only if the
positively charged particles were repelled by a massive positive charge concentrated in very
small region of space and this tiny positively charged core which Rutherford named as
'NUCLEUS' (Hence this model is also called Nucleus model) which contains 99.99% of the mass
of the atom.

ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons some distance away. But if the electrons were at rest,
they will fall into nucleus due to electrical attraction.
Necessity is the mother of invention. In order to avoid this eventuality, Rutherford
proposed that the electrons are revolving in circular orbits around the nucleus just as planets are
revolving around the Sun. If the planets are not moving around the Sun, they would have fallen
into the Sun's core due to gravitational force of the Sun (Hence Ruther's model of the atom is
also known as planetary model) (whenever we get a doubt about a problem, we scratch our head
and look little upward. Probably, Rutherford when he got the doubt about the stability of atom,
he would have done the same and raised his head and got the thought of the motion of the planets
around the Sun as a flash!!!)
iii) As an atom is electrically neutral, the total positive charge on the nucleus is equal to the total
negative charge on the electrons in the atom.
iv) Since very few alpha particles were scattered through large angles, the probability of head on
approach is small which shows that nucleus occupies only a small portion of the available space.
This shows that whole of the positive charge and entire mass of the atom is confined to an
extremely small central core called 'NUCLEUS'.
v) The radius of nucleus is of the order of 10-15 m and that of the atom is 10-10 m. Thus atom
consists mostly empty space dotted with electrons and a very tiny nucleus at the centre.
Defects in Rutherford's model:
i) In Rutherford's model, the centrifugal force acting on the electrons is balanced the electrostatic
attraction between the nucleus and the electrons. But according to the classical electromagnetic
theory, an electron going in a circle and subject to a normal acceleration, must radiate energy and
thus lose some of its energy. Hence the electron should approach the nucleus in spiral path and
finally fall into the nucleus. Thus, the atom cannot be stable. But it is well known that most of
the atoms are stable.
ii) According to classical electromagnetic theory, the accelerating electron must radiate energy at
a frequency equal to the mechanical frequency of the orbiting electron and hence proportional to
the angular velocity of the electron. As the electron spirals towards the nucleus the angular
velocity tends to infinity, there by the frequency of the emitted energy tends to infinity. This
results in a continuous spectrum with all possible wavelengths. But what we observe
experimentally is that atoms like 'hydrogen' emit line spectra of fixed wavelengths only. If
classical electromagnetic theory were not to fail, Rutherford's model of the atom had to be given
up.
Niels Bohr - The architect: It was at this juncture, that the Danish physicist Niels Bohr entered
the field in 1913 and proposed his theory of the structure of atom (Bohr atom model) and the
origin of spectra for which he was awarded Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922 (Rutherford was also
awarded Noble in 1908 but surprisingly not for Physics but for Chemistry). Bohr extended
Planck's Quantum theory to the Rutherford's nuclear atom. He suggested that the electrons
revolve round the nucleus in 'fixed orbits'. It means that the orbits of definite radii only are
present and not all orbits of all radii as suggested by Rutherford. He gave the name 'energy
levels' to these orbits.

The electron cannot emit any energy when it moves on fixed orbit, known as 'stationary energy
level'. The electron gives out energy in the form of electromagnetic radiations of definite
frequency only when it jumps from higher energy level to a lower energy level. Thus, the energy
levels are 'Quantized'.

Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom:

In order to explain the spectrum emitted by Hydrogen, Bohr made certain basic postulates,
to modify the model suggested by Rutherford. In the process, Bohr made a bold adventure in
scientific field by bridging the gulf between Classical Physics and Planck's Quantum theory of
radiation.
Postulate 1:
An electron cannot revolve round the nucleus in all possible orbits, as suggested by
classical theory. The electron can revolve round the nucleus only in certain selected or
permissible (or allowed) orbits, satisfying the Quantum condition that the angular momentum of
h
the electron in the orbit must be an integral multiple of where h is Planck's constant =
2π
−34
6.64 × 10 JS
Postulate 2:
The privileged orbits are called 'stationary orbits' and the electrons revolving in these
oribts do not radiate energy.
Explanation: For an electron of mass 'm', moving with a speed 'v', in an orbit of radius 'r', the
2 nh
angular momentum L=mvr=mr ω= where n is called 'Principal Quantum number'. It
2π
takes integral values except zero; n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .... v = rω, where ω is angular velocity.
 Postulate 3:
'Only when electron jumps'
An atom radiates energy only when an electron 'jumps' from a stationary orbit of higher
energy to one at lower energy. If the electron jumps from an initial orbit of energy Ei to a final
orbit of energy Ef where Ei > Ef, a photon of frequency
Ef −Ei
υ= is emitted This is known as "Bohr's frequency condition". The state of least energy is
h
the one defined for n = 1 and is called ground or normal state as it is the lowest energy state.
The states where
n = 2, 3, 4, ... are called excited states because the atom then has more energy than it has in
normal state.
In Bohr's model, there is no explanation why the atom does not radiate energy when it is in
stationary state. This is simply taken as a Postulate!

Radii of orbits
Let us apply Bohr's Postulates to an atom having a nucleus with a positive charge Ze and
mass M.

for Hydrogen Z = 1
Let an electron of charge (- e) and mass 'm' move round the nucleus in an orbit of radius
'r'. Since M > > m, the nucleus is stationary. Hence the mass of the nucleus does not appear in
the calculations.
The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron
From equation (iii) it is clear that r n2 i.e. the radii of the privileged orbits are directly
proportional to the square of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, etc ...... These numbers 1, 2, 3, etc
which decide the angular momentum of the electron in its orbit are called 'Principal Quantum
Numbers'.
Total Energy in Different Orbits:
The total energy of the electron in any orbit is the sum of its kinetic and potential
energies.

The potential energy (P.E.) of the electron is considered to be zero, when it is at an

infinite distance from the nucleus. So the potential energy of an electron in an orbit is the work
done in bringing the electron from infinity to that orbit. This amount of work is obtained by
integrating the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron within the
limits infinity (∞ ) to r.

Negative values of energy shows that the electron is bound to the nucleus.

i.e., the outer orbits will have greater energies than the inner orbits.

Interpretation of Hydrogen Spectrum

If an electron jumps from an outer initial orbit n2 of higher energy to an inner orbit n1 of
lower energy. The frequency of the radiation emitted is given by
The wave number υ of a radiation is defined as the reciprocal of its wavelength 'λ' in
vacuum and gives the number of waves contained in unit length in vacuum.

Rydberg Constant

Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom

1. Lyman Series: When an electron jumps from second, third etc. orbits to the first orbit;
the spectral lines are in the ultraviolet region. Here n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5, ......
These are called Lyman series.

2. Balmer Series
When the electron jumps from outer orbits to the second orbit.
Here n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5, ....... etc.

This series is called 'Balmer Series' and lies in the visible region of the spectrum.
The first line in the series n2 = 3 is called the Hα line, the second n2 = 4, the Hβ line
and so on.
3. Paschen Series: When the electron jumps from the outer orbits to the third orbit
i.e. n1 = 3 and n2 = 4, 5, 6, ..... etc. and these series are in the infrared region.

4. Brackett Series
If n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7 etc., we get Brackett series

5. Pfund Series
If n1 = 5, n2 = 6, 7, 8 etc., we get Pfund series
 Brackett and Pfund series lie in the very far infrared region of hydrogen
spectrum.
By putting n2 = ∞, in each one of the series, we get the last line in the series
which is the wave number of the series limit. Different spectral series of Hydrogen atom
are shown in figure.

Energy level diagram

Called the energy level diagram.

 The lowest energy level E1 is called normal or ground state of the atom and the higher energy
levels E2, E3, E4 ...... etc. are called excited states. As n increases, En increases. As n
increases, the energy levels crowd. In the energy level diagram, the discrete energy states are
represented by horizontal lines and the electron jumps between these states by vertical lines.

We have seen that the energy associated with an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen
13.6
atom is En = 2 eV . Thus the energies of the first, second, third, ...... ∞ orbits are
n
respectively −13.6, −3.4, −1.51, ...... 0 eV. The energy required to raise the atom from
the ground state (n = 1) to the first excited state is 13.6 − 3.4 = 10.2 eV. The energy
required to raise it to the second excited state is 13.6 − 1.51 = 12.09 eV and so on. 13.6
eV is called the ionization potential. 10.2, 12.09 eV are called excitation potentials.
In case of hydrogen, there is only one ionisation potential, where as there are
several excitation potentials.
Ionization potential (or eneregy): It is the energy, in electron volts required to remove an
electron from a given orbit to an infinite distance from the nucleus.
Excitation potential (or energy): It is the energy, in electron volts required to raise an
atom from its normal state into an excited state.
Shells: The electrons in the energy levels with n = 1, 2, 3, etc are said to be in K, L, M
etc shells respectively. An atom with atomic number Z contains Z electrons. The
electrons are distributed among different shells, starting with the K shell and filling up
shells of higher energy. Each shell can accommodate only a definite maximum number
of electrons.
The maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in a shell is
2n2. Thus the K, L, M etc shells can contain a maximum of 2, 8, 18 etc electrons.
h
Why should the angular momentum have values that are integral multiples of ?
2π
(De Broglie's explanation of second postulate of Quantisation)
According to second postulate of Bohr's model of the atom, the angular momentum (L)
 nh
of the electron orbiting around the nucleus is quantized i.e. L = where n = 1, 2, 3, etc
2π
h
which means the angular momentum have values that are integral multiples of .
2π
After 10 years of Bohr proposed his model the french physicist Louis De Broglie
explained this aspect in the year 1923.
According to De Broglie, matter and its particles like electrons will also have
'wave nature'. Latter, Davisson and Germer verified experimentally the wave nature of
electrons. De Broglie argued that electron (particle) orbiting around the nucleus of an
atom should be seen as a wave.
What Type of Wave? When a string fixed at both ends under tension is plucked (in any
stringed musical instrument) a large number of wavelengths are excited. But only those
wavelengths which have nodes (no displacement) at ends will exist and form a
stationary on standing wave in the string. It means in a string only, stationary waves are
formed in one wavelength, two wavelengths or any integral number of wavelengths.
Similarly for an electron moving in nth circular orbit of radius rn, the total distance
in the circumference of the orbit 2Πrn.
Thus 2Πrn = nλ, where n = 1, 2, 3 etc.
For example, let us consider a standing particle wave on a circular orbit, for n = 4
i.e., 2Πrn = 4λ where λ is the De Broglie wavelength of electron moving in the nth orbit.
h
We know from the De Broglie's relation λ = where P is the electron's
P
momentum. If the speed of the electron is much less than the speed of light, the
momentum is mvn

This is the Quantum condition proposed by Niels Bohr for the angular
momentum of the electron. This equation is the basic equation for explaining the
discrete orbits and energy levels of the hydrogen atom.
Thus De Broglie's concept of matter waves provided an explanation of Bohr's
second postulate of Quantization of angular momentum of the orbiting electron.

Limitations of Bohr's model

i) Bohr's model is applicable only for hydrogen atom with single electron. It cannot be
extended even for two electron atoms like helium. The reason is that Bohr's model
involves the electrical force between negatively charged electron and positively charged
nucleus. It does not involve the electrical forces between electrons.
ii) Though the Bohr's model predicts exactly the frequencies of the light emitted by
hydrogenic atom, but it is not able to explain the relative intensities of the frequencies in
the spectrum and unable to account for the intensity variations. Bohr's model gives a
brilliant picture of an atom and cannot be extended to complex atoms. For complex
atoms, we have to apply a rigorous theory based on quantum mechanics. But the Bohr's
theory of atom is the basis for explaining the structure of any atom. Thus Neils Bohr
who synthesised brilliantly the traditional classical mechanics and revolutionary
quantum theory is the true architect of the structure of the atom.
What Einstein told ...
The famous scientist Albert Einstein told "without Niels Bohr we cannot imagine
how our knowledge about atom will be. He expresses his opinion as if he was involved
in rigorous research with great commitment throught out his life and not as a great
person who has found 'great truths' long ago."
According to Niels Bohr, in subatomic systems both the particle and wave nature
of matter should be considered. This concept will help to explain the free human will and
the basic life styles and also to analyse the theory of 'multiuniverses.' This concept
proposed by Bohr is well known as 'Copenhagen interpretation.'
Bohr - a Sports Person: Niels Bohr is not only a great scientist but a brilliant sports
person! An expert in sports like scheming and boat races. In student days he
participated in the game of football on behalf of Denmark. (His brother played football in
Olympics)
In 1960, Niels Bohr came to India to participate in Indian Science Congress
Conferences. During that period he visited all important places in our country.

Important writings of Niels Bohr

1) Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution
2) Atomic Theory and Description of the Nature
3) Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge
Chemistry deals with structure, composition, properties of matter. Matter can be
classified into mixtures, compounds and elements. All of them consists molecules and
atoms. According to Greek philosophers atoms are fundamental blocks of the matter.
The word atom was derived from Greek word "atomio", which means "non-divisible".
According to Daltons atomic theory, atoms can be further divided into sub atomic
particles like protons, electrons and neutrons. This theory successfully explained the
law of Conservation of mass, Law of Constant composition and law of multiple
proportion.
Electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson in cathode rays experiment in a
discharge tube. Proton was discovered by Goldstein in canal ray's experiment. Neutron
was discovered by James Chadwick by bombarding a thin sheet of Be by α -particles.
Experimental observations suggested few atomic models to explain the structure of
atom i.e., distribution of these charged particles in an atom.
 According to Thomson watermelon model of atom, positive charge is uniformly
distributed in an atom just like red mass present in watermelon and the electrons are
embedded in it (like seeds). Rutherford's nuclear model of atom resembles the solar
system. In which nucleus is compared with Sun and electrons with the revolving
planets. This model could not explain the stability of atom and electronic structure of
atom.

Maxwell suggested that when electrically charged particle moves under acceleration,
electro-magnetic waves are produced. They are propagating in perpendicular directions
in one other, can move in vacuum. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation consists
γ-rays, X-rays, u.v. rays visible I.R., microwave, radio and long radio waves.

The distance between two successive crests or troughs in a wave is called wavelength
(λ). The number of waves passing through a point in one second is called frequency (ν).
The number of waves present in Unit length are called wave number (V ). The height of
the crest or depth of a trough is called amplitude.
1 V
Velocity of light (c) = ν . λ V= =
λ C
Light is electromagnetic radiation which possesses both the particle nature (black
body radiation & photo electric effect) and wave nature (diffraction and interference).
Particle nature of electromagnetic radiation was explained by Plank's quantum theory.
Plank's quantum theory:
 Black body radiation was successfully explained by Max Plank in 1900. A hallow
metallic sphere coated inside with platinum black with a fine hole acts as black body.
Which is a perfect absorber and perfect radiator of energy. Radiation is associated with
energy. The energy is emitted or absorbed by a body discontinuously in the form of a
small packet called "quantum". Energy is directly proportional to the frequency of
radiation. E ∞ ν
E=hν
Propagation of radiant energy in the form of quanta is called "quantization of
energy".
E = n . h ν (n = integer)
Curves are obtained by plotting 'E' against 'λ'. As the temperature increases, the
peak of the curve shifts to lower λ.
At a given temperature, the intensity of the radiant energy increases with the λ,
reaches maximum and then decreases.
In 1905, Einstein replaced the word quantum by "photon". He explained photo
electric effect. Emission of electrons from a clean metal surface when light (photons)
with suitable λ falls on it is called "photo electric effect". It is readily exhibited by alkali
metals.
h ν = W + K.E.
h ν = energy of photon
W = work function
K.E. = Kinetic energy of emitted electron.
The series of coloured bands obtained by splitting of electromagnetic radiation when
it is passed through prism is called "spectrum". The spectrum which is produced due to
excitation and de-excitation of electrons of atoms is called "line spectrum". This
spectrum has sharp, well defined and distinct lines. If the spectrum is produced by
molecules, it is called "Band spectrum", which has closely spaced lines (bands). The
study of emission or absorption spectra is known as "spectroscopy" and is useful in
chemical analysis.
Absorption spectrum" is produced due to excitation of atoms or molecules or ions, when they
absorb energy. This spectrum consists dark lines on a bright background. "Emission spectrum"
is produced due to emission of light by excited ions or atoms or molecules. This spectrum
consists of bright lines on a dark background.

Bohr's Model of Atom

Bohr's model of atom is a modification of Rutherford's model. It is based on Plank's
quantum theory and hydrogen spectrum.
Postulates:
* Electrons revolve round the nucleus in fixed, circular paths called 'orbits'.
* Orbits are denoted by 1, 2, 3, 4... or K, L, M, N ...
* Each orbit is associated with definite amount of energy called Energy levels.
* Electrons neither emit nor absorb energy when they revolve in a orbit called 'stationary orbit'.
* As 'n' value increases the size, energy of orbit increases. The angular momentum of an
electron is integral multiple of i.e. mvr =
* Energy absorbed or emitted by electron is given by ∆E = E2 - E1 = hν.
Explanation of emission spectrum of H-atom:
Of all the atomic spectra, the hydrogen spectrum is the simplest spectrum. H atom
has only one electron, but it gives 5 series of spectral lines. When H2 gas is heated or
exposed to light or subjected to electric discharge, electrons of different H atoms get
excited to different higher orbits and deexcites to different lower orbits in different
manner with the emission of energy and give 5 series of spectral lines. λ of a spectral
line in H atom can be calculated by using Rydberg's equation

R = 2π2 me4/ch3

if n2 - n1 = 1 (Hα)
n2 - n1 = 2 (Hβ)
n2 - n1 = 3 (Hγ)
From Lyman series to Pfund series λ increases, E, ν decreases. RH value is 109677 Z 2
cm-1. The spectral lines get closer and closer as we move from n2 = 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6
etc., Number of spectral lines formed when electron is coming from higher orbit n2 to
 n(n+1)
lower orbit n1 is where n = n2 - n1.
2
Limitations of Bohr's model
* This theory explains only spectra of H and H like species.
* This theory could not explain fine structure of H- spectrum.
* This model failed to explain Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
* This theory could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical
bonds.
* This model failed to explain why angular momentum should always be an integral
h
multiple of
2π
Derivation of equation for radius of nth orbit (rn):
H atom has 1 proton in its nucleus with +e charge. An electron with -e charge
revolves round the nucleus in a circular orbit of radius 'r'. As per Coulomb's law,
electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron is given by
centripetal (attractive) force

To make atom stable, an equal and opposite centrifugal force must act away from
the nucleus
2
−m v
Centripetal force = ……….(2)
r

by substituting (4) in (3)

= 0.529 × 10-8 n2 cm
Derivation of equation for Energy of electron in nth orbit
Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
Modern theory of atomic structure was proposed on the basis of quantum mechanics. The
branch of science that takes into account this dual behaviour of matter is called quantum
mechanics. It was developed by Heisenberg and Schrodinger. Quantum mechanical model of
atom is the picture of the structure of the atom. Main features of this model are:
* The energy of electrons in atoms is quantized.
* The existence of quantized electronic energy levels is a result of the wave nature of
electrons and also allowed solutions of Schrodinger wave equation.
* It is impossible to know exact position and momentum of an electron in an atom can not be
determined simultaneously (Heisenberg uncertainty principle)
h
∆x . ∆p ≥
4π
* Atomic orbital is the wave function Ψ for an electron in an atom. Ψ Must be finite, continuous
and single value.
* The probability of finding electron at a given point in an atom is proportional to Ψ2 (orbital).
* Schrodinger wave equation gives the probability of finding electron around nucleus

Ψ = wave function, m = mass of electron

E = total energy of electron, U = potential energy of e-
De Broglie Theory
All micro particles moving with high velocities are associated with wave characteristics
E = hν (plank's quantum theory) .............. (1)
E = mc2 (Einstein's theory) ........... (2)
from (1) & (2)
hc
mc2 = hν =
λ
 h h
∴ λ= = (where p = momentum)
mc p

If circumference of the electron orbit 2 πr = nλ, electron wave is in phase. If 2πr ≠ nλ, electron
wave is not in phase.

Quantum Numbers
A set of numbers used to provide complete description of an electron (energy and its complete
address) in an atom are called quantum numbers. Four quantum numbers, i.e. Principal,
Azimuthal, Magnetic and Spin quantum numbers are required for this purpose.
1. Principal Quantum number (n):
* It was proposed by Neils - Bohr.
* Is is denoted by 'n'.
* n values can be denoted by K, L, M, N... or 1, 2, 3, 4...
* The size and energy of the orbit increases with the increase of n.
* It also represents the distance between the electron and nucleus.
* The number of electrons present in an orbit = 2 n2.
nh
* Angular momentum of an electron in an orbit =
2π
* This quantum number indicates the size and energy of the orbit.
2. Azimuthal Quantum number (l):
* It was proposed by sommerfeld.
* It is denoted by 'l'.
* The values of l = 0, 1, 2, 3... (n-1)
* It represents sub - shells (s, p, d, f) in a shell.
* The number of subshells in an orbit are equal to 'n'.
* When l = 0, 1, 2, 3... electron belongs to the subshell s, p, d, f respectively.
* The shapes of s, p, d, f orbitals are spherical, dumb-bell, double dumb-bell and four fold
dumb-bell.
* Energy of these sub-shells: s < p < d < f.
* The number of electrons present in a sub-shell are equal to 2(2l + 1), i.e. 2 electrons in s, 6
electrons in p, 10 electrons in d and 14 electrons are present in f sub-shells.
* This quantum number indicates the shape of the orbital.
3. Magnetic quantum number (m):
* It was proposed by Lande to explain Zeeman effect.
* It is denoted by m.
* m values are ranging from -l to 0 to +l.
* m has (2l + 1) values.
* m values are 1, 3, 5, 7 if l values are 0, 1, 2, 3 respectively.
* The energy of all the orbitals present in a sub-shell is same.
* m value indicates the total number of orbitals in a sub-shell.
* The no. of orbitals in s, p, d, f sub-shells are 1, 3, 5, 7 respectively.
* No. of orbitals in any orbit = n2

This quantum number indicates orientation of an orbital.

4. Spin quantum number (s):
* It was proposed by George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmith.
* It is denoted by s.
* Electron can spin on its own axis either in clock wise direction (is denoted by + or
↑) & in anti clock wise direction (is denoted by - or ↓).
* For every value of m, there can be two 's' values.
* Maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2 (one electron makes clock wise
spin, other electron makes anti clock wise spin).
* The difference between the 2 spin quantum numbers is 1.
* Spin quantum number indicates the spin of the electron in an orbital.
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
Atomic orbital is the space around the nucleus where the probability of finding an
electron (Ψ2) is maximum (95%). The probability of finding electron within the radial
space around the nucleus is called radial probability distribution. It can be calculated by
using the formula
4πr2 dr Ψ2. The radial space at which the radial probability of finding electron is Zero is
called "node" or "radial node" or "nodal region". It is the space between two similar
orbitals. The number of nodes are equal to n-l-1. The probability of finding electron at
the nucleus is Zero and is called "nodal point". The plane passing through this point is
called "nodal plane" (or angular node). The number of nodal planes of orbital are equal
to "l". The total number of radial nodes and angular nodes for any orbital are equal to (n
-1). The nodal planes of px orbital is yz, py is zx, pz is xy, dxy are yz & zx, dyz are zx &
xy, dzx are yz & xy and dx2-y2 are yz & zx.
The shape of the orbital depends on n & l values.
s - orbital: The shape of s orbital is spherical. Its
l = 0. It is non directional orbital.
p - orbital: The shape of p orbital is dumb-bell and having 2 lobes. Its l = 1. These
orbitals are degenerate orbitals and are directional. If they orient along x, y, z axes they
are called px, py, and pz orbitals.
Orbital: px py pz
m value: ±1 ±1 0
p orbital has one nodal plane.

d-orbital: The shape of d orbital is double dumb-bell and having 4 lobes. Its l = 2.
dxy, dyz, dzx orbitals are oriented in between the axes. Where as dx2-y2, dz2 orient
along the axes.
Orbital: dxy dyz dzx dx2-y2 dz2
m value: ±2 ±1 ±1 ±2 0

f-orbital: The shape of f orbital is 4 fold dumb-bell and having 8 lobes. Its l = 3. Seven f
orbitals are fx3, fy3, fz3, fxyz, fx (y2 - z2), fy (z2 - x2) and fz (x2 - y2).
The energy order of the orbital is s < p < d < f.
Electronic Configuration
The distribution of electrons in different orbitals present in an atom of an element is
called "electronic configuration". It is governed by Aufbau principle, Paulis exclusion
principle and Hund's rule.
Aufbau Principle
Electrons enter into various atomic orbitals in an atom in increasing order of the energy
of atomic orbitals. Energy sequence of atomic orbitals can be remembered either by
Moeller's diagram or by (n + l) rules. Electron first enters into atomic orbital whose n + l
value is lowest. If n + l values are same for different atomic orbitals, orbital with lowest n
value will be filled first. The order of filling electrons is
1s < 2s < 2px = 2py = 2pz < 3s < 3px = 3py = 3pz < 4s < 3dxy = 3dyz = 3dzx = 3dx2-
y2 = 3dz2< 4px = 4py = 4pz < 5s <...........

Pauli's exclusion principle:

No two electrons in an atom will have the same set of values for 4 quantum
numbers. Mean while an orbital can accommodate maximum of 2 electrons with
opposite spins.
n l m s
eg: He 1st electron: 1 0 0 +
2nd electron: 1 0 0 -

Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity:

Pairing of electrons in atomic orbitals of the same sub-shell takes place only after
filling each orbital with one electron. The pairing of electrons in p, d, f orbitals start with
the entry of 4th, 6th and 8th electron respectively.
By keeping all these 3 rules in mind one can write electronic configuration by nlx
method.
Stability of completely filled and half filled sub shells:
Sub-shells either half filled or completely filled are more stable due to lowering of
energy (due to the exchange energy) and symmetrical distribution of electrons. More
repulsions are observed when two electrons are with parallel spins.
Lowering energy = total possible exchangeable sets × K
Where K = Average exchange energy for a set of 2 parallel spins
possible sets = nC2 = eg. For Cr - 24
If valency shell configuration = 4s2 3d4

No. of sets =
Lowering of energy = 10 K
If valency shell configuration = 4s13d5

no. of sets =
Lowering of energy = 15 K
For Chromium 3d5 4s1 configuration is more stable than that of 3d4 4s2.
Atoms:Questions and Answers
4. What is node and nodal plane? How many nodal planes are possible for 2p and 3d orbitals?
A: The point where the probability of finding electron is called nodal point or "node". The plane
passing through node is called "nodal plane".
number of nodal planes = l
nodal planes for 2p = 1
nodal planes for 3d = 2

5. Explain briefly Planck's quantum theory.

A: Black body radiation was successfully explained by Max Planck. A hollow metallic sphere
coated inside with platinum black with a fine hole acts as black body. Which is a perfect
absorber and perfect radiator of energy.
→ The emission of radiation is due to vibrations of electrons in the body.
→ Radiation is associated with energy.
→ The energy is emitted or absorbed by a body discontinuously in the form of small packets
called "Quantum".
→ Energy α υ E = hυ
→ Propagation of radiant energy is in the form of quanta is called "quantization of energy".
E = n.hυ (n = integer)
Curves are obtained by plotting E against λ. As T increases, the peak of the curve shifts to
lower λ. At a given T, the intensity of the radiant energy increases with the λ, reaches maximum
and then decreases.
6. Explain the difference between emission spectra and absorption spectra.

7. Define atomic orbital. Explain the shapes of s, p and d orbitals with the help of diagrams.
A: The three dimensional space around the nucleus of atom. Where the probability of finding an
electron is maximum (95%) is called atomic orbital.
Shape of s Orbital: It is spherical in shape & has non directional property. Its l = 0

Shape of p Orbital: The shape of p orbital is dumb-bell and having 2 lobes. The lobes are
oriented along X, Y, Z axes to give px, py, pz orbitals.

Shape of d Orbital: The shape of d orbital is double dumb-bell and having 4 lobes. If the lobes
are oriented along Z axis, gives dz2 orbital, oriented along X and Y axes, gives
dx2 - y2 orbital, between 2 axes gives dxy, dyz and dzx orbitals.

Chapter-14: NUCLEI
(Nucleus - The Store House of Energy)
 The universe consists of MATTER and ENERGY. All the time matter is converted into
energy. But for this phenomenon 'Life' would not have survived. This study of matter and energy
is physics.
Matter comprises of atoms. Matter can be converted into energy. Infact, Albert Einstein
propounded that matter is a different form of energy! - Matter is a coiled energy!
Tiny 'Atom' consists of a central nucleus around which electrons are revolving in circular
orbits. The energy of an atom is stored in the nucleus - which is called 'Atomic energy' or
'Nuclear energy'. When lord Krishna while explaining the secrets (Science) of MATTER and
Energy to Arjuna had shown his 'Viswa Roopa' (Cosmic form) which was as bright as thousnad
Suns! When the first atom bomb was exploded on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Japan
cities), the light emitted was more than that of 'Viswa Roopa'. That is what the author 'Robert
Jugnk' describes in his famous book 'Brighter than Thousand Suns'. That is the power of nuclear
energy, the energy in the nucleus. This chapter is the 'biography' of that Nucleus!
Lord Rutherford discovered the central portion of an atom called "NUCLEUS" in which
nearly all the mass of the atom was concentrated as a positive charge.
COMPOSITON OF THE NUCLEUS:
Rutherford's experiment on the scattering of α particles, when they passed through a thin gold
foil, showed that some α particles were deflected through more than 90º. From this experiment
Rutherford concluded that in every atom there exists a small entity where all the positive charge
is crowded, which exerts a strong force of repulsion on the α particles. This small entity, carrying
a positive charge is called 'NUCLEUS'.

The nucleus is spherical in shape and has a radius of 10−15 m. Now the question is what are
the constituents of nucleus.
The entire mass of atom is concentrated inside the nucleus. The nucleus consists of positively
charged protons and chargeless neutrons. Proton has a positive charge equal in magnitude to that
of the charge of an electron. The mass of proton is greater than that of electron. The neutron is
chargeless whose mass is little more than that of proton.
Protons and Neutrons are the constituents of nucleus and are called 'NUCLEONS'.
The total number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom is called the 'mass number' and is
denoted as 'A'.
The number of protons in an atom (nucleus) is called the atomic number and is denoted as 'Z'
and the number of neutrons is denoted as 'N'.
Thus A = Z + N
 It is a convention to write the nucleus of an atom as where 'X' represents the chemical
symbol of the element whose atomic and mass numbers are 'Z' and 'A' respectively.
For example, 92U235 represents that U is a symbol of Uranium whose atomic number is 92 and
mass number is 235. Similarly, for Helium 2He4 (Atomic number 2 and mass number 4).
Thus 92U235 represents the Uranium nucleus which contain 235 nucleons (92 protons and 143
neutrons).

NUCLEUS SIZE - TIP OF A PIN IN AN AUDITORIUM

The size of a nucleus in an atom can be compared to the tip of a pin kept at the centre of a
circular auditorium. That way the whole of the atom is filled almost with empty space.
Rutherford's experiments of α (alpha) particle scattering established the size of the nucleus. i.e.,
the radius of the nucleus is found to be approximately equal to 10−15 m.
The 'volume' of the nucleus (V) is found to be proportional to its 'mass number'.
Considering the nucleus is spherical in shape of radius 'R' and mass number 'A', its volume
can be written as
V∞A

Nuclear distances are measured in units called 'Fermi'.

1 Fermi (F) = 10−15 m
'Fermi' is named after scientist Enrico Fermi, whose theories on nuclear fission are well known.
Electron Volt (eV) - Unit of atomic energy
For measuring energies in atomic reactions 'Joule' (J) is not a convenient unit as it is very
large. Electron Volt (eV) and especially its size is convenient. For example, to remove one
electron from an atom of Hydrogen 13.6 eV of energy required.
An electron volt (eV) is the amount of energy that should be given to an electron of charge 1.6 ×
10−19 coulombs (c) on being accelerated through a potential difference of one volt.
... 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 × 1 J = 1.6 × 10−19 J
Nuclear forces are very much larger than atomic forces. Therefore in dealing with nuclei,
bigger unit, a million electron volt (MeV) equal to 106 eV is used.
Units of masses of Electron, Proton and Neutron
Although 'eV' used as the unit of atomic and nuclear energies, another unit of energy is that
of mass, as mass and energy are mutually convertible according to the 'Theory of Relativity' of
Albert Einstein and the famous equation E = mc2 (Matter is form of coiled energy).
As the masses of atoms, nuclei and the fundamental particles (electron, proton, neutron etc)
are very very small, and more over they are not visible for naked eye.
 Their masses cannot be find by using a balance as the masses of other objects are found in
ordinary life!
Hence in order to express the masses of elementary particles a new unit called atomic mass
unit (amu or U) has been adopted.

Thus 1 amu (U) =

1
12
(mass of Carbon) =
1 12
( =
1
12 N gm N gm)
Where N is Avogadro number i.e. number of atoms in 1 gm of Carbon
= 6.02 × 1023 = 6.02 × 1026 kg mol−1

1 amu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg.

On this scale,
i) The mass of proton is 1.00752 U = 1.652 × 10−27 kg
ii) The mass of electron is 0.00055 U = 9 × 10−31 kg
iii) The mass of neutron is 1.00893 U = 1.674 × 10−27 kg
Applying Einstein's formula for mass - energy equivalence E = mc2, be find that when 1
amu of mass is annihilated, it is equivalent to energy given by
E = 1.66 × 10−27 × (3 × 108)2 J

= 931 × 106 eV
Thus 1 amu = 931 MeV
and 1 electron mass = 9 × 10−31 kg = 0.5 MeV
NUCLEAR FORCES
It is quite amazing to note that the nucleons in a nucleus are together and remain
intact in such a small size approximately 10−14 m. The question is that what is the type
of these strong attractive forces which bind these nucleons together in nucleus?
 These attractive forces cannot be the electrostatic coulomb forces between
charged particles or gravitational forces. If electrostatic force is present, the repulsion
between two protons (as they are positively charged) would make the nucleus most
unstable. They cannot account for the strong forces between the nucleons which are
responsible for the large binding energy in the nucleus which is the order of 1 MeV per
nucleon. Even the gravitational force cannot account for the same, as the gravitational
force between two nucleons is infinitesimally small. Therefore, to account for the
existence of nuclei, a very 'strong force' called 'nuclear force' has to be considered.

FEATURES OF NUCLEAR FORCES

The electrostatic coulomb forces act between any pair of charges at any distance
are obeying inverse square law. But the situation in case of nucleons in a nucleus is
different, as they are closely packed in a tiny nucleus. The forces which hold the
nucleons together exists between the individual neighbouring nucleons separated by a
distance of the order of 10−15 m. Thus the nuclear forces between the nucleons are
'short range forces'! Operating over very short distances.
THREE KINDS OF FORCES
Nuclear forces are of three kinds.
1. The force between a proton and a neutron (pn force)
2. The force between two protons (pp force)
3. The force between two neutrons (nn force)
All these forces are 'attractive forces'. In case of (pp) nuclear force there is also a
repulsive force between two protons, but this is a weak force compared to the strong
nuclear force there is an experimental evidence to show that (pp), (pn), (nn) forces are
equal there by showing that the 'nuclear force is charge independent' i.e. it does not
depend on the charge of the particle.
'Yukawa' and 'Meson': On theoritical basis in 1935 Yukawa, a Japanese scientist
predicted a new particle, the Meson which could have a positive or negative charge or
may be a neutral. He assumed this new particle is exchanged between the nucleons
and the corresponding exchanging force is responsible for the binding energy of the
nucleons.
 Nuclear forces are thus produced by a 'Meson field' similar to the electromagnetic
field but of shorter range. The prediction of Yukawa was confirmed by the experimental
discovery of μ 'meson' in 1936 and π 'meson' in 1947.
Anderson and Needer Mayer observed experimentally these particles in 1936 while
investigating cosmic rays and gave the name. 'Mesotrans' (In Greek meaning
intermediate, their mass being in between that of proton and electron). Later the
abbreviated name 'Meson' was given by Homi J.Bhabha, the Indian scientist in the year
1939 which is now in popular usage.

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OF FORCES BETWEEN NUCLEONS

The order of the magnitude of strong attractive nuclear forces can be illustrated with
the following example.
The distance 'r' between the electron and the proton in the hydrogen atom is about
5.3 × 10−11 m.
From Coulomb's law, the electrical force between them is

The gravitational force between them is given by

Thus, the electrical force is about 1039 times stronger than the gravitational force(A
piece of paper left from a height falls on the ground because of gravitational force.
This piece of paper can be easily attracted by a glass rod rubbed with silk possessing
electrical force!!)
Now, let us consider the repulsive coulomb force between two protons, in a nucleus
of Iron separated by a distance of 4 × 10−15 m.
 To compensate this enormous repulsive force, the attractive nuclear forces between
nucleons must be stronger i.e. greater in magnitude. This example shows that the
nuclear binding forces are much stronger than atomic binding forces. Atomic binding
forces are in turn, much stronger than gravitational forces.
The (pp), (pn) and (nn) nuclear forces are equal.
The magnitude of the coulomb energy between two protons is nearly equal to 2.5
MeV. This energy is very small compared with the average binding energy per particle
which is about 8 MeV.
Nuclear forces are strongest forces in nature.
The gravitational, electrical (Coulomb's) and nuclear forces between nucleons are in the
ratio
Fg : Fe : Fn = 1 : 1036 : 1038
They depend on the spin of the nucleon. When the spins of two nucleons are parallel
the forces between them are strong. If the spins are antiparallel, the forces between
nucleons are weak.
These forces will not act along the line joining the nucleons i.e. they are non central
forces.
Each nucleon attracts those nucleons which are just next to it. It will not attract all the
nucleons. Thus nuclear forces are saturated forces.
Nuclear forces are due to the result of the exchange of Π mesons between the
nucleons. Thus they are exchange forces.
MASS DEFECT AND NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY:
In general, it has been found that mass of a nucleus is less than sum of the masses
of protons and neutrons which constitute the nucleus.
For example, consider the 2He4 nucleus. Helium nucleus has 2 neutrons and 2
protons and the mass of the Helium nucleus is 4.0016 U.
Mass of 2 protons = 2 × 1.0075 = 2.0150 U
Mass of 2 neutrons = 2 × 1.0089 = 2.0178 U
Total mass = 4.0328 U
Thus, the mass of constituent parts of helium nucleus is greater than the mass of
the helium nucleus. In general, this is the case with all the nuclei.
This difference between the real mass of a nucleus and the sum of the rest masses
of its constituent nucleons is called the mass defect.
For helium, mass defect = 4.0328 − 4.0016 = 0.0312 U

How to account for this mass defect?

BINDING ENERGY
As the mass of a nucleus is found to be less than the sum of the masses of its
protons and neutrons, the protons and neutrons are brought together to form the
nucleus, there is a decrease in mass. According to Einstein’s mass - energy relation,
the disappearance of mass Δm is accompanied by the release of an amount of energy
E = Δm.c2 where c is the velocity of light in vacuum. This energy gives the necessary
potential for the nucleons to bind together and is called the binding energy, which is due
to the decrease in the total mass defect of the system i.e. mass defect is converted into
binding energy correspondingly, the same energy must be given to the nucleus if it is
required to break the nucleus into parts.
 Thus, binding energy is the energy liberated when 'Z' protons and 'N' neutrons
combine to form a nucleus (or) it is the work required to separate a nucleus into its
neutrons and protons.
Binding energy Eb is given by
Eb = [(mass of Z protons + mass of N neutrons) - mass of nucleus)]
= Δm . c2 where Δm is the mass defect
In general, binding energy per nucleon is calculated,
E 1
which is b = (∆ m .c 2 )
A A
Where A is the total number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) in the nucleus. A graph
is shown between binding energy per nucleon and mass number A

The following facts found experimentally about nuclear binding energy.

1. Greater the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus.
2. Binding energy rises sharply for low value of mass number A.
3. He4, Li8, C12 and O16 are more stable than other nuclei.
4. The maximum value of binding energy per nucleon is 8.8 MeV

DISCOVERY OF 'NEUTRON'
According to Rutherford and Bohr atom models the mass of an atom is primarily due to the
mass of the nucleus which contains positively charged particles called 'Protons'.
Then, Why Neutrons?
 It is found that 'atomic mass', in case of light nuclei, is approximately twice the mass of
protons in them and in case of heavier nuclei this ratio is more. For example, the atomic mass of
helium is 4.0026 U and its atomic number is 2 (Atomic number is number of protons in an atom).
Similarly, this kind of anomaly was found in case of other elements. Inspite of different theories
put forward, this discrepancy of the mass of the nucleus continued until Rurtherford had
'predicted' the existence of a particle along with proton inside the nucleus which is chargeless
(neutral) called 'neutron' as early as 1920. Neutrons should be 'chargeless because in atom, the
negative charge of the electrons are balancing the positive charge on the protons inside the
nucleus and neutrons should account for the atomic mass of the atom along with the protons.
But no experimental evidence of neutron was obtained as it was an uncharged particle; so it
could not be detected by any particle detector like 'Wilson Cloud Chamber'.
In 1930, The German scientists 'Bothe' and 'Becker' reported that when certain light elements,
like Beryllium and Boron, were exposed to α particle radiation from Polonium, a very highly
penetrating radiation was obtained, which they thought might be high energy gamma rays.
Joliot - Curies (Frederic Joliot, husband of Irene Curie, daughter of Marie (Madam) Curie -
both husband and wife are Noble laureates for their discovery of 'artificial radioactivity' - 'Nobel'
has become a family affair!!) investigated that these radiations knock out protons from paraffin
and other substances containing hydrogen.
The process can be represented as shown in figure 2.

But Joliot - Curies were not aware of Rutherford's prediction ten years earlier, and they were
not able to give any explanation of this radiation.
 The experiment was repeated by James Chadwick, a British scientist in 1932 who gave a
satisfactory explanation by suggesting that the unknown radiation consisted of uncharged
particles of mass similar to that of protons. These particles are called 'Neutrons'.
The neutrons are emitted according to the equation.
1) In case of Beryllium
4Be + 2He →6C → 6C + 0n (neutron)
9 4 13 12 1

2) In case of Boron
5B + 2He →7N + 0n (neutron)
11 4 14 1

As neutron is charge less, it has high penetrating power.

Neutron is represented by 0n1 because it has zero charge and its mass number is unity.
A schematic diagram of Chadwick's apparatus is shown in figure 3.

'S' is a source of alpha particles (Polonium) and 'T' is a Beryllium target placed in a chamber 'C'
which is highly evacuated. α particles from the source 'S' hit the target 'T' and the resulting
particles are registered in a cloud chamber (ionisation chamber D) with a window 'W'. A Paraffin
slab can be placed between 'C' and 'D' when desired. Chadwick observed that when Paraffin was
not placed, very few counts were registered in the counter. But when a thin slab of Paraffin was
placed infront of D, the number of counts increased. This is because of the fact that neutrons in
collision with the hydrogen atoms contained in Paraffin give up their energy to the protons of
hydrogen atoms, and these protons emitted from Paraffin are recorded. But, if the Paraffin slab is
removed, the number of counts again reduces considerably. This is due to the fact that neutrons
being uncharged, they by themselves cannot produced ionisation directly in the chamber. Even
the few counts registered before introducing the Paraffin slab are due to the ions ejected by
neutrons from the walls of the chamber.
Properties of Neutron
1) Neutron is one of the fundamental particles forming the nucleus of elements and the charge
on it is zero.
 2) As it is uncharged particle, it is not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
3) They do not produce ionisation in gases, being charge less.
4) They are highly penetrating.
5) As they are electrical neutral, they disintegrate nuclei of other atoms effectively.
7N + 0n → 4C + 1H (Proton)
14 1 14 1

6C + 0n → 7N + −1e (β - particle)
14 1 14 1

6) Slow neutrons are very effective in bringing nuclear fission.

7) A free neutron is unstable particle and undergoes radioactive beta decay into a proton, an
electron and a neutrino.

The half − life for this decay is 1.3 minutes.

Uses of Neutron
1) Neutrons are used in research work in Physics, Chemistry, Medicine and Biology.
2) Slow neutrons are used in nuclear fission in atom bomb.
3) Fast neutrons are used in disintegration of nuclei to get radio-isotopes which have great
importance in medicine, biology, agriculture and industry etc.
Radioactivity - Prelude to Nuclear Fission
It is an astonishing phenomenon exhibited by nature. While studying the fluorescent effects of
cathode rays, Roentgen (the first Noble Prize winner in Physics in 1901) a German Physicist
made a startling discovery in 1895 that when fast moving cathode rays strike an obstacle, an
unknown, invisible, penetrating radiation originates from the point, where the cathode ray
particles are brought to rest and called them X - rays. (It is the style of mathematics to assume
any unknown quantity as 'X').

On hearing Roentgen's work, the French Physicist Henry Becquerel wanted to investigate if
there was any connection between X - rays and the light emitted by a fluorescent material. He
found that a crystal of Potassium uranyl sulphate, when exposed to sunlight, emitted radiation
which was able to pass through a black paper and effect a photographic plate placed under it.
 At first he thought the effect was caused by sunlight, inducing fluorescence. But on one
occasion in 1896, it so happened that it was cloudy for three days and he could not expose the
crystal to sunlight and kept in darkness of a table drawer, over photographic plates wrapped in a
black paper. As the sun has refused to shine on the fourth day, he developed the photographic
plates 'just for interest' expecting certain faint images on them. But he was surprised to find that
the images were very well developed. This showed that the sunlight was not the cause of the
penetrating radiation as was originally supposed. In fact it was shown that this potassium uranyl
sulphate was emitting an invisible and penetrating radiation. Whether it was exposed to sunlight
or shut in darkness. On further investigation, it was found that radiation were able to pass
through opaque materials and also cause ionization in air. These rays were called 'Becquerel
rays'.

Marie Curie enters on the stage

At the end of 1895, Marie Curie, a brilliant young and remarkable Polish scientist, was
looking for a new field of research for her doctoral thesis. She found 'Becquerel rays' was
suitable subject about which very little was known at that time.
She was constantly aided by her guide and professor Piere Curie, who subsequently became
her husband. The first result which madam Curie obtained in her research was that the intensity
of radiation given off from a particular sample of Potassium uranyl sulphate was proportional to
the quantity of 'uranium' present in it. This led her to believe that the 'radiation' was an 'atomic
property'. She set out to examine the compounds of all elements to see if they also produce
radiations of this type. Soon she found that 'Thorium' also emitted such radiations. Thus, no more
these radiations were the property of radium only and so they could not be labelled as 'uranium
rays'. In 1898, she suggested the name 'Radioactivity' for the phenomenon (from Latin word
'radius' for a ray).
 Next, she directed her attention in examining all minerals containing uranium and thorium.
She found that the intensity of radioactivity shown by mineral Pitchblende (the ore of uranium)
is much greater than that yielded by similar quantities of uranium in pure state. Hence it was
evident to Curies that there was another element of great radioactive strength present in the
mineral, Pitchblende. After a very elaborate and tedious process of chemical treatment and
fractional crystallization, they isolated from Uranium ore another concentrated radioactive
element called 'Polonium' (named after Marie Curie's native country Poland).
But the intensity of radioactivity from Pitchblende was so great that both Uranium and Polonium
contents could not account for. After a few months Curies isolated from tons of Pitchblende ore
decigram (a very small quantity) of new element called 'Radium' and found that it emitted
radiations much stronger (a few million times) than Uranium (the name radium for the intense
radiations associated with it). All these radioactive radiations which can pass through all
substances could not penetrate through lead.
Marie Curie had the rare distinction of being the only scientist to be awarded Nobel Prize
twice in two basic branches of science, namely Physics along with Piere Curie and Becquerel
and later after the death of her husband in chemistry all by herself. But the most tragic thing is,
Madam Curie became victim of her, own invention. The radiations of 'radium' which cure the
deadly disease like cancer, had entered her body and affected all the vital organs (which was not
known in those days) and killed her. A candle while give 'light' to the surroundings melts by
itself.
Experiments by Becquerel and Curies in France, Rurtherford in England, showed that there
were three types of radioactive radiations which, in increasing order of penetrating power were
called, alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) rays (radioactive decay).
This phenomenon was named as 'radioactivity' and exhibited by the elements whose atomic
numbers range from 83 to 92.
Thus, radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of nuclei of atoms of high atomic weight
with emission of certain penetrating radiations.
The radioactive radiations are due to the disintegration of the nucleus of an atom and
positively charged α - particles should not be misunderstood with protons, negatively charged β
particles with electrons in the orbit and neutral γ rays with neutrons of an atom. All these
radiations are emanating from nucleus.
Thus breaking of nucleus in 'radioactivity' can be considered as a prelude of breaking of the
nucleus by scientists in future by 'nuclear fission'.
'Radioactivity can be considered as a phenomenon in which unstable nucleus under goes a decay
which is called 'radioactive decay'.
Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature.
i) α - decay in which a helium nucleus 2He4 is emitted.
ii) β - decay in which electrons or positrons (particles having same mass has that of electrons,
but with a charge opposite to that of electrons i.e. of positive charge)
(iii) γ – decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV) photons are emitted.
Alpha decay
Example: Decay of 'Uranium' to 'Thorium' with emission of helium nucleus.
92U
238
→ 90Th234 + 2He4
In α - decay, the mass number of the product nucleus is four less than the decaying nucleus
while the atomic number decrease by two.
The decaying nucleus is called 'parent nucleus' while the product nucleus is called 'daughter
nucleus' (probably, because Mary Curie had two daughters and not a son!!)
In general, α decay of a parent nucleus.
ZAX results in a daughter nucleus Z−2YA-4
ZAX→ Z−2YA−4 + 2He4
From Einstein's mass - energy equivalence E = mc2, and principle of conservation of
energy, it can be seen that this spontaneous decay is possible only when the total mass
of the decay products is less than the mass of the initial nucleus. This difference in
mass appears as kinetic energy of the products.
The disintegration energy or the Q - value of nuclear reaction is the difference
between the initial mass - energy and the total mass - energy of the decay products.
For α decay, Q = (mx − my − mHe) C2
Q is also the net kinetic energy gained in the process or, if the initial nucleus X is at rest,
the kinetic energy of the products. Clearly, Q > 0 for exothermic processes such as α -
decay.
Beta - decay
In beta decay, a nucleus spontaneously emits a negatively charged beta particle (β−
decay) or a positron (β+ decay).
A common example of β− decay is

and that of β+ is
11Na →10Ne
22 22
+ e+ + ν
In β− decay the emission of negatively charged β particle is accompanied by
emission of anti nutrino (β−).
In β+ decay, a neutrino (ν) and positron are emitted.
Neutrino is neutral particle with no charge, and almost zero mass. (Neutrino meaning
little neutral one) and hence it cannot interact with matter. So its detection is very
difficult. It can penetrate large quantity of matter even earth without any interaction.
Neutrinos are generated on a large scale in the sun in nuclear reactions.
In radioactive decay it was found that the laws of conservation of momentum and
energy were obeyed in case of α and γ decay, but not in β decay. To account for this
discrepancy, Wolfgang Pauli postulated the existence of this new particle 'neutrino'.
In both β− decay and β+ decay, the mass number A remains unchanged. In β−
decay, the atomic number 'Z' of the nucleus goes up by 1, while in β+ decay 'Z' goes
down by 1. The basic nuclear process underlying β− decay is the conversion of neutron
 to proton.
−¿+ν ¿
n → p+ e

While for β+ decay, it is the conversion of proton into neutron.

p → n + e+ + ν
While a free neutron decays to proton, the decay of proton to neutron is possible only
inside the nucleus, since proton has smaller mass than neutron.
Gamma Decay
Just like in an atom, a nucleus also will have discrete energy levels i.e. the ground
state and excited states. But the scale of energy is very different. Atomic energy level
spacings are of the order of eV, where as the difference in nuclear energy levels is of
the order of MeV. When a nucleus in an excited state spontaneously decays to its lower
energy state, a photon is emitted with energy equal to the difference in the two energy
levels of the nucleus. This is called gamma decay. The energy (in MeV) corresponds to
radiation of extremely short wavelength, shorter than the hard X - rays.
Laws of Radioactive Decay
According to Soddy and Rutherford, radioactive atoms are unstable and they
disintegrate (decay) according to the laws of probability (laws of chance). The
disintegration of a single atom is accompanied by α or β particle or X - ray. The
disintegration occurs at random from a radioactive substance as regards with time and
direction which particular atom of the substance disintegrates first depends upon
chance only. Radioactivity is a statistical phenomenon.
Laws of Decay
1st Law: Every atom of radioactive element is constantly breaking into fresh
radioactive products with emission of alpha, beta and gamma rays. The new products
have entirely new chemical and radioactive properties than that of the parent atom.
2nd Law: The rate of disintegration i.e. the number of atoms breaking per second at
any instant, is directly proportional to the number of atoms present (just as in our daily
life, normally not a miser, the rate at which we spend our money depends on the money
that present in our Wallet!!) at that instant and is independent of the external physical
conditions like temperature, pressure (atmospheric conditons), chemical conditions etc.
Suppose at a time 't' there are 'N' radioactive atoms in an element.
Let 'dN' atoms disintegrate in a time 'dt'. As the rate of disintegration is directly
proportional to the number of atoms present.
dN dN
∝N or =−λN
dt dt

Where 'λ' is called 'the radioactive constant on decay (disintegration) constant.

The negative sign shows that with increase in disintegration, the value of N
decreases (as money decreases with spending).

dN
=−λ dt
N
Where k is constant of integration.
When t = 0, N = N0 where N0 is the number of atoms originally present.
log N0 = k
Substituting this value of k in equation (i)
log eN = − λt + logeN0
N N −λt
log =−λt or ∴ log =e
N0 N0
−λt
Or N=N 0 e ……(ii)
This shows that the number of radioactive atoms in a radioactive element decreases
exponentially with time.
This is known as disintegration law of radioactive element.
The graph between 'N' and 't' is shown in figure 4.
Half - life period (T)
The half-life period of a radioactive substance is defined as the time required for one
half of the original radioactive atoms of the substance to disintegrate.
Why half life period? for all the atoms of a radioactive element to disintegrate it takes
millions of years which is called Life Period of that element. Hence half life period is
considered and defined. So, half life period is not half of life period, but time taken for
half the atoms to disintegrate.
Let T be the half - life period of a radioactive substance.
We know N=N 0 e−λt ……..(ii)
If N0 is the original number of atoms.
N
After a time t = T (half life period), the number of atoms present = 0
2
Thus, half - life period depends upon the disintegration constant (λ) of the substance and is
different for different substances.
In figure 4, half life period of radioactive substance is shown. It should be remembered that
after twice the half - life period, about one quarter of the substance still remains. The whole
substance will take a very long time to disintegrate completely, as shown by 'exponential curve'
running parallel to the time axis.
To understand what is half - life let us consider 'radium' as illustration. One half of any
number of radium atoms will disintegrate into simpler atoms in 1620 years.
One half of what remains on one fourth of original atoms will decay in next 1620 years and so
on. This period of 1620 years is called half-life of radium.
Nuclear Fission - Principle of 'ATOM BOMB'!
In 1934, Enrico Fermi and his co-workers attempted to form the elements beyond Uranium (Z
= 92) which at that time was the last element in periodic table. As they knew, by that time, that
the emission of a 'β particle' increases the atomic number by one. They bombarded uranium
with neutrons, which emitted β -particles with different half-periods. Thus trans - uranic elements
whose atomic numbers is greater than 92 were discovered.

In 1938, Otto Hahn and Strassmann made similar experiments and were investigating the
effects of 'bombarding Uranium' with 'slow neutrons'. By careful chemical analysis of the
products, they found that one of the product nuclei was an isotope of 'Barium' of atomic number
56 (56Ba141) and not a heavier element, as predicted by Fermi. They further found that 'Barium'
was accompanied by a radioactive element of the gas 'Krypton' (Z = 36). The atomic numbers of
these two nuclides add upto 92 i.e. atomic number of Uranium.
It remained for Madam Meitner and her nephew Frisch in January 1939 to take lead in these
investigations. Referring to Hahn and Strassmann's experiments, they stated that ''It seems
possible that Uranium nucleus has only small stability of farm, and after neutron capture, it
divides itself into two nuclei of roughly equal size".
The name 'fission' was given to this process, as it resembled division of cells in biology (from
the Latin word 'fizzion' which means 'cleaving'). Further they found that only Uranium - 235
undergoes this process of fission, though naturally occuring Uranium has 93.3% of Uranium -
238 and 0.7% of Uranium - 235. It is of historical interest to note that this discovery was made in
Germany a few months before the beginning of the Second World War.
Thus, Nuclear fission is the process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavy atom into two,
more or less equal fragments, with the release of large amount of energy.
When Uranium - 235 is bombarded with neutrons, a Uranium nucleus captures a slow neutron,
forming an unstable compound necleus (92U236). The compound nucleus splits into two nearly
equal fragments, Barium (56Ba141) and Krypton (36Kr92), releasing 3 neutrons and energy Q.
(figure 5)

The reaction can be written as

92U
235
+ 0n1 →56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Q
Energy released in Fission
In the process of nuclear fission, a large amount of energy is released. The energy
is produced, because the original mass of the nucleus of Uranium, before fission is
greater than the sum of the masses of the products after fission. The difference
between the masses, before and after fission, is converted into energy according to
Einstein's equation E = mc2.
The energy liberated per fission is calculated by considering the fission reaction as
follows:
92U
235
+ 0n1 →56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Q (energy)
This decrease in mass is converted into energy.
Since 1 amu = 931 MeV
... Energy released = 0.2253 × 931 = 209.8 MeV
Thus, in the process of fission of one nucleus of Uranium, about 200 MeV energy is
released.
It is found that 1 kg of Uranium after fission delivers as much energy as the
combustion of about 3000 tonnes of coal. This energy is known as nuclear or atomic
energy.
Level of Nuclear Energy
The nuclear energy of about 200 MeV is accounted for as the sum of the energy of γ
rays (6 MeV), the kinetic energy of the fission fragments (168 MeV), energy of emitted
neutrons (6 MeV) and radioactive decay energy (21 MeV). The energies of the fission
fragments, neutrons and gamma rays are almost immediately converted into 'heat
energy', where as the decay energy of the fission products, which are radioactive is
converted into heat over the period during which the decay takes place. The fission of U
- 235 nucleus can, therefore, be thought of as causing immediate release of 180 MeV of
energy in the form of heat. This correspond to a continuous power production of about
1000 kilo watts which is sufficient ten thousand 100 W burning by a system consuming
by fission no more than 1 gm of Uranium per day.
Thus, here was a source of power, whose potentialities were far superior than those
of fuels such as coal and oil.
Note: Fission is not similar to radioactivity in heavy elements because in that only a very
small portion of the nucleus goes of at a time. Where as in fission the nucleus splits up
into fragments of comparable size.
Theory of fission - Liquid drop model:
Bohr and Wheeler successfully explained the phenomenon of nuclear fission on liquid
drop model. They considered the nucleus to be a drop of liquid. The shape of the
nucleus is spherical and acted upon by
i) The surface tension force and
ii) Coulomb repulsive force
When a neutron is captured by a nucleus i.e. nucleus is bombarded by a neutron,
oscillations are setup within the drop (nucleus) which tend to distort the spherical shape,
so that the drop becomes ellipsoid in shape (fig 6). If the energy of the neutrons is very
large, the drop may acquire the shape of dump bell. Each bell of the dump bell has now
a positive charge. The coulomb repulsive force may then push the two fragments apart
and fission takes place.

Uses of nuclear energy:

1. It is used in the production large amount of electricity. It is the cheapest and
clearest form (no pollution) of energy.
2. Nuclear explosive is used in mining and petroleum recovery.
3. In the production of radioisotopes which are useful in curing diseases like cancer.
4. Used for production in agriculture and as a fuel in running big factories, trains and
cars.
Chain Reaction
A chain reaction is a self propagating process, in which number of neutrons multiply
rapidly during fission, till the whole of the fissioble material is disintegrated (figure 7).
 When one U235 atom undergoes fission, it releases three neutrons. If more than one of
these neutrons is able to cause fission in the other U235 nuclei, the number of neutrons
increase rapidly. Thus a 'chain reaction' of breaking up nuclei is produced, which once
started, goes on till the entire U235 is disintegrated, releasing a large amount of energy.
Due to the fission 250 gm of Uranium, the energy produced is equivalent to five million
kilowatt hours. This is due to only one neutron and this process takes only about 10 -6 of
a second. If this process is allowed to continue without any control, enormous amount of
energy is released which causes a violent explosion and destroys everything that is on
its way. This is (the principle of) atom bomb. Atom bomb is 'the uncontrolled chain
reaction'. If the amount of Uranium is too small, the chain reaction can stop before it
releases energy required for explosion.
Hence, if the chain reaction to start, it is necessary that the mass of Uranium be
greater than certain minimum mass called 'critical mass' or 'critical size'.
Moderator: The fast moving neutons during fission can be slowed down by a material
called 'Moderator' which is arranged among the Uranium rods. The moderators must not
absorb neutrons. The function of the moderator is to slow down the neutrons to thermal
neutrons. Heavy water, graphite, beryllium etc are used as moderators.
Controller: By use of materials like Cadmium, which absorbs neutrons without their
participation in disintegration, the chian reaction can be controlled. Thus by properly
controlling chain reaction, a constant level of power output can be maintained. Such a
controlled 'chain reaction' will be a very efficient source of power. This is the process
which takes place in an atomic reactor.
Thermal Neutrons: When fast moving neutrons are passed through paraffin moderator
elastic collisions takes place between neutrons and hydrogen nuclei in paraffin. They
exchange their velocities and neutrons are slowed down. These neutrons are called
'thermal neutrons' and are used in nuclear reactors.
Nuclear Reactor: A nuclear reactor is a device in which enormous amount of nuclear
energy is produced by controlled chain reaction.
Here a vast amount of energy is produced from a small amount of fuel. It is some
times called atomic reactor or atomic pile.
The first reactor was installed and operated by Ernico Fermi and his co-workers in
Chicago in 1942.
A nuclear reactor generates energy mainly in the form of heat by means of nuclear
fission. An atomic bomb gets destructive power from uncontrolled fission, where as in
nuclear reactor the fission is under control. Hence, the energy it produces can be
produced for generation of electricity and for peaceful purposes. Reactors are also used
to convert different elements into radioactive isotopes.
Nuclear reactors differ in size and design. But most of them will have the following
main features.
1) The core 2) The Moderator 3) Control System 4) The neutron reflector 5) The
coolant 6) Safety system (Sheilds)
1. The core: This is central part of the reactor, where "fissionable material' called 'Fuel'
is kept and fission occurs. The commonly used fissionable materials are (a) natural
Uranium containing 92.18% of U235 and 0.82% of U238 only one of these isotopes
U235 actually undergoes fission (b) the Thorium isotope Th232 (c) Plutonium isotopes
Pu239, Pu240 usually, the fuel is kept in different aluminium cans in form of cylindrical
rods placed at some distance apart.
2. The moderator: It is a material used to increase the probability of fission and thus
promote the chain reaction. The function of the moderator is to slow down the highly
energetic neutrons released by U235 during fission which are again captured by fresh
amount of U235 to split in turn. If moderator did not slow down the neutrons, many of
them would be absorbed by U238 atoms, which do not undergo fission.
Heavy water (a compound composed of Oxygen and Deuterium), Graphite, Beryllium
etc are used as moderators.
3. Control system: The control system regulates the rate of chain reaction and
prevents it from running spontaneously. This is achieved by pushing control rods into
the reactor core. Those rods are made of Cadmium or Boron. These rods absorb the
neutrons, without undergoing change and thus cut down the level of reactivity.
4. The neutron reflector: By the use of reflectors on the surface of the reactors,
leakage of neutrons can be reduced very much and the neutron flux in the interior can
be increased.
5. Coolant (Cooling system): The collant removes the heat produced by fission as
soon as it is liberated in the reactor core. It makes the heat available to other systems of
nuclear power plant for the generation of electricity etc. This is evolved from the kinetic
energy of the fission fragments, when they are slowed down in the fissionable
substance and by the moderator. Coolant also controls the temperature of the reactor
core and prevents it from getting over-heated. Coolants used are a) air, CO2 (or) He b)
water (or) other liquids c) certain metals (or) alloys.
6. Sheilds: To save the workers near the reactor from the harmful effect of various
types of radiations like gamma rays. Emitted from the reactor, thick walls of cement,
concrete and lead are constructed around the reactor which are called shields.
For emergence shut downs tiny bells of Samarium oxide, a compound of Samarium
and Oxygen are dropped into the core, which absorb enough neutrons to stop the chain
reaction. This is called safety system.
Power Reactor
The heat generated in a nuclear reactor is used to produced electric power in a
nuclear power plant. The main features of a power plant are shown in figure 8.

Certain quantity of Uranium in the form of pure metal or a solution, forms the source of heat
energy (fuel). A large amount of heat is produced in the fission process. The Cadmium rods
regulate the temperature to the desired value.
If it is required to lower the temperature, the Cadmium rods are inserted deep down, so as to
absorb more neutrons. If the temperature has to be increased, Cadmium rods are pulled out a
little, to the requirement. A fluid, liquid sodium alloyed with Potassium (molten metal), is
circulated through the shielded reactor and the heat energy of this molten metal is transferred to
water in a heat exchanger, and the water in turn converts into steam. The steam that is
generated operates a conventional turbine to produce electricity.
Nuclear Holocaust
On August 6, 1945 U.S. dropped an atom bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. The explosion was
equivalent to 20,000 of tons of TNT. Instantly the radioactive products devastated 10 sq. km of
the city which had 3,43,000 people, out of which 66,000 were killed and 69,000 were injured.
India - Atomic energy
The atomic energy programme of India was launched under the guidance of Homi J.Bhabha.
Reactors of our country
i) First nuclear reactor in India - APSARA (1956)
ii) Cyrus (Canada - India research US) - 1960
iii) Zerlina
iv) Purnima (1, 2 and 3)
v) Dhruva
vi) Kamini
Nuclear Fusion - Principle behind Hydrogen Bomb! and also 'Sun shines'!!
Nuclear fusion is the synthesis of lighter nuclei.
In this process two or more light nuclei combine (fuse) together to form a single heavy nucleus.
For example, when two deutrons (four hydrogen nuclei) fuse together, a helium nucleus is
formed and in addition 24 MeV of energy is released. The mass of the single nucleus of helium
formed is less than the sum of the masses of the individual light nuclei. The difference in mass is
converted into large amount of energy, according to Einstein's mass-energy equation E = mc2.
2
1H + 1H
2
→ 2He
4
+ 24 MeV energy
(Deutrons) (Helium)
Energy released
The initial mass of two Deuterium nuclei = 2 × 2.01364 = 4.02728 U
Mass of Helium nucleus = 4.0016 U
Decrease in mass = 4.02728 - 4.0016 = 0.02568 U
But 1 amu (U) = 931 MeV
Energy released in fusion = 0.02568 × 931 = 24 MeV
The energy released in fusion i.e. 24 MeV is much less than the energy liberated in the fission of
Uranium, which is about 200 MeV. But, energy released per unit mass during fusion of light
nuclei is much greater than compared to the fission of Uranium; because, for a given mass the
number of light nuclei are more whereas the Uranium particles are less in number.
Conditions under which fusion occurs

For the fusion process to take place, the light nuclei must have very high speeds in order to
overcome the large coulomb repulsion at very small distances and these speeds must be
maintained. To obtain these speeds, the material must be heated to extremely high temperatures
of the order of 107 to 108 K (this is the temperature of the interior of the sun).
Therefore, before fusion takes place, the light nuclei must have their temperature raised by
several millions of degrees kelvin through fission process. At these temperatures the atoms are
completely dissociated into bare nuclei and electrons (hence it is also called 'electron soup'). This
results in fourth state of matter, a fully ionised form known as Plasma, which consists of nuclei
of light elements such as deutrons, protons, tritons and also electrons moving rapidly in all
directions. As no material wall can contain such a plasma at very high temperature, a type of
magnetic bottle i.e. a suitably, designed magnetic field, can hold such matter. In such a process,
plasma is compressed, and a very high temperature, suitable for nuclear fusion is produced.
These types of reactions, in which violent thermal collisions are produced between the nuclei of
the substance subjected to very high temperature, is called 'thermo nuclear reactions'.

The high temperature needed to initiate the fusion process is produced by fission. (Is it that
one should explode 'atom bomb', i.e. fission bomb in order to explode hydrogen bomb i.e. fusion
bomb?!!). The latest device used for producing very high temperature suitable for fusion is by
concentrating the 'Laser beam'.
Difference between fusion and fission
Fusion cannot take place until the fusible material is ignited, where as any thermal neutron can
start a chain reaction in fission.
The amount of fusible material in a fusion bomb (hydrogen bomb) is not limited, whereas the
material in a fission bomb (atom bomb) is limited to a certain mass; while the fission of a
nucleus produces radioactive wastes like Barium and Krypton which are harmful, the products of
fusion are almost harmless. The wastes of atom bomb cause harm for future generations. But
hydrogen bomb is more powerful.
Energy of Sun and stars (even Sun is a star!)
Throughout the ages, man has viewed the Sun and the stars with awe and wonder. Their
existence and the source of their energy (heat and light) has been explained by numerous
theories.
Scientists are not certain as to what processes have led to the formation of the universe, but
they are agreed that the source of solar and stellar energy is nuclear and that the reactions
involved are fusion type, which are likely to happen at very high temperatures (15 to 30 million
kelvin) found in the interior of the stars.
The Sun radiates 3.8 × 1026 J of energy per second. The temperature of the interior of the Sun
is about 2 × 107 K and the temperature of some of the stars is of the order of 108 K. In 1938,
C.Weizsaecker in Germany and Hans Bethe in U.S.A., both working independently, gave
detailed theory of nuclear reactions in the Sun and the stars. The theory involves the synthesis of
protons to give Helium. Carbon acts as a catalyst in the nuclear reactions.
All the light elements like Hydrogen and Helium are in the state of plasma at such high
temperatures and all the electrons are stripped of the atoms. The energy produced in fusion is
responsible for the maintenance of the high temperature of the stars and also for the emission of
energy by radiations.
 The Carbon - Nitrogen cycle is responsible for nuclear fusion of protons and enormous
amount of energy is produced during the process. The cycle is represented by the following set
of equations (reactions).

6 C12 + 1H1 →7N13 + energy (γ rays)→ (1)

7N
13
→6C13 + 1e0 → (2)
(positron)
6N13 →1H1 + 7N14 + energy (γ rays) → (3)
7N14 →1H1 + 8O15 + energy → (4)
8O → 7N + 1e0 → (5)
15 15

(positron)
7N 15
+ 1H 1
→ 6C 12
+ 2He → (6)
4

The reaction (1) is caused by the collision of a proton with a carbon nucleus, resulting in the
formation of nitrogen - 13 and the release of energy (reaction 1).
The nitrogen - 13 is isotope, radioactive and decays with the emission of a positron to carbon -
13 (reaction 2).
13
6C further captures a proton and more energy is released (reaction 3).
14
7N further captures a proton and energy is released (reaction 4)
15
8O is radioactive and gives out a positron (reaction 5).
15
7N further captures a proton and 6C12 is again produced (reaction 6).
Thus, in the process, 4 protons combine to produce the Helium nucleus and enormous
amount of energy is released. Carbon acts as a catalyst. The energy released in each fusion is
approximately 25 MeV.
Adding above all six equations
4 1H1→ 2He4 + 2 1e0 + 2 υ
(Neutrinos)
1 4
4 1H = 4.03100 amu; 2He = 4.002603
2 1e0 = 0.001098 amu
Loss in mass = 0.02756 amu.
According to Einstein's mass - energy equivalence energy released = 0.02756 × 931 = 25.6
MeV.
It is found that in one million years in the Sun loses about 10-7 of its mass by this process.
Taking the mass of the Sun as 2 × 1030 kg and its present age as 1010 years, it is estimated that
the carbon - nitrogen cycle may continue for another 30 billion years. So there is no danger for
Sun or neither for us in near future!!
Proton - Proton Cycle
 In the Sun and other stars, where the temperature is less than 107 K, fusion takes place by
'proton - proton cycle' as follows:
1H + 1H →1H + 1e + υ (neutrino) → (i)
1 1 2 0

(positron)
1H + 1H →2He + energy → (ii)
1 2 3

2He + 2He → 2He + 1H → (iii)

3 3 4 1

Multiplying (i) and (ii) by 2 and addding to (iii)

1H + 1H + 1H + 1H → 2He + 2 1e + 2 υ + energy
1 1 1 1 4 0

The net result is same as that of carbon cycle.

The proton - proton cycle is an important source of energy in the Sun and stars of low
temperatures like Red - dwarfs. From this cycle it can be concluded that the older stars have
more Helium than the younger ones. When 'Energy' coiled in the matter has been projected by
phenomenon like 'Radioactivity', 'Nuclear fission' and 'Nuclear fusion', these great events have
been explained by that mystical equation E = mc2, propounded by the brilliant science icon of
20th century, namely Albert Einstein.
Mass - Energy equivalence
That the mass of a body is constant was accepted without question until Albert Einstein
showed by means of his special theory of Relativity that the mass of the body was not
independent of its velocity, but was given by the expression

Where m0 is the mass of a body when it is at rest relative to the observer, and m is the mass when
it is moving with a velocity ' v' relative to the observer, 'c' being the velocity of light.
If 'ν' is very much smaller than 'c', 'm' is almost equal to m0, and this explains why no change
in mass of bodies such as bullets, aeroplanes etc is detected when they are in motion. But as 'ν'

√
2
v
approaches 'c' in value where c is the velocity of light in vacuum, the term 1− 2 gets smaller
c
and so 'm' increases.
If the velocity of the object relative to the observer is same as that of light, then the value of
'm' would be infinite.
If the above expression is expanded mathematically, it becomes
to the body when it is given the velocity v. Hence the body acquires, at the same time an increase
in mass and proportionate increment in its kinetic energy.
This led Einstein to suggest that the total energy of a body should be given as
1
E = mc2 = m0c2 + m0v2 ………….(1)
2
Therefore a body has energy m0c2, even when it is at rest and this if matter (i.e. mass) can be
destroyed (annihilated) energy can be released.
The truth of this statement was demonstrated to the world with the horrible explosion of atom
bomb at Hiroshima in 1945. Thus no longer the conservation laws of matter and energy could be
separated, as maintained by classical physics. But, in their place stands one universal law, which
states that 'mass and energy are mutually convertible but their sum total remains constant in any
reaction'. This is called mass - energy equivalence.
1
From equation (i), m0v2 = (m − m0)c2
2
Thus according to Einstein, kinetic energy is equal to the increase in mass (m − m0) multiplied
by c2.
In other words, mass is a form of energy or vice versa i.e. any form of energy must have a
mass.
From the expression E = mc2, if 1 gram (10−3 kg) of matter is annihilated, the energy produced
= 10−3 (3 × 108)2 = 9 × 1013 J.
No doubt, it is a surprising fact, but the disintegration of a piece of radium producing
enormous energy by way of heat is a proof of this fact. It has been calculated that the amount of
energy emitted during the transformation of 1 gm of radium is of the order of 2 × 1010
kilocalaries, which would be able to raise 2 × 108 kg of cold water to its boiling point.
Conclusion
Was Einstein a 'wicked' scientist?
As atom and hydrogen bombs are basing on the principle of E = mc2, people misunderstood
that because of Einstein, the devasting bombs were invented. But, the fact is Einstein revealed
the mysterious energy possessed by the matter. How to make use of that energy to the benefit of
humanity is left to the wisdom of humanity. After all, fire can be used to cook the food, as well
as to burn a house!!
Books for further reading
1. Brighter than Thousand Suns
 2. Children of Ashes (Robert Jugnk) (Penguin Ed's)
3. Einstein's Cosmos by MICHIO KAKU
4. Marie Curie: A Life by Susan Quinn
Rome was not built in a single day, so the 'Nucleus' the heart of an atom. It is quite
amazing that the nucleons (protons and neutrons) are together and remain intact in such a small
size of 10-15 meters and possess enormous energy. The binding energy that forms nucleus is
proportional to the number of nucleons. The nucleus is spherical in shape and has a radius of the
order of 10-15m is called 'fermi' (F). The radius of an atom is nearly 10-10 m. If an atom were
enlarged to the size of a bus, the nucleus would be like the dot at the end of this sentence.
Lord Rutherford discovered the central portion of an atom called 'nucleus' in which the
mass and the energy of an atom is concentrated. The discovery of the phenomenon of 'Radio
Activity' by Henry Becquerel paved the way for a new branch of physics called 'Nuclear
Physics'.
Thomson - Roentgen - Becquerel
While studying the effects of cathode rays (electrons) discovered by J.J. Thomson in
1879, Roentgen made a startling discovery of X-rays, a penetrating, invisible radiation in 1895.
On hearing Roentgen's work, the French physicist Henry Becquerel wanted to investigate if there
was any connection between X-rays and light emitted by fluorescent material.
He found that certain crystals when exposed to sunlight emitted radiation which were able to
pass through a black paper and affecting photographic plates. He thought the effect was caused
by sunlight inducing fluroscence.
When Sun felt Shy to Shine....
In 1896 it so happened that sky was cloudy for three consecutive days and Becquerel
could not expose the crystal ' Potassium Uranyl Sulphate ' (Luckily for humanity, he laid his
hand on this, mysterious crystal) to the sunlight with disgust thrown the crystal into the dark
corner of his laboratory cup board. As the sun has refused to shine on the fourth day also, he
wanted to relax for some time from his scientific work, in taking photographs of his girl friend!
Friends picture along with 'Lab Key':
When Becquerel developed the photo film from his camera, he found to his surprise,
along with his friend, his laboratory key was also photographed. But who on this work,
photographs the key of a lab? He knew that the duplicate key of his lab was left in the cupboard
along with the photographic film wrapped in black paper. He reasoned out that an unknown and
mysterious radiation in the darkness of the cupboard was exposing the photographic film
penetrating black paper in which it was wrapped.
The lab key which was there in the path of the radiation was photographed. When Becquerel
searched in the cupboard for source of radiation he found with other things like paper clips,
rubber bands, the 'Potassium Uranyl Sulphate' which he left in the cupboard.
Becquerel Rays
Infact, it was shown that potassium uranyl sulphate crystal was emitting an invisible and
penetrating radiation, even when it was shut in darkness without exposing it to sunlight. On
further investigation, it was found that these radiations were able to pass through opaque
materials and also cause ionisation in air. These rays were named as 'Becquerel Rays'.
Marie Curie - Two 'NOBELS':
At the end of 1895, Marie Curie, a young beautiful, brilliant and remarkable polish lady
was looking for new field of research for her doctoral thesis. She found Becquerel rays were a
suitable subject. She was constantly helped by her guide Pierre Curie (who later became her
husband and thus Curie was added to her name) and found that the intensity of radiation emitted
from 'Potassium uranyl sulphate' was proportional to the quantity of 'Uranium' present in it. Soon
she found that the element 'Thorium' also emitted such radiations. Directing her attention to
'pitch blend' (one of uranium) -
- Madam Curie isolated 'Polonium' (named after her native country) and radium (emitting more
radiations) along with 'Uranium'. She named 'Radioactivity' for the Phenomena (from the latin
word 'Radius' for ray). Marie Curie had the rare distinction of being the only scientist to be
awarded the Nobel Prize twice in two basic branches of science, namely physics (along with
Pierre Curie and Becquerel) and later in chemistry all by her self. But, it is a great tragedy that
Marie Curie died of ' Lukemia' (Blood Cancer) which she acquired without her knowledge,
because of constant exposure to the Radioactive radiations.
Radioactivity:
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of nuclei of atoms of high atomic
weight with emission of penetrating radiations called α, β and γ rays which are in increasing
order of penetrating power.
The radioactive radiations are due to the disintegration of the nucleus of an atom and
positively charged α − particles should not be misunderstood with 'Protons' (positive charge)
negatively charged β − particles with 'Electrons' (negative charge) revolving in the orbits of an
atom and chargeless γ − rays (waves) with the neutrons (chargeless) in an atom. All these
radiations are emanating from the nucleus.
The ionising power of α - particles is 100 times greater than that of β − rays and 1000 times
than that of γ − rays .Electromagnetic waves of very small wavelength of range of 1°A.
Laws of Radioactive displacement:
Law 1: If an atom of radioactive element emits an α - particle of charge 2 and mass 4, its atomic
number decreases by ' 2 ' and atomic weight by ' 4 ', and the atom (parent element) is transformed
into another element (daughter element) of lower atomic number. The place of new atom goes
down in ''Periodic table'' by two placed.

(atomic)Radium emissions of Radon

(parent element) α - particle (Daughter element)
Law 2: When a radioactive element emits a β − Particle of charge ' 1 ' and of negligible mass, it
is converted into a new element of atomic number ' 1 ' greater than that of parent element, but of
same atomic weight as the parent element. Thus, the place of the new atom goes up in the
'Periodic table' by one place.

(Parent element) Emission of β − particle (Daughter element)

At the end: The new atom formed, may itself be 'Radioactive' and by disintegration of a new
atom and so on. Thus, a chain of radioactive elements (radioactive series) is formed by
successive, disintegration, until a stable element 'isotope of lead' is formed when radioactivity
ceases.
No sons only daughters: Since Curie couple don't have sons but only daughters 'Irene' and
'Ruth'. Probably they have called the element formed after disintegration they have called it a
'daughter element'.
 Radioactive series are four in number:
i) Uranium-radium series
ii) Actinium series
iii) Thorium series
iv) Neptunium series
Only α or β and not both - one at a time!!
It has been formed that in a radioactive transformation, either an α − particle or a β −
particle is emitted by an atom at a time. Both are not emitted simultaneously nor two particles of
the same kind are emitted simultaneously by the same atom.
Laws of Radioactive decay or disintegration:
Matter of chance & Randomness:
Radioactive atoms are unstable and they disintegrate according the 'Laws of chance'
(Laws of probability). The disintegration of a single atom is accompanied by α or β − particle.
The disintegration occurs at 'random' as regards both time and direction. Which particular atom
of the substance disintegrates first depends upon chance only.
* 'Radioactive decay' is a statistical phenomenon-
1st law of decay: Every atom of 'Radioactive element' is constantly breaking into fresh
radioactive products with emission of alpha, beta and gamma rays. The new products (daughter
elements) have entirely new chemical and radioactive properties than that of the parent element.
2nd law of decay: The rate of disintegration i.e. the number of atoms breaking per second at any
instant is directly proportional to the number of atoms present at the instant-
- and is independent of the external physical conditions like temperature, pressure and chemical
combination etc.
(It is some what like our spending the money at a time, depends on the amount of money in our
pocket!)
* Suppose at a time '' t '' that there are '' N '' radioactive atoms in an element and
'' dN '' atoms disintegrate in a time dt, then according to 2nd law of decay,
dN dN
∝N or =−λN
dt dt

Where λ is called radioactive or decay (disintegration constant)

* The negative sign shows that with the increase in disintegration, the value of N decreases.
* If N0 is the number of atoms present originally in the element, it can be shown that
−λt
N=N 0 e
This shows that the number of radioactive atoms in a radioactive element decreases
'exponentially' with time. i.e; as time lapses the process of decay slows down.
Half-life Period:
As the elements of natural 'Radioactivity decays' very slowly i.e; -
the whole radioactive substance will take very long time to disintegrate completely, scientists
consider a concept called 'Half life period'.
* The half life period of a radioactive substance is defined as the time required for one half of the
original radioactive atoms of the substance to disintegrate.
0.6931
* If T is the half life period of a radioactive substance, it can be shown that T =
λ

Where ' λ ' is the disintegration (decay) constant of the substance.

* Thus, half life period depends upon the disintegration constant of the substance and is difficult
for different substances.
* To understand what is half-life period, let us consider radium as illustration. One half of any
number of radium atoms will disintegrate into simpler atoms in 1620 years. One half of what
remains or one fourth of original atoms will decay in next 1620 years and so on. This period of
1620 years is called half-life of radium.
Artificial or induced Radioactive - Even light elements:
Uranium and other radioactive elements, their nuclei being unstable, -
- disintegrate spontaneously emitting alpha, beta and gamma rays. This phenomenon is called
''Natural Radioactivity''.
But, many of the stable i.e. non-radioactive chemical elements can be made radioactive
artificially by irradiating them with 'neutrons' or bombarding them with heavy particles like
protons, alpha particles etc.
In 1934 'Irene Curie' (daughter of Curies) and her husband 'Joliot Curie' found that
some light elements like Boron, Magnesium and Aluminium became radioactive when
bombarded by alpha particles from Polonium. They emitted radiations even after the
bombardment had ceased. This phenomenon of converting a stable atom into a radioactive atom
by bombarding it with fast moving particles is called 'Artificial or induced Radioactivity'.
* The activity of these radioactive products decrease with time, as in case of, natural
radioactivity, but their 'half life periods' are 'very short'.
The particles emitted by artificial radioactive elements are usually 'Electrons' and
'Positrons'. Positrons, the antimatter of electron were discovered originally by Anderson while
studying the action of cosmic rays in magnetic field.
Some nuclear reactions:
'Radio Phosphorus' is produced by bombarding 'Aluminium' with alpha particles from
Polonium.
13Al
37
+ 2He4 → 15P
30
+ 0n1
(Aluminium) alpha Radio neutron
particle phosphorus
That is aluminium is now transformed into Radio Phosphorus, which is an 'isotope' of
phosphorus. If the atomic number remains the same, but the mass numbers are different, then the
elements formed are called isotopes of a single element ' H ' .
For example 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 i.e; a single hydrogen, heavy hydrogen (deutron) and tritium
respectively, are isotopes of single element hydrogen. Similarly the radioactive phosphorus is an
isotope of phosphorus and such isotopes are called 'radio isotopes'.
This radioactive phosphorus, having a half-period of 2.5 minutes is most unstable
disintegrates. Producing a stable atom of silicon with an emission of positron (1e0)
1) 15P
30
→ 14Si
30
+ 1e0
(Silicon) (Positron)
2) 6B
10
+ 2He
4
→ 7N
13
+ 0n1
Boron Radio isotope of nitrogen
7N
13
→ 6C13 + 1e0
Positron
* The Half life period of 7N13 is 11 minutes.
* Artificial radioactivity has also been observed when elements are bombarded by protons.
neutrons, deutrons and photons. The artificially radioactive elements (radio isotopes) emit only
 positrons or electrons, some times accompanied by γ − rays and do not emit α − particles like
natural radioactive elements.
Nowadays radio isotopes are prepared by placing stable elements inside nuclear reactors
(In India at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay) The large number of neutrons produced
in the reactor are used to bombard the desired elements. The important radio isotopes so
produced are Iodine-131, Phosphorus-30 and Cobalt-60
Half life of few Radioactive elements and Isotopes

Application of Radio Isotopes:

i) In medicine: for diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
* A lot in the blood stream can be diagnised and located
* Radio Sodium is used as a tracer element to study the progress of circulation of medicines in
the body
* Leukemia disease is treated by radiation from radio isotopes of phosphorus
ii) In Biology: Radio isotopes are used in molecular biology for producing destructive effects.
* Radioactive radiators sterilize 'Pharmaceutical' and surgical instruments.
iii) In Agriculture: Radio Isotopes are used as tracer elements.
* By using radio- isotopes, new characteristics in plants can be created.
iv) In Industry: Radio isotopes are used in the study of mechanism of friction by fast moving
machines and to measure the wear and tear.
* Radio-isotopes are used to detect flaws in metal castings, in controlling the thickness of paper,
plastic and rubber sheets.
Radio Carbon dating (Carbon-14 Dating)
It is a method of determining the age of objects like rocks, ancient manuscripts, upto 10,000
years old containing matter that was once living such as wood.
Discovery of ' Neutron ':
Rutherford had predicted the existence of Neutron as early as 1920. But no
experimental existence was obtained as it was an uncharged particle, so it could not be detected
by any particle detector like cloud chamber.
In 1930, the German scientists Bethe and Becken reported that when certain light
elements like 'Beryllium' and 'Boron' were exposed to alpha particle radiation from Polonium, a
very highly penetrating radiation is obtained; which they thought might be high energy gamma
rays.
Joliot - Curie investigated that these radiations knockout protons from paraffin and
other substances containing hydrogen.
 Joliot Curie were not aware of Rutherford's prediction 10 years earlier and they were not able to
give any explanation of this radiation.

The experiment was repeated by Chadwick in 1932 who gave a satisfactory explanation by
suggesting that the unknown radiation consisted of 'uncharged particles' of 'mass similar to that
of ' Proton'. These particles were called 'Neutrons'.
The neutrons are emitted according to the equation;
1) Incase of Beryllium: 4Be9 + 2He4 → 6C13 → 6C12 + 0n1
(Neutron)
ii) Incase of Boron: 5B
11
+ 2He → 7N + 0n
4 14 1

(Neutron)
Atomic Energy:
Nucleons: The nucleus consists of 'Proton's and 'neutrons' which are called 'nucleons'. Proton has
a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of the charge of the electron (1.6 ×10-19 coulombs).
The mass of Proton is greater than that of electron. The neutron is chargless whose mass is little
more than that of proton.
Nuclear forces: To account for the existence of nucleus, a very strong force called 'nuclear force'
has to be considered. These are short range forces and operate only between two neighbouring
nucleons and are of three kinds.
They are:
1) The force between a Proton and a Neutron (pn - force).
2) The force between two protons ( pp - force).
3) The Force between two neutrons (nn - force).
i) These are attractive forces of equal magnitude and are independent of charges.
ii) These are the strongest forces in nature. The gravitational,electrical (coulombs) and nuclear
forces between the nucleons are in the ratio.
Fg : Fe : Fn = 1 : 1036 : 1038
iii) They depend on the spin of nucleon. When the spins of two nucleons are parallel the forces
between them are strong. If the spins are antiparallel, the forces are weak.
iv) These forces will not at along in line joining the nucleons ie they are non-central forces.
v) Nuclear forces are due to the result of the exchange of ' π ' mesons between the nucleons.
Mass defect and Nuclear binding energy:
It has been found that the mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of protons
and neutrons which constitute the nucleus. This difference between the rest mass of a nucleus
and the sum of the rest masses of its constituent nucleus is called 'mass defect'.
The mass defect(m) is converted into energy in accordance with Einstein's mass-energy relation ''
E = mc2 '', where ' E ' is the energy and ' c ' is the velocity of light in vacuum. This energy gives
the necessary potential for the nucleons to bind together and is called 'binding energy'. ie; the
mass defect is converted into binding energy. Correspondingly, the same energy must be given to
the nucleus, if it is required to break the nucleus into parts. The greater the binding energy per
nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus. The maximum value of binding energy per nucleon is 8.8
Mev.
Nuclear fission - It is splitting!
In 1938, Otto Hahn and Strass mann were investigating the effect of bombarding
uranium with slow neutrons. Madam Meitner and her nephew Frisch in 1939 took lead in the
investigations and stated that Uranium nucleus has only small stability of form, and after neutron
capture, it divides itself into two nuclei of roughly equal size. The name 'fission' was given to the
process as it resembled the process of division of cells in 'biology'.
When Uranium -235 is bombarded by neutrons, a uranium nucleus captures a slow
neutron, forming an unstable compound nucleus 92U235.
The compound nucleus splits into two nearly equal fragments, Barium (56Ba141) and Krypton
(36Kr92) releasing 3 neutrons and energy 'Q'.
Thus 'Nuclear fission' is the process of breaking up the nucleus of a heavy atom into
two or more on less equal fragments, with the release of large amount of energy.
The reaction can be written as
92U
235
+ 0n1 → 56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + Q
Energy released in fission:
In the process of nuclear fission, a large amount of energy is released. The
energy is produced, because the original mass of the nucleus of Uranium, before fission
is greater than the sum of the masses of the products after fission. This difference
between the masses, before and after a fission is converted into energy, according to
Einstein's equation E = mc2
* In the process of fission, of one nucleus of Uranium, about 200Mev energy is
released. It is found that 1 Kg of Uranium delivers as much energy as the combustion of
about 3000 tonns of coal. This energy produced by 1 gm of Uranium in the form of heat
corresponds to a continuous power production of about 1000 Kilowatts, which is
sufficient to keep ten thousand 100W bulbs burning for a day. The energy is called
nuclear or atomic energy.
Nuclear fusion - It is combining:
It is the synthesis of lighter nuclei. In this process two or more lighter nuclei
combine (fuse) together to form a single heavy nucleus
For example; when two deutrons (four hydrogen nuclei) fuse together, a
'Helium' nucleus is formed and in addition 24 Mev of energy is released. The mass of
the single nucleus of Helium formed is always less than the sum of the masses of the
individual light nuclei. The difference in mass is converted into large amount of energy,
according to mass energy equation of Einstein E = mc2.
1H + 1H → 2He + 24 Mev of energy.
2 2 4

For the fusion process to take place the light nuclei must have very high
speeds in order to overcome the large coulomb repulsion to obtain these high speeds,
the material must be heated to extreemly high temperatures of the order of 107 to 108 K
(This is the temperature of the interior of the sun which can be had by the process of
fusion)
Which is more harmful Atom bomb or Hydrogen bomb:
Fusion cannot take place until the fusible material is ignited to high
temperatures where as any thermal neutron can start a chain reaction (?) in fusion
bomb (Hydrogen bomb) -
- is not limited whereas the material in a fission bomb (Atom bomb) to a certain
mass(critical mass).
The energy released in "Nuclear fusion" (Hydrogen bomb) ie 24 Mev., is much
less than the energy liberated in the fission Uranium (Atom bomb) which is about 200
Mev., but energy realized per unit mass during fusion of the light nuclei is much greater
compared to the fission of Uranium, while the fission of nucleus produces. Thus,
Hydrogen bomb is powerful and dangerous. When it is exploded where as the 'Atom
bomb' is less powerful when it exploded the after effects are very harmful for future
generations radioactive wastes like Barium and Krypton which are harmful the products
of fusion are almost harmless.
Chain reaction:
A chain reaction is a self propagating process in which the number of neutrons
multiply rapidly during fission till whole of the fissible material is disintegrated.
Nuclear Reactor:
A Nuclear Reactor is a device in which enormous amount of nuclear energy is
produced by controlled chain reaction. It is sometimes called atomic reactor or atomic
pile. Uncontrolled chain reaction is ''Atom bomb''.
* The first reactor was installed and operated by '' Enrico Fermi '' and his co-workers in
Chicago in 1942.
A nuclear reactor generates energy mainly in the form of heat by means of
nuclear fission. The energy it produces can be used for generation of electricity and for
peaceful purposes. Reactors are used to convert different elements into radioactive
isotopes.
Nuclear reactor will have the following main features:
1. Core: This is central part of reactor where fissionable material called ' fuel' is kept
and fission occurs. The commonly used fissinable materials are :
a) Natural Uranium containing 92.18% of U235 and 0.82% of U238 only one of these
isotopes U235 actually undergoes fission.
b) The Thorium isotope Th232
c) Plutonium isotopes Pu239, Pu240 usually the fuel is kept in different Aluminium cars in
the form of cylindrical rods placed at some distance apart.
2. Moderator: If is a material used to increase the probability of fission and thus
promote a chain reaction.
The function of the moderator is to slowdown the highly energetic neutrons released by
U235 during fission,which are again captured by fresh amount of U235 atoms to split in
turn. If moderator did not reduce the spread of neutrons many of them would be
absorbed by U238 atoms, which do not undergo fission. Heavy water (a compound
composed of oxygen and deuterium), Graphite, Beryllium etc. are used as moderators.
3. Control system: The control system regulates the rate of chain- reaction and
prevents it from running spontaneously. This is achieved by pushing control rods into
the reactor core. These rods are made of Cadmium or Boron. These rods absorb the
neutrons, without under- going charge and thus cut down the level of reactivity.
4. The neutron Reflector: By the use of Reflectors on the surface of reactors, Leakage
of neutrons can be reduced very much and the neutron flux in the interior can be
increased
5. Coolant (Cooling system): The Coolant removes the heat produced by fission as
soon as it is liberated in the reactor core. It makes the heat available to other system of
nuclear power plant for the generator of electricity etc. This is evolved from the kinetic
energy (K.E) of the fission fragments, when they are slowed down in the fissionable
substance and by the moderator.
Coolant also controls the temperature of the reactor core and prevents it from getting
over heated.
Coolants Used are:
a) Air, CO2 (or) He.
b) Water (or) Other liquids.
c) Certain metals and alloys.
6. Shields (Safety system): To save the workers near the reactor from the harmful
effects of various types of radiations like Gamma Rays emitted from the reactor, thick
walls of cement, concrete and lead are constructed around the reactor. These are called
"Shields".
For emergency shut downs tiny balls of "Samarium oxide" a compound of
Samarium and oxygen are dropped into the core, which absorb enough neutrons to stop
the chain reaction.
Elementary particles:
Elementary particles are the indivisible units of which matter is composed of.
* An "Anti Particle" has to be there for every particle.
The classification of elementary particles is as follows.
i) Photons
ii) Gravitons
iii) Leptons
iv) Hardons.
Hardons are further Classified into a) Measons and b) Baryons. These are
particles of strong interaction.
* These names have been derived from Greek words "Leptos" (small), "Mesos" (middle)
and "Bary" (heavy)
* Baryons are further classified into nucleons (protons and neutrons) and hyperons
Neutrino (ϑ )- travels faster than Light ? ....
In Radioactive decay it was found that the laws of conservation of angular momentum
and energy were obeyed in case of α and γ decay, but not in β decay. To account for this
discrepancy, Pauli postulated the existence of a new particle called "Neutrino" (meaning "a little
neutral one"), which was confirmed by "Enrico Fermi". It has no charge and mass and hence it
cannot interact with matter. So it's detection is very difficult. It has angular momentum and
energy. It is capable of penetrating through large thickness of matter without any interaction.
Neutrons are generated on large scale in the sun in ''Nuclear Reactions''.
Very recently, it is found that neutrino travels faster than light if it is proved correct, it
challenges ''Einstein's Theory of Relativity''.
"Dirac" and "Botany":
The number of elementary particles so far found are more than 200 in number were
some one asked the particle physicist Dirac to tell their names the famous scientist told if I
would have remembered their names, I would have studied "Botany"!!
14. NUCLEI
Questions – Answers

Long Answer Questions (8 Marks)

1. Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labelled diagram.
A: Nuclear Reactor: A nuclear reactor is a device in which enormous amount of nuclear energy
is produced. The energy it produces can be used for generation of electricity.
* The essential features of a nuclear reactor are
1) Fuel 2) Moderator 3) Control Rods 4) Coolant 5) Shielding.
The block diagram of a nuclear reactor is as shown

Nuclear Reactor
1) Fuel: In a nuclear reactor fissionable material like U235, U238 etc are used as fuel. The fuel
is packed in aluminium cylinders. They are called fuel rods. The fuel rods are responsible for
fission reaction in a reactor.
2) Moderator: The purpose of a moderator is to slow down the fast moving neutrons and thus
promote a chain reaction. Heavy water or graphite are used as moderators.
3) Control rods: The purpose of control rods is to absorb the neutrons. As a result the number of
neutrons available for fission reaction decreases and rate of reaction decreases. Boron or
Cadmium rods are used as control rods.
4) Coolant: The purpose of coolant is to transfer the heat energy produced in a reactor to an
outside agency. Generally cold water is circulated in a reactor through special steel pipes. The
water will come out as steam and it is used to generate electrical power.
5) Shielding: To save the workers near the reactor from the harmful effects of radiations emitted
from the reactor, thick walls of cement and lead are constructed around the reactor.
Working:
When a few U235 nuclei undergo fission fast neutrons are liberated. These neutrons
pass through the surrounding graphite moderator and loose their energy to become thermal
neutrons.
These thermal neutrons captured by U235 to carry out chain reaction. By proper arrangement of
the control rods (raising and lowering the rods) the fission events are suitably controlled. The
heat generated here is used for heating coolant and produce steam. This steam is made to
rotate turbine and there by drive a generator for production of electric power.

2. Explain the source of solar and stellar energy. Explain the carbon - nitrogen cycle and proton
- proton cycle occurring in stars.
A: The source of solar and stellar energy is nuclear and that the reactions involved are of fusion
type, which are likely to happen at very high temperatures. For which hydrogen is the fuel.
The nuclear fusion reaction over the Sun and stars are believed to be of two types.
1) Carbon - Nitrogen cycle
2) Proton - Proton cycle.
Carbon - Nitrogen cycle
Bethe suggested that at high temperature parts of Sun and stars Carbon - Nitrogen
cycle may takes place. In this cycle

3. Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labelled diagram.
A: Nuclear Reactor: The device in which enormous energy is produced by controlled chain
reaction is called nuclear reactor.
Principle: The principle of nuclear reactor is the controlled chain reaction. It is made possible.
* By slowing down the fission neutrons to thermal neutrons using a moderator. Thermal
neutrons can initiate fission in U - 235.
* By inserting rods of a material that can absorb neutrons (control rods) and using them to
maintain the reaction rate under control such that the value of neutron multiplication factor K =
1.
Working:
1. Fuels: In nuclear reactor U235 can be used like fuel which is filled in the Aluminium
cylindrical rod. These rods are main core of the nuclear reactor.
2. Moderator: The materials like D2O heavy water, salt water, graphite block can be used as
nuclear reactor. The main purpose of nuclear reactor to slow down the past moving nuclear
comes out from the fuel rod.
Control rod: The materials like Berylium and Cadmium rods used as control rods in nuclear
reactor which controls chain reaction by absorbing the neutron emitted in the chain reaction.
Coolant: To absorb the heat which may be nuclear reactor, cool water is circulated through the
water pipes surround the nuclear reactor. CO2 is also used like coolant.
Protective Shielding: Thick concrete walls near by 10 to 15 m are constructed around the
nuclear reactor to prevent the radiations comes out from the nuclear reactor. Lead blocks are
also used protective shielding.
Uses:
The main purpose of nuclear reactor is which produces the electricity.
In nuclear reactor radioisotopes are produced which also mainly useful different fields like
medical, agricultural & industrial.

4. What is radioactivity? State that the law of radioactive decay. Show that radioactive decay is
exponential in nature.
A: Natural Radioactivity: The phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus like uranium undergoes
a decay is called radioactivity. Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature.
1. α - decay in which streams of helium nuclei (2He4) are emitted.
2. β - decay in which electrons or positrons are emitted.
3. γ - decay in which high energy photons are emitted.
Law of Radioactive Decay:
The rate of disintegration is directly proportional to number of nuclei present at that instant.
If N is the number of nuclei in the sample and dN undergo decay in time dt, then

dN dN
∝ N or =−λN ………..(1)
dt dt
Where λ is called decay constant. Integrating it on both sides, we get
Here, N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei at time t0 and N is the number of nuclei at time t.
Putting t0 = 0 in equation (2), we get

Thus the radioactive decay is exponential in nature. i.e. the number of undecayed nuclei in a
radioactive sample decreases exponentially with time.

5.Explain the source of stellar energy. Explain the carbon - nitrogen cycle, proton -
proton cycle occurring in stars.
A: Source of stellar energy: The energy from the sun and other stars is called stellar
energy. The source of stellar energy is nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion may take place in
two cycles.
1. Carbon - Nitrogen cycle
2. Proton - Proton cycle
1. Carbon - Nitrogen Cycle: In stars like sun which are at high temperature of the order
of 106 K, carbon-nitrogen cycle takes place. In this, hydrogen is converted into helium
and carbon, nitrogen act as catalysts.
It's nuclear reactions are as follows.

Proton-Proton cycle: In stars of less temperature, proton-proton cycle take place. The nuclear reactions
of proton-proton cycle are as follows:

Thus 4 hydrogen atoms combine to from a helium atom with a release 26.7 MeV
energy.

6. Define mass defect and binding energy. How does binding energy per nucleon vary
with mass number? What is its significance?
A: Mass Defect: The difference between the total mass of all the nucleons of a nucleus
and the actual mass of the nucleus is called mass defect (ΔM)
ΔM = [Zmp + (A - Z) mn] - M
Where Zmp = total mass of protons; (A- Z)mn = total mass of neutrons; M = Mass of
nucleus.
Binding Energy: The mass defect that is occurring in the formation of nucleus is
converted into energy called binding energy (ΔE) of the nucleus.
It can also be defined as the energy required to break the nucleus into its
constituent protons and neutrons.
Einstein's mass-energy equivalence relation is E = mc2
Binding Energy Eb = ΔMC2
But 1 amu = 931.5 MeV
Eb = ΔM × 931.5 MeV
Binding Energy per Nucleon:
The binding energy of a nucleus (Eb) divided by its mass number (A) is called binding
energy per nucleon (Ebn)
Eb
Ebn=
A

Variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number:

The graph shown in the figure explains how the binding energy per nucleon (Ebn)
varies with mass number (A).

The graph shows the following facts:

1. From A = 30 to A = 170, the binding energy per nucleon (Ebn) is constant.
Ebn: 8.75 MeV is maximum for Fe-56 and
Ebn: 7.6 MeV is very low for U-238.
2. Ebn is low for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy water (A > 170).
Significance:
Greater binding energy per nucleon means greater stability to the nucleus. The
light nuclei of A < 30 and heavy nuclei of A > 170 are unstable because their E bn is low.
That is why properties like radioactivity, fission, fusion exist in the region only.
The mid nuclei are stable because their Ebn is high.

Short Answer Questions

1. Write a short note on the discovery of neutron.
A: Neutron: The electrically neutral particle with mass approximately equal to that of
proton and present in all nuclei except that of hydrogen is called neutron.
Discovery of Neutron: when Beryllium nucleus was bombarded with α - particle, a
powerful and neutral radiation came out. Bothe and Becker wrongly predicted this
radiation as γ - rays. The nuclear reaction given by them is

Chadwick proved experimentally that when beryllium sheet is bombarded with

alpha particles, the powerful, neutral radiation produced is of a new kind of particles
called neutrons and not of γ - rays.
The nuclear reaction given by Chadwick is,

2. What are the properties of neutron?

A: Properties of Neutron:
1. Neutron is an uncharged particle.
2. Neutron has high penetrating power and low ionising power.
3. Inside the nucleus, neutrons are stable. But outside the nucleus, neutron is
unstable, its average life is 1000 s.

3. What are nuclear forces? Write their properties?

A: Nuclear Forces:
The forces that hold the nucleons together wtihin the nucleus are called nuclear
forces.
Properties of Nuclear Forces:
1. The nuclear force is attractive and the strongest in nature.
2. Nuclear force is a short range force.
3. The nuclear force is independent of charge.
4. Nuclear force is spin dependent.
5. Nuclear force is an exchange force.

4. Define half life period and decay constant for a radioactive substance. Deduce
relation beween them?
A: Half life (T1/2) of a Radioactive Substance:
It is defined as the time required for the number of radioactive nuclei of the
substance to disintegrate to half of its original number. It is denoted by T.
Decay constant: It is the ratio of the rate of radioactive decay to the number of nuclei
present at that instant. It is proportional constant. It is denoted by λ.
 N0
The number of nuclei present at t=0 is N0 and after time T and are left and after time 2T only remain
2

T depends upon the disintegration constant λ of the radioactive substance.

5. Define average life of a radioactive substance. Obtain the relation between decay
constant and average life?
A: Average life time (T):
The average life time is defined as the ratio of the total life time of all, the N0 nuclei
to the number of original nuclei N0.
(or)
The total life time of all the nuclei present in a substance divided by the total number
of nuclei is called average life of the radioactive substance (τ).
Relation between Average Life and decay cosntant:
Activity of a radioactive sample

This gives the number of nuclei that decay in time dt. These dN atoms had a life
time between t and (t + dt). Since dt is very small interval of time. These atoms has lived
for time t, the total life of all the nuclei would be
dN = tλN0 eλt dt
... The total life time of all the nuclei present in the sample is given by

This is the relation between the average life and decay constant.

6. Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

A: Nuclear fission:
1. It is a process in which a heavy nucleus is splits up into two lighter nuclei of nearly equal mass.
2. Neutrons are required for it.
3. It takes places at ordinary temperature.
4. Atom bomb is constructed on this principle.
5. Energy of 200 MeV is released for each fission.
Nuclear Fusion:
1. It is a process in which two lighter nuclei combined together to form a heavy nucleus.
2. Protons are required for it.
3. It require very high temperature of the order of 107 K to 108 K.
4. Hydrogen bomb is constructed on this principle.
5. Energy of about 24.68 MeV is released per Fusion.
7. What is nucleur fission? give an exmaple to illustrate it.
A: Nucleur fission: The process of breaking a heavy nucleus like uranium-235 in two or more roughly
equal fragments with the release of enormous amount of energy is called nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Haun and Strassman.
Example:
8.What is Nuclear fusion? Write the conditions for nuclear fusion to occur.
A: Nuclear Fusion: The process in which two or more light nuclei fuge together to from a single
nucleus with the release of enormous energy is called nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion takes place only at high temperature of the order of 106 K
e.g.: In Sun 4 hydrogen nuclei fuge together to form a helium nucleus

Very Short Answer Questions

1. What are isotopes and isobars?
A: Isotopes: The nuclei having same atomic number (Z), but different mass number (A) are
called isotopes.

Isobars: The nuclei having same mass number (A), but different atomic numbers (Z) are called
isobars.

2. What are isotones and isomers?

A: Isotones: The nuclei having the same neutron number (N), but different atomic numbers (Z)
are called isotones.

Isomers: The nuclei having same atomic number (Z) and same mass number (A) but different
nuclear properties such as radioactive decay and magnetic moments are called isomers.

Here m = meta stable and g = ground state.

3. What is amu? What is its equivalent energy?

A: Atomic mass unit:
Half of the mass of Carbon - 12 atom is called atomic mass unit (U).
1 U = 1.66 × 10-27 kg
The equivalent energy of atomic mass unit is 1U = 931.5 MeV

4. What will be the ratio of the radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2?
A: Nuclear radius R = R1 A1/3
The ratio of nuclear radii
R1 : R2 = R0 A11/3 : R0 A21/3
(or)
R1 : R2 = A11/3 : A21/3

5. Neutrons are the best projectiles to produce nuclear reactions. Why?

A: Neutrons are electrically neutral. In the case of protons and α - particles it is difficult to
collide the nuclei due to force of repulsion. But neutrons do not have that repulsion. Therefore,
they collide the nuclei easily and produce nuclear reactions.

6. Neutrons cannot produce ionization. Why?

A: Ioinsation of particles in a medium, usually, takes place either by losing electrons or by
gaining electrons. This is possible with charged particles only.
As neutrons are neutral, they cannot produce ionisation. Because they can neither attract nor
repel electrons.

7. What are thermal neutrons? What is their importance?

A: Thermal Neutrons: The slow neutrons which can initiate fission are called thermal neutrons.
Importance: Fast neutrons cannot initiate to controlled chain reaction of fission. Only thermal
neutrons can do it. That is why, in nuclear reactor, the speed of the neutrons is reduced by the
moderator to make them thermal neutrons.

8. What is the value of neutron multiplication factor in a controlled chain reaction and in an un
controlled chain reaction?
A: In controlled chain reaction, the value of multiplication factor K = 1, In uncontrolled chain
reaction, K > 1.

9. What is the role of controlling rods in a nuclear reactor?

A: Controlling rods: controlling rods are the rods used in the nuclear reactor to absorb neutrons.
The substances used for controlling rods are cadmium, beryllium, boron etc.

10. Define Becqueral and Curie?

A: Becqueral: If a radioactive sample disintegrates at the rate of 1 disintegration per second, its
activity (or decay rate R) is called 1 becqueral (Bq).
1 Bq = 1 disintegration/second
Bq is the SI unit of activity.
Curie: If a radioactive sample disintegrates at the rate of 3.7 × 1010 disintegration per second, its
activity (or decay rate R) is called 1 curie (Ci).
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq.

11. What is chain reaction?

A: A self sustained nuclear fission reaction producing tremendous amount of energy is called
chain reaction.
 In chain reaction, the number of neutrons increases in geometrical progression and the
nuclei undergoing fission also increase in geometric progression. Hence, enormous amount of
energy is released within a very short duration.
12. What is the function of moderator in a nuclear reactor?
A: Moderator: The function of moderator is to slow down the fisson neutrons (2 MeV) to thermal
neutrons (0.025 MeV).
Heavy Water, Graphite are the moderators.
13. What is the energy released in the fusion of 4 protons to form a helium nucleus?
A: 26.7 MeV

15. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

Semiconductors: The substances whose electrical conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators are called Semiconductors.
e.g.: Silicon, Germanium, Carbon, Cadmium Sulphide.
* The conductivity of semiconductor increases with increasing temperature.
* Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
* In semiconductors, electrical conduction is due to electrons and holes.
* The resistance of semiconductors decreases due to the addition of impurities.
* In a semiconductor there is a small energy gap (≈1 ev) between valence band and conduction
band.
* At absolute zero temperature conduction band is completely empty and semiconductors
behaves as an insulator.
* Semi conducting elements are tetravalent i.e., there are four electrons in their outer most orbit.
* Their lattice is face centred cubic (F.C.C.)
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
* A semiconductor in pureform is called intrinsic semiconductor.
* In intrinsic semiconductor no. of free electrons = no. of holes.
* For intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi energy level is at the centre of the conduction band and
valence band.
* When electric field is applied across intrinsic semiconductor electrons and holes are move in
opposite direction.
Extrinsic Semiconductors:
* Semiconductor to which impurities are added is called extrinsic semiconductor.
* Extrinsic semiconductor the Fermi level is not exactly at the middle of the conduction band and
valence band.
Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors:
n-Type Semiconductors: * When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (e.g.: Arsenic) is
added to an intrinsic semiconductor.
* In the n-type semiconductors, the no. of electrons in the conduction band is more than the no.
of holes in the valency band.
* In n-type semiconductor the fermi level shifts towards the conduction band.
* There is no charge on n-type semiconductor because it is formed by the combination of
neutral atom.
p-type semiconductors:
* When a small amount of trivalent impurity (e.g.: Gallium) is added to intrinsic semiconductor.
* In p-type semiconductor 'holes' are majority charge carriers, while electrons are minority
charge carriers.
* In p-type semiconductor the fermi level shifts towards the valence band.
* There is no charge on p-type semi conductor because it is formed by the combination of
neutral atom.
p - n Junction Diode
* If a p-type semi-conductor suitably joined to a n-type semiconductor the junction is called p-n
junction and the device so formed is called p-n junction diode.
* At the junction on both sides a region is formed which is depleted of charge carries [electrons
and holes]. This region is called depletion region.
* It has two electrodes, hence it is called diode.

Symbolic representation of diode

* The direction of current flow is represented by the arrow head.
* An electric field is developed across the junction, which is in a direction to oppose the further
diffusion of electrons from n-side.
* The potential developed across the barrier layer is called barrier potential. It is 0.7 volt for
Silicon diode and 0.3 volt for Germanium diode.
* When no external source is connected to diode, it is called unbiased.
Forward-Bias:
* When p-side is connected to positive terminal and n-side to negative terminal of battery, the
diode is said to be forward biased.
* When battery voltage exceeds the barrier potential majority charge carriers cross the junction.
* The electrons from n side drift towards the junction and crosses it and holes in the opposite
direction.
* The barrier potential decreases.
* The width of the depletion layer decreases.
* Thus forward biased diode conducts.
Reverse - Bias:
* When p-side is connected to negative terminal and n side to positive terminal of battery the
diode is said to be reverse biased.
* The battery acts as reverse bias to a majority charge carrier. It acts as a forward bias to
minority carrier.
* The minority charge carriers move across the junction. This constitute reverse saturation
current which is ≈ 1 µ A.
* The barrier potential increases.
* The width of depletion region increases.
Break down:
* If the applied voltage is increased, the covalent bond in semiconductor are broken and a large
no. of charge carriers [electron-hole] are generated. So, current increases very sharply. This is
called "break down".
* The voltage at which break down takes place is called "break down" voltage.
* As the break down occurs, the diode conducts very heavy, i.e., it offers very low resistance.
p-n junction diode as a rectifier:
* A diode conducts in forward bias and does not conduct in reverse bias. This unidirectional
property leads to application of diode in rectifier.
* Rectifier: It is a device used to convert A.C. to D.C.
Half Wave Rectifier:
* Half wave rectifier make use of single diode.
* During (+ve) half of input (diode D is forward biased) diode conducts.
* During (-ve) half of input (diode D is reverse biased) diode does not conduct.
* So output is obtained only during positive half cycle of input.

Where rf is diode forward resistance and RL is load resistance.

* In half wave rectification, a maximum of 40.6% of a.c. power is converted into d.c. power.
Full-wave rectifier:
* A full wave rectifier make use of two diodes D1 and D2 and centretapped transformer.
* During positive half (D1 is forward biased, D2 is reverse biased) diode D1 conducts.
* During negative half (D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased) diode D2 conducts.
* Thus we obtain output during both positive and negative half cycles of input, alternatively by
D1 and D2.
0.812× R L
* Efficiency of full wave rectifier η =
r f + RL
* In a full wave rectifier, a maximum of 81.2% of ac power is converted to dc power.
Zener Diode:
* It is a heavily doped reversed biased p-n junction diode which is operated in the break down
region. Its symbol is

Zener diode is always used in reverse bias.

* The resistance of Zener diode becomes Zero.
* Zener diode is used as voltage regulator. The circuit diagram is
In this: I = IL + IZ
Vin = VZ + i R
Vout = VZ
Transistor:
* Transistor is a three layer semiconductor device consisting two p-n junction diodes.
* A transsistor transfers a current signal from a path of low resistance to a path of high
resistance.
* TRANSFER + RESISTOR = TRANSISTOR.
* Transistor consists of three regions called, Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C).
* The Emitter base junction is forward biased and the collector base junction is reverse
biased.

Transistors are mainly used as amplifiers and also as oscillators and switches.
* Transistor can be connected into the circuit in three different ways.
i) Common - Base configuration. (CB)
ii) Common - Emitter configuration. (CE)
iii) Common - Collector configuration. (CC)
* The current amplification factor (or) current gain (α) of common base configuration is given by

The value of 'α' is less than unity and it ranges from 0.9 to 0.99.
* The current amplification (or) current gain (β) of common emitter configuration is given by

Its value is typically in the range 20 - 200.

* Relation between α and β
α
β= As 'α' approaches unity, β approaches infinity.
1−α
 * A transistor has very high current gain in C.E. configuration. Because of this reaction C.E.
configuration is used.
Relation between transistor currents:

The three transistor currents always bear the following ratio. IE : IB : IC = 1 : (1− α) : α
* Input resistance of transistor in C.E. configuration is given by

* Output resistance of transistor in C.E. configuration is given by

* Voltage gain = current gain × resistance gain

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE

CIRCUITS
Questions – Answers

Very Short Answer type Questions

1. What is an n - type semiconductor? What are the majority and minority charge
carriers in it?
A: When pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called 'n - type
semiconductor'. Majority charge carriers are electrons and minority charge carriers are
holes in it.

2. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

A: Pure form of semiconductors are called 'Intrinsic semiconductors'. Impure form of
semiconductors are called 'Extrinsic semiconductors'.

3. What is a p - type semiconductor? What are the majority and minority charge carriers
in it?
A: When trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called 'p - type
semiconductor'. Majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge carriers are
electrons in it.
4. What is a p - n junction diode? Define depletion layer?
A: When p - type semiconductor is suitably joined to n - type semiconductor, a p - n
junction is formed and the arrangement is known as p - n junction diode.
Depletion layer: A narrow region on either side of junction where there are no mobile
charge carriers is called depletion layer.

5. How is a battery connected to a junction diode in (i) Forward and (ii) Reverse bias?
A:

In forward bias, battery +ve is connected to p - region and -ve is connected to n - region.
In reverse bias, battery -ve is connected to p - region and +ve is connected to n - region.
6. What is the maximum percentage of rectification in half wave and full wave rectifiers?
A: Percentage of rectification in half wave rectifier is 40.6% and in full wave rectifier is
81.2%.

7. What is Zener Voltage (VZ) and how will a Zener diode be connected in circuits
generally?
A: When reverse voltage applied to the p - n junction is increased, at a particular
voltage, the current increases enormously. This voltage is called Zener voltage or
breakdown voltage. In circuits, Zener diode is connected in reverse bias.

8. Write the expressions for the efficiency of a full wave rectifier and half wave rectifier?

9. What happens to the width of the depletion layer in a p - n junction diode when it is (i)
Forward - biased and (ii) Reverse - biased?
A: In forward biased depletion layer width decreases. In reverse bias depletion layer
width increases.
10. Draw the circuit symbols for p - n - p and n - p - n transistors?
11. Define amplifier and amplification factor?
A: The process of raising the strength of weak - signal is called amplification and the
device used for amplification is called amplifier. The ratio between output voltage to
input voltage is called amplification factor.
V0
AV =
Vi

12. In which bias can a Zenor diode be used as a voltage regulator?

A: In reverse bias, Zener diode is used as voltage regulator.
13. Which gates are called universal gates?
A: 'NAND' and 'NOR' gates are called universal gates.

14. Write the truth tables of NAND gate. How does it differ from AND gate?
A: Truth table for NAND gate Truth table for AND gate

The output of 'NAND' gate is an inversion of output of 'AND' gate.

Short Answer type Questions

15. What are n - type and p - type semiconductors? How is a semiconductor junction
formed?
A: When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity atoms, it is called a p -
type semiconductor and when it is doped with a pentavalent impurity atoms, it is called
as n - type semiconductor.
Formation of p - n junction: If one side of a single crystal of pure semiconductor [Ge
(or) Si] is doped with trivalent impurity atoms and the other side is doped with trivalent
impurity atoms, a p-n junction is formed.
p - region has high concentration of holes and n - region contains a large number of
electrons.

16. Draw and explain the Current - Voltage (I - V) characteristic curves of a junction
diode in forward and reverse bias.
A: A graph between the voltage applied across the terminates of p - n junction diode
and current flow in the circuit is called V - I characterisitcs of junction diode. Usually
voltage is taken along X - axis and current along Y - axis.

From graph it is observed that,

In forward bias:
(a) As forward voltage is zero (Vf = 0), current in the circuit is zero. This is indicated by
'O' in the graph.
(b) From O to A, as forward voltage increases, increase in the current increase is small
because forward voltage is less than barrier voltage.
(c) When forward voltage is greater than potential barrier, the current increases linearly
from point 'A'. The voltage at point Ais called cut in voltage (or) knee voltage.
In reverse bias:
(d) When reverse voltage is increased from O to 'C' a small reverse current flows due to
minority carriers crossing the junction.
(e) When reverse voltage reaches the point 'C' the reverse current suddenly increases
to large value, because breaking of covalent bonds and releasing large number of
electron - hole pairs. This voltage is called a break - down voltage (or) Zener voltage.
Hence resistance of diode changes with applied voltage.
Dynamic resistance (rd):
The ratio of small change in voltage (ΔV) to the small change in current (ΔI) is called
dynamic resistance of junction diode.
∆V
dd=
∆I
17. Describe how a semiconductor diode is used as half wave rectifier?
A: A circuit which is rectifies half of the a.c. wave is called half wave rectifier.

Explanation:
* During +ve half cycle of a.c. input, end A becomes +ve and end B becomes -ve. This makes
diode forward bias and conducts current. So output is obtained across RL.
* During -ve half cycle, end A becomes -ve, end B becomes +ve. This makes the diode reverse
bias and does not conduct current. So no output is obtained across RL. Thus a half wave
rectifier gives discontinuous and pulsating d.c. output across load resistance (RL).
* In half wave rectifier only 40.6% of a.c. is converted into d.c.
18. What is rectification? Explain the working of a full wave rectifier?
A: Rectification: The process of converting alternating current (a.c.) into directed current (d.c.) is
called rectification.
Full Wave Rectifier (F.W.R.): The circuit which rectifies both half cycles of the a.c. wave is called
Full Wave Rectifier.
Working:
(1) During +ve half cycle, end 'A' becomes +ve and end 'B' becomes -ve. This makes diode D1,
forward bias and diode D2 reverse bias. So, D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. So output
voltage is obtained through load resistance (RL) due to diode D1.
(2) During -ve half cycle, end A becomes -ve, end B becomes +ve. This makes diode D1
reverse bias and D2 forward bias. So D2 conducts and D1 does not. So output voltage obtained
across RL is due to D2.
(3) The full wave rectifier gives continuous and pulsating d.c. output across RL.
(4) In full wave rectifier 81.2% of a.c. is converted into d.c.

Where rf = diode resistance; RL = load resistance

19. Distinguish between half wave and full wave rectifiers.

20. What is a photodiode? Explain the working with a circuit diagram and draw its I - V
characteristics.
A: Photodiode: A p - n junction diode made from light sensitive semiconductor is called
photodiode.
Working: When light photons each of energy E = hυ fall on the semiconductor the
valence electrons absorbs this energy and jump to conduction band living a hole in the
valence band. Thus electron - hole pairs are produced. This electron hole pairs are
constitute a photocurrent which flows in the circuit. As intensity of light increases
photocurrent also increases.
V - I characteristics of photodiode:
(1) When no light falls on the diode, a small reverse current flow due to minority carriers.
This current is called dark current.

With increase of intensity of incident light, the value of reverse current also increases.
(3) Measurement of change in reverse current on illumination can give values of light
intensity.
21. Explain the working of LED and what are its advantages over conventional
incandescent low power lamps.
A: A light emitting diode (LED) is a forward biased p-n junction diode, which emits
visible light when energized.
Working: When a junction diode is forward biased, electrons from n - side and holes
from p - side move towards the depletion region and recombination takes place. When
an electron in the conduction band recombines with a hole in the valency band, energy
is released. In the case of semiconducting materials like Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) a
greater percentage of energy is given out in the form of light. If the semiconductor
material is translucent, light is emitted and the junction becomes a light source.
Advantages of LED over conventional incandescent lamps:
(1) low operational voltage and less power consumption.
(2) Fast action and no warm up time required.
(3) The band width of emitted light is 100 A° to 500 A° i.e. light is nearly monochromatic.
(4) long life and raggedness.
(5) Fast ON/ OFF switching capability.

22. Define NAND and NOR gates. Give their truth tables.
A: NAND gate: NAND is a combination of AND + Not.
The logic gate in which the output of AND gate is connected to the input of NOT gate is
called NAND gate.
In NAND gate the output is low (0) when both the inputs are in high (1) otherwise high.
NOR gate: NOR gate is a combination of OR + NOT.
The logic gate in which the output of OR gate is connected to the input of NOT gate is called
NOR gate.
The Boolean equation for NOR gate is Y = A+ B .
Symbol:

Truth Table:

The output of NOR gate is high (1) when both the inputs are low (0) otherwise low.
23. Discuss the behaviour of p-n junction. How does a potential barrier develop at the junction?
A: Behaviour of p - n junction: In forward bias, p - n junction offers only low resistance and
conducts current. In reverse bias, p - n junction offers high resistance and does not conduct
current.
Formation of depletion layer and potential barrier: When p - n junction is formed, the electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side to combine with holes and becomes neutral. Similarly holes diffuse
from p-side to n-side to combine with electrons and becomes neutral. As a result of narrow
region is formed on either side of junction where there are no mobile carriers. This region is
called depletion layer.
Potential barrier (Vb): Due to immobile negative ions on p-side and immobile +ve ions or n-side
set up a potential difference across the junction. This potential difference is called barrier
potential (Vb). This potential barrier opposes further diffusion of electrons and holes across the
junction. For Si, Vb = 0.7 V and for Ge Vb = 0.3 V.

24. Distinguish between Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown.

A:

25. Explain the working of a solar cell and draw its I - V characteristics.
A: Solar cell: It is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electricity and is
based on photovoltaic effect.

Working: When light photons (with energy hυ > Eg) reach the junction, electron - hole
pairs, generated in the depletion region and move in opposite direction due to barrier
field. Now electrons move towards p-side. Thus p-side becomes +ve and n-side
becomes -ve giving rise to a photovoltage. When load resistance RL is connected in the
external circuit; a photocurrent (IL) flows. The current is proportional to intensity of light.

V - I characteristics: From graph, Voc depends on intensity of light. Hence output power of an
solar cell depends on intensity of incident sunlight.
26. Explain the different transistor configurations with diagrams.
A: In electric circuit transistor can be arranged in three configurations.
(1) Common base configuration (CB)
(2) Common emitter configuration (CE)
(3) Common collector configuration (CC)
Common base configuration (CB): If base is common to both input and output of a transistor is
called CB configuration.

Common emitter configuration (CE): If emitter is common to both input and output of a transistor
is called CE configuration.

Common collector configuration (CC): If collector is common to both input and output of a
transistor is called CC configuration.
Among the three, CE is more advantageous because it gives more amplification in current,
voltage and power.
27. Explain the power of a NOT gate and give its truth table.
A: NOT gate: NOT gate is a gate with only one input and one output. It also called inverter
because its output is complement to the input.

In NOT gate, when input is low, ouput is high and vice versa.

28. Explain hole conduction in the intrinsic semiconductor.

A: Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. At low temperature valency
band is filled with electrons and conduction band is empty. Hence it acts as an insulator
at low temperatures.

As temperature increases valence band electrons get energy and jump into the
conduction band crossing the forbidden gap. At their places in the valence band a
vacancy is created. This vacancy of electron in the valence band is called as 'hole'.
'Hole' has +ve charge and moves only in the valence band giving hold current (Ih). The
excited electrons in the conduction band is equal to number of holes in the valence
band inp = ne.
Current due to electrons is equal to current due to holes Ie = Ih
but total current I = Ie + Ih.
29. Explain how transistor can be used as switch?

A: Switch is a device for the on or off the current in the circuit. A n-p-n transistor with common
emitter circuit is used as a switch.
Using Kirchoff's voltage law:
For the input circuit -VBB + IBRB + VBE = 0
VBB = IBRB + VBE ............. (1)
For Si transistor VBE is 0.6 V to 0.7 V
For the output circuit -VCC + ICRC + VCE = 0 or VCE = VCC - ICRC .......... (2)
If VBB is d.c. input voltage Vi and VCE is output voltage Vo then
from (1) Vi = IBRB + VBE ..............(3)
Vo = VCC - ICRC ............. (4)
for Si transistor if Vi < 0.6 V then collector current (IC = 0) then
from eq (4), Vo = VCC, the transistor will be in cutoff state or switched off state.
When Vi > 0.6 V. IC increases and ouput.
Voltage Vo, decreases and the transistor will be inactive state. If Vi > 1.0 V, Vi and Vo is non
linear with increase in Vi, Vo decreases then IC becomes max and transistor is in saturation
state or switched on state.
The low input state switches the transistor off and a high input state switches it on. Hence
transistor acts as a switch.

30. Explain how transistor can be used as an oscillator?

A: An oscillator is a device for converting energy of dc source into an alternating voltage of high
frequency.
The basic oscillating circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel to a capacitor 'C'
which is called a tank circuit. The frequency of oscillations (υ) is given by

An oscillator generates ac output signal without any input signal. A part of the output is
feedback to the input and this feedback signal is the only input to the internal amplifier
of oscillator. If the feedback voltage and input voltage are in same phase the input to the
amplifier increased. This type of feedback which increases the gain of the amplifier is
called +ve feedback. An oscillator works on +ve feed back.
A
+ve feedback is given by Af = here F is called feedback factor.
1− AB
Af - over all gain of amplifier.
If AB = 1 then Af = ∞ then amplifier becomes an oscillator.
The starting or noise voltage produced by random motion of electrons in resistors used
in the circuit contains all the sinusoidal frequencies the ouput of the oscillator will
contain only a single sinusoidal frequency (υ).
Due to the resistance in circuit damped oscillations are formed and the energy loss is
balanced by feed back i.e. by supplying a suitable amount of energy from the o/p to i/p
in proper phase. The amount of energy feedback is determined by the coupling between
L and L' due to mutual induction.

Long Answer type Questions

31. What is a rectifier? Explain the working of halfwave and fullwave rectifiers with
diagrams.
A: The process of converting an alternating current (a.c.) into a direct current (d.c.) is
called rectification. The device used for this purpose is called rectifier.
Half Wave Rectifier:
A half wave rectifier is constructed with a single diode D as shown in figure.

The a.c. supply to be rectified is applied to the p-n junction diode connected in series
with the load resistance RL. The d.c. output is taken across the load resistance RL.
During the +ve half cycle, the diode is forward biased and current flows through the
diode. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and current does not
flow through it. Current flows in RL only in one direction. Thus half wave rectifier gives
discontinuous and pulsative d.c. output across RL. Efficiency of half wave rectifier is
defined as the ratio of d.c. output power to the a.c. input power.

In half wave rectifier maximum efficiency is 40.6%.

Full wave rectifier:
Full wave rectifier can be constructed with two diodes D1 and D2. The terminals of the
secondary coils are connected to the p-sides of the diodes and n-sides are connected
with each other. Load resistance RL is connected in between the centre tap and the
common terminal of n-sides are of the diodes D1, D2. The voltage at A & B w.r.t. to
centre tap C are out of phase with each other.

During the +ve half cycle of a.c. input the diode D1 is in forward bias, it allows current. The
diode D2 is reverse biased, it will not allow current. The current flows through RL due to D1
only.
Similarly during the -ve half cycle of a.c. input, the diode D2 is in forward bias, it allows
current. The diode D1 is reverse biased, it will not allow currnet. The current flows through RL
due to D2 only.
Hence current flows through the RL during both half cycles and in the same direction. Thus
the output d.c is continuous but pulsating efficiency of full wave rectifier is defined as the ratio of
d.c. output power to the a/c input power.

P dc 0.812× R L
η= =
P ac r f + RL
Where rf is diode forward resistance.
In full wave rectifier maximum efficiency is 81.2%.

32. What is a Zener diode? Explain how it is used as a voltage regulator?

A: Zener diode: A heavily doped p-n junction diode which has sharp breakdown voltage, when
operated in the reverse bias condition is called Zener diode. The circuit symbol of Zener diode
is as shown in figure below.

Zener diode as voltage regulator:

The irregulated input voltage is applied across Zener diode and resistance R which are in
series in such a way to make Zener diode reverse biased. The load resistence RL is connected
across Zener diode output is taken across RL.
If I is input current IZ and IL are Zener and load currents respectively, then I = IZ + IL
Vin = IR + VZ, But Vout = Vin - IR
The value of R is selected in such a way that in the absence of load resistance RL, maximum
safe current flows through the diode.

During the fluctuations even though the current in the source changes, the voltage across
Zener diode remains constant.
The voltage across the Zener diode remains constant even if the load resistance RLvaries.
When RL is increased but applied input voltage (Vin) is fixed, the current IL decrease and IZ
increases by an equal amount. So, that total current I remains constant. Hence output voltage
remains constant. Thus Zener diode works as a voltage regulator.

33. Draw an OR gate using two diodes and explain its operation. Write the truth table and logic
symbol of OR gate.
A: OR gate: An OR gate has two inputs and only one output. Figure shows the symbol for an
OR gate. The output of OR gate is Y = A + B
When one of the inputs is high (or) when both inputs are high, the output is high.

Implementation of OR gate using diodes:

Let D1 & D2 represent two diodes. A potential of 5 V represents zero (0).
When A = 0, B = 0 both diodes are reverse biased and there is no current through the
resistance. So, potential Y is zero (0).
When A = 5 V, B = 0, the diode is forward biased and current flows. So Y = 1.
When A = 0, B = 5 V then Y = 1. When A = 5 V, B = 5 V, then Y = 1.
The diode behaves like a closed switch. The output is same as that of OR gate.
34. Sketch a basic AND circuit with two diodes and explain its operation. Explain how doping
increases the conductivity in semiconductors?
A: AND gate: An AND gate has two inputs and one output. Figure shows the symbol for AND
gate. The output of AND gate is Y = A . B
The output of AND gate is high only when both the inputs are high.

Implementation & AND gate using diodes:

Let D1, D2 represents two diodes. A potential of 5 V represents the logical value 1 V and 0 V
represents the logical value 0.

When A= 0, B = 0 both diodes are forward biased and they behave like closed switches.
Output Y = 0 when A = 1, B = 1 both diodes are reverse biased and they behave open switches.
The output is Y = 1. The output is same as that of an AND gate.

35. What is a junction diode? Explain the formation of depletion region at the junction. Explain
the variation of depletion region in forward and reverse biased conditions.
A: Junction diode: A p - n junction diode is a two terminal device. When a semiconductor
material of Silicon or Germanium is doped with Ni such a way that one side of it becomes a
p-type and other side becomes n-type, we get p - n junction diode.
Circuit symbol of p-n junction diode is shown in figure.

Formation of depletion layer:

When p - n junction is formed the free electrons on n-side diffuse over to p-side, combine with
holes and becomes neutral. Similarly the holes on p-side diffuse over to n-side, combine with
electrons and become neutral. "This results in the formation of a narrow region on either side of
the junction, which becomes free from charge carriers. This region is called "depletion layer".
 Near the n-type the junction becomes positively charged and near the p-type, the junction
becomes negatively charged. This creates an electric field about the junction and a potential
difference exists about the junction and repels further flow of charge carriers to cross the
junction. This potential difference is called barrier potential (VB).
Forward bias:
"When the battery +ve terminal is connected to p-side and negative terminal of the battery to
n-side and move towards the junction is called forward bias".
The holes on p-side repelleld by the +ve terminal of the battery and move towards the
junction. At the same time the electrons on n-side are attracted by the +ve terminal of the
battery and move away from the junction. As a result the thickness of depletion layer increases.
The diode will not allow current through it. In reverse bias the resistance is high.

36. Describe a transistor and explain its working.

A: Transistor consists of two p - n junctions joined back to back. The word transistor
means transfer of resistance. A transistor has three regions.
They are: 1) Emitter (E) 2) Base (B) 3) Collector (C).
Emitter (E): The section at one end of transistor is called emitter. It is heavily doped
region. It contains large number of charge carriers.
Base (B): The middle section of transistor is called base. This is lightly doped and very
thin. Most of the charge carriers injected in it to flow into collector without neutralised.
Collector (C): The section at the other end is called collector, it is moderately doped.
Physically it is the largest. It collects the charge carriers from the base. Transistors are
of two types: 1) p-n-p transistor
2) n-p-n transistor
1. p-n-p transistor: In a p-n-p transistor the base part is made of n-type, emitter and
collector are made of p-type. The circuit symbol of p-n-p transistor is shown in figure.

In p-n-p transistor emitter junction is forward biased by connecting +ve terminal of a

battery to the emitter (E) and negative to the base. In collector junction is reverse biased
by connecting battery +ve to the base and -ve to the collector.
The holes in the emitter are repelled by the +ve terminal of battery and cross the
emitter junction enters in the base causing emitter current IE. A base is lightly doped, a
few number of holes combined with electrons causing a base current IB. Majority of
holes enters in the collector region. The collector terminal connected to the -ve of a
battery. It rapidly sweep the holes in the collector, causing a collector current I C.
IE = IB + IC
A continuous supply of holes injected into the emitter flows across the base to the
collector.
In p-n-p transistor majority charge carriers inside the circuit are holes and outside
the circuit charge carriers are electrons.
n-p-n transistor: In n-p-n transistor base part is made of p-type, emitter and collector
parts are made of n-type. The circuit symbol of n-p-n transistor is shown in figure.
In n-p-n transistor the emitter junction is forward biased with -ve terminal of the battery
connected to the emitter and +ve to the base. The collector junction is reverse biased with +ve
terminals to the collector and -ve to the base.
The electrons in the emittor are repelled by the -ve terminal of the battery and cross the
base region causing the emitter current IE. As base is lightly doped, few electrons combine with
holes causing base current IB and the majority of electrons enters in the collector. These
electrons rapidly swept out by the +ve terminal of the battery, causing collector current IC.
IE = I B + I C
A continuous supply of electrons injected into the emitter flows across the base of the
collector.
In n-p-n transistor charge carriers inside and outside the circuit are electrons.

37. What is amplification? Explain the working of a common emitter amplifier with necessary
diagram.
A: Amplification: The process of raising the strength of a weak signal is known as amplification.
Amplifier: The devise which is used the process of raising the strength of a weak signal is called
amplifier.
Uses: Amplifiers have wide applications in communication systems, radioreceivers, television
etc.
The block diagram of amplifier is shown in the following figure.

Types of amplifiers:
a) Power amplifiers: The amplifier which is used to raise the power level is known as "power
amplifier".
b) Voltage amplifiers: The amplifier that is used to raise the voltage level is known as "voltage
amplifier".
Amplification factor: The ratio between output voltage to input voltage is called amplification
factor.
The n-p-n transistor common emitter amplifier circuit is shown in figure.
The emitter junction is in forward biased with Bb, and the collector junction is reverse biased
with BC.
The input signal to be amplified is connected in series with Bb and output voltage is taken at
load resistance RL.
According to the input signal, the base current changes (ΔIb), which results in a large
change in collector current (ΔIC).
Current gain: The change in collector current to change in base current is called current gain.

Voltage gain: The ratio of change in output voltage to change in input voltage.
∆V ce
∴ Voltage gain=
∆ V be
Power gain: The product of current gain and voltage gain is called power gain.
Power gain = current gain × voltage gain.

PROBLEMS
1. In a half wave rectifier, a p-n junction diode with internal resistance 20 ohm is used. If the
load resistance of 20 ohm is used in the circuit then find the efficiency of this half wave rectifier.
Sol: Given rf = 20 Ω, RL = 2 Ω

% of efficiency (η) = 0.036 × 100 = 3.69%.

2. A fullwave p-n junction diode rectifier used a bad resistance of 1300 ohm. The internal
resistance of each diode is 9 ohm. Find the efficiency of this full wave rectifier.
Sol: Given rf = 9 Ω, RL = 1300 Ω
% of efficiency (η) = 0.8064 × 100 = 80.64%.
3. Calculate the current amplification factor β when change in collector current is 1 mA and
change in base current is 20 μA.
Sol: ΔIC = 1 mA = 10-3 A, ΔIB = 20 μA = 20 × 10-6 A

4. For transistor amplifier, the collector load resistance RL = 2 k ohm and the input resistance Ri
= 1 k ohm. If the current gain is 50, calculate the voltage, gain of the amplifier.
Sol: Given RL = 2 kΩ = 2 × 103 Ω, Ri = 1 kΩ = 1 × 103 Ω
β = 50

AV = 100
5. A p-n photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with band gap of 2.8 eV. Can it detect a
wavelength of 6000 nm?
Sol: Eg = 2.8 eV, λ = 6000 nm = 6000 × 10-9 m

As E < Eg, the p-n junction cannot detect the radiation of wavelength 6000 nm.

6. For a CE - transisttor amplifier, the audio signal voltage across the collected resistance of 2 kΩ
is 2 V. Suppose the current amplification factor of the transistor is 100, find the input signal
voltage and base current, if the base resistance is 1 kΩ.
Sol: Here Vo = 2 V, β = 100
RC (collector resistance) = 2 kΩ, Rβ = 1 kΩ

7. Two amplifiers are connected one after the other in series (cascaded). The first amplifier has a
voltage gain of 10 and the second has a voltage gain of 20. If the input signal is 0.01 voltage.
Calculate the output ac signal.
Thus Vo = 200 Vi = 200 × 0.01 V = 2 V

8. The number of Silicon atoms per m3 is 5 × 1028. This is doped simultaneously with 5 × 1022
atoms per m3 of Arsenic and 5 × 1020 per m3 atoms of Indium. Calculate the number of electrons
and holes. Given that nt = 1.5 × 1018 m-3. Is the material n-type or p-type?
Sol: Here Nd = 5 × 1022 / m3
Nd = 5 × 1020 / m3 = 0.05 × 1022 / m3
ne = 1.5 × 1016 / m3
For the semiconductor to remain neutral (nd - na) = (ne - nh) ........... (1)
√ 2
further , ( n e +n h )= ( n e−nh ) +4 ( ne nh )………(2)

and n e nh=ni2 ............. (3)

from equations (1), (2) & (3)

As nd - na = 5 × 1022 - 0.05 × 1022 = 4.95 × 1022

Since ne >> nh, the material is n - type.

9. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the energy gap Eg is 1.2 eV. Its hole mobility is much smaller
than electron mobility and independent of temperature. What is the ratio between conductivity at
600 K and that at 300 K? Assume that the temperature dependence of intrinsic carrier
concentration nt is given by
ni =n0 exp
( )
−E g
2 KB
t

where n 0 is a constant.
Sol: Here Eg = 1.2 eV, T1 = 300 K, T2 = 600 K,
KB = 8.62 × 10-5 eV/K
Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor σ =e ( ne μe +nh μh ) =e ni ( μe + μh )=e ni μe
10. You are given the two circuits as shown in figure. Show that circuit (a) acts as OR gate while
the circuit (b) acts as AND gate.

The circuit consists of NOR gate followed by a NOT gate. The truth table is as follows.
Since Y = A + B, the circuit acts as a OR gate.
(a) The circuit consists two NOT gates followed by a NOR gate. The truth table is as follows.

Since Y = A + B, the circuit acts OR gate.

(b) The circuit consists of two NOT gates followed by a NOR gate. The truth table is as follows

11. Write the truth table for a NAND gates connected as given in figure. Hence identify the exact
logic operation carried out by the cicuit.
A:

12. You are given two circuits as shown in figure which consist of NAND gates. Identify the
logic operation carried out by two circuits.

13. Write the truth table for the circuit given in figure below consisting of NOR gates and
identify the logic operation (OR, AND, NOT) which this circuit is performing.

A: The first gate is a NOR gate. The second gate is also a NOR gate, with both the input
terminals connected together. The truth table for the above circuit is as follows.
Since in this case Y = A+ B = A + B, the given circuit performs the function of an OR gate.

14. Write the truth table for the circuits given in figure consisting of NOR gates only. Identify
the logic operations (OR, AND, NOT) performed by the two circuits.

A: (a) The circuit of fig (a) is a NOR gate with its input terminals connected together. The truth
table is for this circuit is as follows.

Since Y = A+ B = A , a NOR gate with both its terminals connected together, performs the
NOT operation.
(b) The inputs A & B are inverted by the two NOT gates (obtained from NOR gates as detailed
in (a)]. These outputs A & B are fed to a NOR gate and the truth table is as follows.

Since in the case Y = = A. B, the fig (b) performs the function of an AND gate.

Chapter16. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

We know a person speaks with another person i.e., the first person communicates
some thing with the second person. Now a days communication is studied as a special
branch of engineering.
Let us discuss the elements of communication system. A communication system has
mainly three parts...
1) Transmitter 2) Channel and 3) Receiver

Here the generation of information may be speech or message. Let the microphone
converts speech signals into electrical signals, such device which converts into
electrical signals are called transducers. Here the signal is a single-valued function of
time. Which conveys the information.
This electrical signal containing information is transmitted into channel by a device
called Transmitter.
The physical medium that connects transmitter and receiver is called channel. Air,
connecting cable etc. are examples of channel.
The signals present in the channel are received by a device called Receiver. Radio, Cell
Phones etc. are receivers.
During the Transmission of signal through a channel there is a loss of strength of the
signal called attenuation. The unwanted signals that disturb the original signal are called
Noise. The original weak signal is strengthened by a device is called Amplifier.
Modulation: The process of combining the audio frequency signal with high frequency
carrier wave is called modulation.
The need for the modulation is explained below
1) Size of the antenna aerial: Antenna is used to transmit a signal into the channel.
The approximate height of antenna is λ/4 of the transmitting signal. For audio frequency
range 20 Hz, 20 KHz, corresponding minimum wave length is λ = c/ = 15 km.
Hence required antenna height will be λ/4 ≈ 4 km. Which is impractical. To over come
this problem modulation with high frequency is necessary.
2) Effective power radiated by the antenna: The power radiated by an antenna is
directly proportional to (l/λ). Hence for high power transmission there is the need of high
frequency. This can be achieved by modulation.
3) Mixing up of signal from different transmitters: If many transmitters are
transmitting base band (audio frequency range 20 Hz to 20 KHz) information signals
simultaneously all the signals will be mixed up and there is no way to distinguish them.
Hence modulation with high frequency carrier waves of different frequencies will solve
this problem.
The types of modulations are
i) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 ii) Frequency Modulation (FM)
iii) Phase Modulation
In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave varies in accordance with the
message signal and the frequency and the phase of carrier wave unchanged. Similarly
in frequency modulation frequency of the carrier wave changes and in phase
modulation phase of the carrier wave changes in according to the modulating signal.
Band Width: The communicated signal is not a single frequency, but spreads over a
range of frequencies called signal band width.
Different types of transmission have different band widths.
Some important wireless communication frequency bands are given below

In wireless communication electromagnetic waves propages through the atmosphere in

three modes. They are
1) Ground wave propagation
2) Space wave propagation
3) Sky wave propagation
Ground wave Propagation: The waves that glide over the surface of the earth are called
ground waves. This process is useful for low frequencies (0.5 MHz to 1.5 MHz)because
for high frequencies at tenuation increases rapidly. It is useful for very short distances.
The ground waves are vertically polarized because the horizontal component of
electric field in contact with the earth is short circuited by the earth.
Sky wave propagation: Long-distance, short-wave communication by means of
ionospheric reflection is called sky wave propagation. This process is useful for the
frequency range from a few MHz to about 30 MHz. The electromagnetic waves of
frequencies above 30 MHz penetrate the ionosphere and escape and for low frequency
noise and attenuation increases due to ionosphere absorption.
The sky wave propagation is due to total internal reflection (TIR).
Space wave Propagation: The propagation of electromagnetic wave between
transmitting and receiving antennas for greater than 30 MHz frequency is called space
wave propagation.
The space wave used for line-of-sight (LOS) communication and satellite
communication. The LOS waves may get blocked at some point by the curvature of the
earth.

Line of sight communication by space waves

If hT and hR are the height of transmitting and receiving antennas then, if R is the
radius of the earth
i) The distance between transmitting antenna to the horizon is d T =√ 2 R h T
ii) The distance of receiving antenna to the horizon is d R=√ 2 R hR
iii) The maximum distance between the two antennas is d M =√ 2 R h T + √ 2 R h T
Derivation of d T =√ 2 R h T
from ΔOPQ
2 2 2 2 2 2
(R+h T ) =R +hT +2 R hT =R +hT + d T

The space wave communication used in TV, radio, aircraft radar etc.

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Questions – Answers
Very Short Answer type Questions

1. What are the basic blocks of a communication system?

A: 1) Transmitter
2) Transmission Channel
3) Receiver

2. What is 'World Wide Web' (www)?

A: It is a encyclopedia of knowledge accessible to everyone round the clock throughout
the year.

3. Mention the frequency range of speech signals.

A: The frequency range of speech signals is from 300 Hz to 3100 Hz.

4. What is sky wave propagation?

A: The waves in the high frequency range (few MHz to 30 MHz) are reflected by the
ionosphere of the atmosphere. This made of propagation is known as sky wave
propagation.

5. Mention the various parts of the ionosphere?

A: 1) Part of stratasphere (D) 2) Part of stratosphere (E)
3) Part of meosphere (F1) 4) Thermosphere (F2)
6. Define modulation. Why is it necessary?
A: The process of combining audio frequency signal with high frequency signal (or
carrier wave) is called modulation.
Necessity:
1) Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances. Hence the modulation is
necessary.
2) To reduce the size of antenna.
3) To avoid mixing up of signals from different transmitters.

7. Mention the basic methods of modulation.

A: 1) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2) Frequency Modulation (FM)
3) Phase Modulation (PM)

8. Which type of communication is employed in Mobile Phones?

A: Space wave communication employed in Mobile Phones.

Short Answer type Questions

1. What do you understand by Modulation? Explain the need for modulation.
A: Modulation:
1) The process of combining the low frequency signal with a carrier wave (high
frequency signal) is called modulation.
2) Modulating signal may be represented as
Y m =A m sin(ω m t+φ) → (1)
Where Am = Amplitude of Modulation wave.
ω m= modulating angular frequency = 2π fm
φ = Phase constant
3) The high frequency signal is generally called as carrier signal and it is represented by
Y c = A c sin(ωc t+ φ) → (2)
Where Ac = amplitude of carrier signal
ω c = Carrier signal frequency = 2π fc
Need for Modulation:
1) Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances. Hence the modulation is
necessary.
2) To reduce size of antenna
3) To increase effective radiated power by the antenna.
4) To avoid mixing up of signals from different transmitters.

2. What is space wave communication? Explain

A: Space wave communication:
1) The radiowave which travels in a straight line from transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna is called space waves.
2) Communication done by using the space wave is known as space wave
communication.
3) space wave is used for Line-of-sight (LoS) communication.
4) TV signals cannot be transmitted via either ground wave or skyvwave because of
frequencies greater than 40 MHz.

5) To achieve larger TV coverage, transmission of TV signals is done from a tall antenna.

6) If the transmitting antenna is at a height hT, the distance to the horizon dT is

9) Television broadcast, microwave links and satellite communication are some examples of
communication systems that use space wave mode of propagation.
3. Explain Amplitude Modulation.
A: Amplitude Modulation (AM):
1) In AM the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the information signal. The
amplitude modulation process using a sinusoidal signal as the modulation signal.
2) Let C(t) = Ac sin ωct represent carrier wave and m(t) = Am sin ωmt represent the message or
the modulating signal. Where ωm = 2πfm.
3) The modulated signal Cm(t) can be written as,
Cm(t) = Ac Sin ωct + µ Ac Sin ωmt sin ωct
here µ = Am/ Ac is the modulation index.
In practice, µ is kept ≤ 1 to avoid distortion.
4) The modulation signal now contains the message signal, which is shown below.

Modulation of a carrier wave 1 (a) a sinusoidal carrier waves (b) a modulating(information

mesage) signal (c) amplitude modulation:

4. Draw the block diagram of a generalized communication system and explain it briefly.
A: The exchange of information between two persons located at two different places is called
communication. It consists of the following parts.
1) Transmitter
2) Communication Channel
3) Receiver

1) Information Source: Information Source supplies the message signal. This message signal is
generally a speech, music or information, data to be communicated to others.
2) Transmitter: It will convert the message signal converted by source of information into a
form that is suitable for transmission through the channel.
3) Communication Channel: A transmitted signal will propagate along the channel. During
propagation loss of strength of signal and distortion of signal will take place. It means noise may
be developed.
4) Receiver: Receiver extracts the desired message signal from the transmitted signal which are
travelling through the channel. It finally gives out message signal as output.
5) User of information: The received information supplied from source of information through
receiver. This information is utilised by the user as per the user requirement.
Explanation with example: The microphone of telephone at the speaker's end acts as the input
transducer. It converts sound signal into electrical form. When a transmitted signal propagates
along the channel, it may be distarted due to channel imperfection. Receiver receives a corrupted
version of transmitted signal for example when the message signal reaches the telephone at the
receivers end, then the loud speaker of the telephone at the receiver's end converts the message
signal into the original signal. The original signal so recovered is called as output signal and the
loudspeaker of the telephone at the receiver end is called output transducer i.e, receiver
reconstructs a recognizable form of the original message signal for delivery it to the user
information.

6. What is a Ground Wave? When it is used for communication?

A: Ground wave: The propagation of electromagnetic wave along the surface of earth is called
ground wave.

To radiate these signals with high efficiency, the antennas should have a size comparable to the
wavelength (λ) of the signal. At longer wave length the antenna have large physical size and they
are located on (or) near to the ground. In standard AM broadcast, ground based vertical towers
are generally used as transmitting antennas. For these type antennas ground has a strong
influence on the propagation of the signal.

7. What are Sky waves? Explain Sky wave propagation.

A: Long distance communication is achieved by reflection of electromagnetic waves by
Ionosphere. Such waves are known as skywaves.
Propagation: These waves can be used in long distances communication and the frequency
ranges, from a few MHz upto about 30 MHz. This mode of propagation is called as sky wave
propagation. The ionospheric layer acts as a reflector for a certain range of frequencies (3 to 30
MHz). Electromagnetic waves of frequencies higher than 30 MHz penetrate the ionosphere and
escape. The phenomenon of bending of electromagnetic waves is such that they are divided
towards the earth which is similar to total internal reflection in optics.
8. What should be the size of the antenna or aerial? How the power is related to length of the
antenna and wavelength?
A: Size of Antenna (or) Aerial: For transmitting a signal, we need an antenna (or) aerial. This
antenna should have a size comparable to the wavelength of the signal. So that the antenna
properly senses the time variation of the signal. For an electromagnetic wave of frequency 20
KHz, the wavelength is λ is 15 km.
Effective Power radiated by an Antena: A theoritical study of radiation from a linear antena
shows that the power radiated is proportional to (lλ2). This implies that for the same antenna
length, the power radiated increases with decreasingly λ i.e. increasing frequency.