Sensing

Dr. Sudip Misra

Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
IIT KHARAGPUR
Email: smisra@sit.iitkgp.ernet.in
Website: http://cse.iitkgp.ac.in/~smisra/

Introduction to Internet of Things 1

 Definition

 A sensor detects (senses) changes in the ambient conditions

or in the state of another device or a system, and forwards or
processes this information in a certain manner [1].

“A device which detects or measures a physical property and

records, indicates, or otherwise responds to it” [2].
References: ‐ Oxford Dictionary
1. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/sensor.html
2. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sensor

Introduction to Internet of Things 2

Sensors

 They perform some input functions by sensing or feeling the

physical changes in characteristics of a system in response to a
stimuli.
 For example heat is converted to electrical signals in a
temperature sensor, or atmospheric pressure is converted to
electrical signals in a barometer.

Introduction to Internet of Things 3

Transducers

 Transducers convert or transduce energy of one kind into

another.
 For example, in a sound system, a microphone (input device)
converts sound waves into electrical signals for an amplifier to
amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device)
converts these electrical signals back into sound waves.

Introduction to Internet of Things 4

 Sensor vs. Transducer

 The word “Transducer” is the collective term used for both

Sensors which can be used to sense a wide range of different
energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant
energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc., and Actuators which
can be used to switch voltages or currents [1].

References:
1. http://www.electronics‐tutorials.ws/io/io_1.html

Introduction to Internet of Things 5

Sensor Features
 It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A
temperature sensor senses the ambient temperature of a
room.)
 It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered
in its application (e.g., A temperature sensor does not bother
about light or pressure while sensing the temperature.)
 It does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring
the temperature does not reduce or increase the
temperature).

Introduction to Internet of Things 6

Sensor Resolution
 The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect
in the quantity that it is measuring.
 The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the
smallest resolution the digital output it is capable of
processing.
 The more is the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is its
precision.
 A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution.

Introduction to Internet of Things 7

Sensor Classes

Based on Based on
Output Data type

Analog Scalar

Vector/
Digital
Multimedia

Introduction to Internet of Things 8

Analog Sensors
 Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage
which is generally proportional to the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc. are all analog quantities as they tend to be
continuous in nature.
 For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple (e.g. in geysers) which continuously
responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or
cooled down.

Introduction to Internet of Things 9

Digital Sensors
 Digital Sensors produce discrete digital output signals or voltages
that are a digital representation of the quantity being measured.
 Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a logic
“1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or “OFF”).
 Digital signal only produces discrete (non‐continuous) values, which
may be output as a single “bit” (serial transmission), or by
combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output (parallel
transmission).

Introduction to Internet of Things 10

Scalar Sensors
 Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc.
are all scalar quantities as only their magnitude is sufficient to
convey an information.
 For example, the temperature of a room can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple, which responds to temperature
changes irrespective of the orientation of the sensor or its
direction.

Introduction to Internet of Things 11

Vector Sensors
 Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation
of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration,
orientation, etc. are all vector quantities, as only their magnitude is
not sufficient to convey the complete information.
 For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an
accelerometer, which gives the components of acceleration of the
body with respect to the x,y,z coordinate axes.

Introduction to Internet of Things 12

Sensor Types
• Light Dependent resistor
Light • Photo‐diode
• Thermocouple
Temperature • Thermistor
• Strain gauge
Force • Pressure switch
• Potentiometer, Encoders
Position • Opto‐coupler
• Reflective/ Opto‐coupler
Speed • Doppler effect sensor
• Carbon Microphone
Sound • Piezoelectric Crystal
• Liquid Chemical sensor
Chemical • Gaseous chemical sensor

Introduction to Internet of Things 13

 Pressure Sensor Ultrasonic Distance Sensor Tilt Sensor Infrared Motion Sensor
Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons

Analog Temperature Sensor Camera Sensor

Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons

Introduction to Internet of Things 14

 Sensorial Deviations
 Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the
output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum,
when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale
range of a sensor defines the maximum and minimum values
of the measured property.
 The sensitivity of a sensor under real conditions may differ
from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error.
 If the output signal differs from the correct value by a
constant, the sensor has an offset error or bias.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

15
 Non-linearity

 Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor's transfer function (TF)

from a straight line transfer function.
 This is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal TF
behavior over the full range of the sensor, which is denoted as
the percentage of the full range.
 Most sensors have linear behavior.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

Introduction to Internet of Things 16

  If the output signal slowly changes independent of the
measured property, this is defined as drift. Long term drift
over months or years is caused by physical changes in the
sensor.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

Introduction to Internet of Things 17

 Hysteresis Error
 A hysteresis error causes the sensor output value to vary
depending on the sensor’s previous input values.
 If a sensor's output is different depending on whether a
specific input value was reached by increasing or decreasing
the input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error.
 The present reading depends on the past input values.
 Typically in analog sensors, magnetic sensors, heating of
metal strips.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

Introduction to Internet of Things 18

 Other Errors
 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an
approximation of the measured property. This error is also called
quantization error.
 If the signal is monitored digitally, the sampling frequency can cause
a dynamic error, or if the input variable or added noise changes
periodically at a frequency proportional to the multiple of the
sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other
than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are
influenced by the temperature of their environment.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

Introduction to Internet of Things 19

Introduction to Internet of Things 20
 Actuation

Dr. Sudip Misra

Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
IIT KHARAGPUR
Email: smisra@sit.iitkgp.ernet.in
Website: http://cse.iitkgp.ac.in/~smisra/

Introduction to Internet of Things 1

Actuator

 An actuator is a component of a machine or system that

moves or controls the mechanism or the system.
 An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts
upon an environment
 An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy.

Introduction to Internet of Things 2

 Upon receiving a control signal is received, the actuator
responds by converting the energy into mechanical motion.
 The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or
electronic system), software‐based (e.g. a printer driver, robot
control system), a human, or any other input.
Pressure

Mechanical
Electric

Current Pneumatic Manual

Voltage (air) Drive (e.g.
Hydraulic crankshaft) Control Signal Actuator
(fluid)

Introduction to Internet of Things 3

Actuator Types
Hydraulic

Pneumatic

Electrical

Thermal/ Magnetic

Mechanical

Introduction to Internet of Things 4

 Hydraulic Actuators

 A hydraulic actuator consists of a cylinder or fluid motor that

uses hydraulic power to facilitate mechanical operation.
 The mechanical motion is converted to linear, rotary or
oscillatory motion.
 Since liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic
actuator exerts considerable force.
 The actuator’s limited acceleration restricts its usage.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of Things 5

Fig: An oil based hydraulic actuator
Fig: A radial engine acts as a hydraulic actuator
Source: Wikimedia Commons
File: Radial_engine.gif

Introduction to Internet of Things 6

 Pneumatic Actuators
 A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or
compressed air at high pressure into either linear or rotary motion.
 Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are used for valve controls of
water pipes.
 Pneumatic energy quickly responds to starting and stopping signals.
 The power source does not need to be stored in reserve for
operation.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of Things 7

 Pneumatic actuators enable large forces to be produced from
relatively small pressure changes (e.g., Pneumatic brakes can
are very responsive to small changes in pressure applied by
the driver).
 It is responsible for converting pressure into force.

Introduction to Internet of Things 8

Fig: A manual linear pneumatic actuator Fig: An air pump acts as a pneumatic actuator

Introduction to Internet of Things 9

 Electric Actuators

 An electric actuator is generally powered by a motor that

converts electrical energy into mechanical torque.
 The electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as
solenoid valves which control the flow of water in pipes in
response to electrical signals.
 Considered as one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy
actuator types available.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of Things 10

Fig: A motor drive‐based rotary Fig: A solenoid based electric bell ringing
actuator mechanism
Source: Wikimedia Commons
File: Electric_Bell_animation.gif

Introduction to Internet of Things 11

 Thermal or Magnetic Actuators
 These can be actuated by applying thermal or magnetic energy.
 They tend to be compact, lightweight, economical and with high
power density.
 These actuators use shape memory materials (SMMs), such as
shape memory alloys (SMAs) or magnetic shape‐memory alloys
(MSMAs).
 Some popular manufacturers of these devices are Finnish Modti Inc.
and American Dynalloy.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of Things 12

 Fig: A piezo motor using SMA
Source: Wikimedia Commons
File: Piezomotor type bimorph.gif

Introduction to Internet of Things 13

 Fig: A coil gun works on the principle of magnetic actuation

Source: Wikimedia Commons

File: Coilgun animation.gif

Introduction to Internet of Things 14

 Mechanical Actuators

 A mechanical actuator converts rotary motion into linear

motion to execute some movement.
 It involves gears, rails, pulleys, chains and other devices to
operate.
 Example: rack and pinion.

Fig: A rack and pinion mechanism

Source: Wikimedia Commons
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator File: Rack and pinion.png

Introduction to Internet of Things 15

 Fig: A crank shaft acting as a mechanical actuator
Source: Wikimedia Commons
File: Cshaft.gif

Introduction to Internet of Things 16

 Soft Actuators

 Soft actuators (e.g. polymer based) are designed to handle

fragile objects like fruit harvesting in agriculture or
manipulating the internal organs in biomedicine.
 They typically address challenging tasks in robotics.
 Soft actuators produce flexible motion due to the integration
of microscopic changes at the molecular level into a
macroscopic deformation of the actuator materials.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of Things 17

 Shape Memory Polymers

 Shape memory polymer (SMP) actuators function similar to

our muscles, even providing a response to a range of stimuli
such as light, electrical, magnetic, heat, pH, and moisture
changes.
 SMP exhibits surprising features such a low density, high
strain recovery, biocompatibility, and biodegradability.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of Things 18

 Light Activated Polymers

 Photopolymer/light activated polymers (LAP) are a special

type of SMP that are activated by light stimuli.
 The LAP actuators have instant response.
 They can be controlled remotely without any physical contact,
only using the variation of light frequency or intensity.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator

Introduction to Internet of Things 19

Introduction to Internet of Things 20
Basics of IoT Networking – Part I

Dr. Sudip Misra

Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
IIT KHARAGPUR
Email: smisra@sit.iitkgp.ernet.in
Website: http://cse.iitkgp.ac.in/~smisra/

Introduction to Internet of Things 1

 Convergence of Domains

Source: O. Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems”, River
Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of Things 2

IoT Components

Device (The Thing)

Local Network

Internet

Backend Services

Applications

Introduction to Internet of Things 3

Introduction to Internet of Things 4
 Functional Components of IoT
 Component for interaction and communication with other IoT
devices
 Component for processing and analysis of operations
 Component for Internet interaction
 Components for handling Web services of applications
 Component to integrate application services
 User interface to access IoT

Source: O Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated
Ecosystems”, River Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of Things 5

 An Example IoT Implementation Analytics

Proxy Server

Radio Actuation
Gateway

Processor

Sensor
Websocket Cloud‐server
Internet
Sensor Mote

Introduction to Internet of Things 6

IoT Interdependencies

Introduction to Internet of Things 7

 IoT Service Oriented Architecture

Source: Li Da Xu, Wu He, and Shancang Li, “Internet of Things in Industries: A Survey “, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Vol. 10, No. 4, Nov. 2014.

Introduction to Internet of Things 8

IoT Categories

 Industrial IoT
 IoT device connects to an IP network and the global Internet.
 Communication between the nodes done using regular as well as
industry specific technologies.
 Consumer IoT
 IoT device communicates within the locally networked devices.
 Local communication is done mainly via Bluetooth, Zigbee or WiFi.
 Generally limited to local communication by a Gateway

Introduction to Internet of Things 9

IoT Gateways

Introduction to Internet of Things 10

IoT and Associated Technologies
Big Data
SDN Cloud

3G/4G/5G

IoT Smart Grid

CPS IoV

Tele‐
M2M
medicine

Introduction to Internet of Things 11

Technical Deviations from Regular Web

Introduction to Internet of Things 12

 Key Technologies for IoT

Source: O Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems”, River
Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of Things 13

IoT Challenges

 Security  Interfacing
 Scalability  Interoperability
 Energy efficiency  Data storage
 Bandwidth management  Data Analytics
 Modeling and Analysis  Complexity management
(e.g., SDN)

Introduction to Internet of Things 14

Considerations

 Communication between the IoT device(s) and the outside

world dictates the network architecture.
 Choice of communication technology dictates the IoT device
hardware requirements and costs.
 Due to the presence of numerous applications of IoT enabled
devices, a single networking paradigm not sufficient to
address all the needs of the consumer or the IoT device.

Introduction to Internet of Things 15

 Complexity of Networks

 Growth of networks
 Interference among devices
 Network management
 Heterogeneity in networks
 Protocol standardization within networks

Source: O Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated
Ecosystems”, River Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of Things 16

 Wireless Networks
• Traffic and load management
• Variations in wireless networks – Wireless Body Area
Networks and other Personal Area Networks
• Interoperability
• Network management
• Overlay networks

Source: O. Vermesan, P. Friess, “Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated
Ecosystems”, River Publishers, Series in Communications, 2013

Introduction to Internet of Things 17

 Scalability

• Flexibility within Internet

• IoT integration
• Large scale deployment
• Real‐time connectivity of billions of devices

Introduction to Internet of Things 18

Introduction to Internet of Things 19