AL-AMEEN COLLEGE OF LAW

MODEL QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS – DECEMBER 2019

Prepared by

S.Premkumar

Guest Lecturer in Political Science

This material has been prepared keeping in mind specific student requirements,
Nonetheless this material is not aimed to replace the standard prescribed textbooks on the
given area, yet this avails itself as a quick reference to aid classroom discussions.
 Unit I- THEORY AND THOUGHT.

Q.No.1. Define state and explain its essential elements.

Prof. Laski defines 'state as a territorial society divided into government and subjects whose
relationships are determined by the exercise of supreme coercive power.'

To Woodrow Wilson, 'State is a people organized for law within a definite territory.'

Aristotle defined the state as a 'union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and
self - sufficing life by which it meant a happy and honorable life'.

Elements of the State.

There were four major elements of the state. They are,

Population

Territory

Government

Sovereignty

Population :

It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the state. Greek thinkers were
of the view that the population should neither be too big nor too small. According to Plato the
ideal number would be 5040.

According to Aristotle, the number should be neither too large nor too small. It should be
large enough to be self - sufficing and small enough to be well governed. Rousseau
determined 10,000 to be an ideal number for a state. Greek thinkers like Plato and Aristotle
thinking on the number was based on small city - states like Athens and Sparta. Modern
states vary in population. India has a population of 102,70,15,247 people according to 2001
census.

Territory

There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and organize
themselves socially and politically. It may be remembered that the territory of the state
includes land, water and air - space.

The modern states differ in their sizes. Territory is necessary for citizenship. As in the case of
population, no definite size with regard to extent of area of the state can be fixed. There are
small and big states.

In the words of Prof. Elliott 'territorial sovereignty or the Superiority of state overall within
its boundaries and complete freedom from external control has been a fundamental principle
of the modern state life'. India has an area of 32,87,263 sq. km. Approximately India occupies
2.4% of the global area.

Government

Government is the third element of the state. There can be no state without government.
Government is the working agency of the state. It is the political organization of the state.

Prof. Appadorai defined government as the agency through which the will of the State is
formulated, expressed and realized.According to C.F. Strong, in order to make and enforce
laws the state must have supreme authority. This is called the government.

State and Government: a difference note.

Government is often used with the 'state' as synonym. But both the government and the state
are two different entities. There are differences between the state and the government.

State

1. State consists of population, territory, government and sovereignty.

2. State possesses original powers.

3. State is permanent and continues forever.

4. State is abstract and invisible.

Government

1. Government is part of the state.

2. Powers of the government are derived from the state.

3. Government is temporary. It may come and go.

4. Government is concrete and is visible.

Sovereignty

The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty. The word 'sovereignty' means
supreme and final legal authority above and beyond which no legal power exists.

The concept of 'sovereignty' was developed in conjunction with the rise of the modern state.
The term Sovereignty is derived from the Latin word superanus which means supreme. the
father of modern theory of sovereignty was Jean Bodin (1530 - 1597) a French political
thinker.

Sovereignty has two aspects :

1) Internal sovereignty 2) External sovereignty.

Internal sovereignty means that the State is supreme over all its citizens, and associations.
External sovereignty means that the state is independent and free from foreign or outside
control. Also with in the state Sovereignty can be classified to Political sovereignty, legal
sovereignty, Popular sovereignty, De Jure and De Facto Sovereignty. According to Harold J.
Laski, 'It is by possession of sovereignty that the state is distinguished from all other forms of
human association.

Or

Q. NO. 1. Define Political Science. Explain the scope and significance of the study of
political science.

According to Hans J Morgenthau, “Politics is the struggle for Power and Peace.”

Politics is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means ‘city state’. (Polity meaning
Government, politeia meaning Constitution) and each city in those days was an independent
state, a principality in its own right. E.g. Athens, Sparta, Corinth etc. In his famous book
‘Politics’ Aristotle wrote , “ Man is by nature a Political Animal and he who is by nature or
by accident is without state is either above humanity or below it.” Politics is the control room
of all human activities.

According to Laski “the study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to
organized states.”

According to Garner, “Political science begins and ends with state.”

According to Leacock, “Political science deals with government.”

Nature and scope of Political Science

Nature

Politics according to Aristotle and other thinkers is as old as human civilization and its
importance could be gauged from the fact that it touches every aspect of human life, be it
economy, culture, social relations or ethical norms.

Scope

The scope of Political Science is comprehensive, and it has great significance. In recent
years, its importance has multiplied. Man is a political animal, and in all spheres of his life he
is, directly or indirectly, influenced by politics. For several reasons, the study of Political
Science has become indispensable to social welfare and development.

There has been tremendous increase in the number of issues which is now being analysed
under the realm of Political Science. There are discussions on the theories of state origin,
sovereignty, law, liberty, rights, forms and organs of government, representation, state
functions, political parties, pressure groups, public opinion, and ideologies such as capitalism,
socialism, communism etc., international relations and institutions.
Significance of the Study of Political Science.

Significance of studying political science varies from understanding the relationship between
the state and government, individual liberty and state authority, to study the history of
constitutionalism, foundations of The Rule of Law, etc. Power and authority of various
systems under the world governments and relationship between Politics to other systems of
society is studied in Political Science.

Understanding state and Government

Political Science provides valuable information and ideas about state, government and many
political organisations and institutions to the individual. State is the most universal and
powerful of all social institutions, and politically enlightened people are capable of playing a
useful role in social and political affairs.

To understand basic principles of Administrative studies and diplomacy.

Political Science provides knowledge to study the problems in Public and financial
administration. By arriving the solution to the actual challenges of public policy, economic
systems, political science is helping the policy makers, economists for overall social
development.

Understanding global politics is essential for resolving international disputes and conflicts.
Political science helps in understanding global power dynamics, political problems. Etc.

Understanding free markets

Apart from these Greek philosophers some modern thinkers also have contributed to the fund
of normative thought. John Locke propounded the theory of Natural Rights and government
by consent as the solution for tyranny of rulers. He developed the social contract theory
where he suggests that basis of any government has to be the consent and good of people.
Locke was the influential philosopher in developing free market philosophy.

Understanding democracy

The French philosopher Rousseau conceived of ‘General Will’ as the ideal will as it ought to
be, to which all individuals must conform to realize their own freedom. He was attempting
reconciliation between individual liberty and state authority.

The German idealist Hegel deified the state; according to him state was ‘March of God on
Earth’. He prescribed that individual self is to be sacrificed for the better self: the state.

To study International Political order and International Economic order, Political

Science becomes indispensible.

For Politicians, lawyers, policy makers, free market thinkers, Political science gives first-
hand knowledge in understanding how political discourse in the present world can affect their
interest in social welfare.
Q.No. 2. Define Sovereignty and explain the kinds of sovereignty.

Sovereignty is the chief characteristic of the state. It is essentially a juristic concept implying
supreme and final power. In every state there is a sovereign body endowed with supreme
power to translate in legal terms the will of the state. This sovereign may be a person or body
of persons. Hence, sovereignty is synonymous with final, absolute and unlimited power.
There is no legal limit to sovereignty.

There were some prominent classifications on sovereignty.

Legal sovereignty

Political Sovereignty

Popular Sovereignty

Defacto Soveregnty

Dejure sovereignty

Legal sovereignty

Legal sovereignty implies a theory of sovereignty in terms of formal law. In every state there
is a determinate person or body of persons which possesses supreme authority to issue the
highest command or to enact the final law. This person or body of persons is designated as
the legal sovereign. The authority of the legal sovereign has a characteristic as the legal
sanctity.

The conception of legal sovereignty is grounded on formal law. It does not take cognizance
of the logic of political realities

Political Sovereignty

As Dicey observed, Behind the sovereign which the lawyer recognizes, there is another
sovereign to whom legal sovereign must bow. This is known as political sovereign. In fact,
legal sovereign in every state feels the weight of the political sovereign, and the decision of
the former is always profoundly influenced by the opinion of the latter.

The problem of representative democracy is basically to explore a link between the legal and
political sovereign.

Popular Sovereignty.

The concept of popular sovereignty is the ideological foundation of modern democratic

states. Democracy is built upon the premise that ultimate authority resides in people who, in
their aggregate capacity, are sovereign. Commonwealth is people’s affair, according to
popular sovereignty

Rousseau and Jefferson were the most passionate champions of the ultimate authority of the
people.
De Jure and De facto sovereignty

Generally, the distinction between de jure and de facto sovereignty signifies a difference
between legal claim to supreme power and its actual exercise.

The basis of de jure sovereignty rests on law. The de jure sovereign is competent to issue the
highest command of the state and it has the legal claim of the obedience.

As Bryce observers, “the person or body of persons who can make his or their will prevail
whether with the law or against the law : he, or they, is the de facto ruler, the person to whom
obedience is actually paid.” De facto sovereignty has its foundation in force, physical or
spiritual, rather than in law.”

Or

Q.NO 2 write a note on Evolutionary theory of the State.

The Historical or Evolutionary theory

Five theories in explanation of the origin of the state, but no single theory offers an adequate
explanation. The theory which explains and is now accepted as a convincing origin of the
state, is the Historical or Evolutionary theory. It explains the state is the product of growth, a
slow and steady evolution extending over a long period of time and ultimately shaping itself
into the complex structure of a modern state. This theory is more scientific.

The state is neither the handiwork of God, nor the result of superior physical force, nor the
creation of evolution or convention, nor a mere expansion of the family. The state is not a
mere artificial mechanical creation but an institution of natural growth or historical evolution
says professor Garner.

There were a number of factors which helped the evolution of the state. They were kinship,
religion, war, migration economic activities and political consciousness. The important
factors which contributed to the growth of the state are

1. Kinship

2. Religion

3. Property and defence

4. Force

5. Political consciousness

Kinship

Kinship is the most important and was based upon blood relationship and kinship was the
first strongest bond of unity. Family constituted the first link in the process of the evolution
of the state with the expansion of the family arose new families and the multiplication of
families led to the formation of clans and tribes. Kinship was the only factor which bound the
people together.

According to Professor Mac Iver, the magic of names 'reinforced the sense of kinship, as the
course of generations enlarged the group. The blood bond of sonship changed imperceptibly
into the social bond of the wider brotherhood. The authority of the father passes into the
power of the chief once more under the aegis of kinship new forms arise which transcend it.
Kinship creates society and society at length creates the state'.

Religion

Religion provided the bond of unity in early society. It also affected all walks of life. The
worship of a common ancestor and common goods created a sense of social solidarity. There
was fear in the hearts of men as far as religion was concerned. Even today we see religious
practices, affairs and faith in uniting people. In the early days a number of races are united by
religion and unity was essential for the creation of state.

Force

Force also played an important part in the evolution of the state. It was the use of physical
force that was responsible for the growth of kingdoms and empires.

Property and Defence

Property and depence played a vital role in the evolution of state in ancient times particularly
among the people who were nomads and wagabonds and tribals. Prof. Laski has referred to
the necessity of acquiring property by the members of society and protecting the property
aequired with reference to the population mentioned above.

This led to making adjustments in the social system and relationship between the members of
different groups. The need to protect property ultimately compelled the ancient people to
establish the state.

Political consciousness

The last is political consciousness arising from the fundamental needs of life for protection
and order.When the people settle down on a definite territory in pursuit of their, subsistence
and a desire to secure it from encroachment by others. The need for regulating things and
persons is felt imminently and this is the essence of political consciousness.

Conclusion

It follows that many factors helped the growth of the state. No single factor alone was
responsible for its origin. Sometimes all and sometimes many of them help the process by
which uncivilized society was transformed into a state.
Unit 2.

Define Plato’s ideal state.

“Until philosophers are kings or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and the
power of philosophy and political greatness and wisdom meet in one, cities will never rest
from their evils.” (Plato)

The Republic of Plato is interpreted as Utopia to end all Utopias, not because it is a romance,
but because he constructed an ideal state in it. He compares the construction of an ideal state
with an act of an artist who sketches an ideal picture without concerning himself with the fact
whether individual characteristic features of imaginative picture are to be found anywhere or
not? In the same way, Plato never thought of the possibility of the institutions of his ideal
state, being capable of ever becoming a reality. He never thought of the impracticability of
this idea concerning his ideal state.

Plato built his state on the analogy of an individual organism. He believed that the virtues of
an individual and of the state were identical. He was of the view that an individual presented
almost the same features and qualities on a smaller scale as society on a bigger scale.

Features of an Ideal State

1.Rule of Philosophy

Plato was of the view that in an ideal state the philosopher-ruler should be prominent. He
should has a broaden vision of unity of knowledge. Philosopher-kings are immune from the
provisions of law and public opinion.

2.No unqualified absolutism

Though, neither, there is any restraint of law nor of public opinion over philosopher-rulers
but that is not an unqualified absolutism. It is not all despotism, because rule of philosophy is
not free from the basic articles of the constitution.

3.Control over the education system

Philosopher ruler should control the education system in an ideal state.

4.Justice in ideal state

Justice is the main feature of Plato’s Republic and it is also present in his ideal state. Justice
is the bond which binds every member of society together. It forms a harmonious union of
individuals.

5.Censorship of art and literature

In ideal state, there should be a complete censorship of art and literature. It is necessary so
that nothing immoral things might falls into the hands of the young individuals.

6.System of Communism

Plato was of the view that guardian class should live under the system of communism of
property and family. The rulers and soldiers do not possess any property of their own.

7.Equality among men and women

According to Plato, equal opportunities should be given to both men and women for their
economic, social, intellectual and political uplift. We can say that Plato was the first feminist
of his time.

8.Principle of Functional Specialization

Plato was of the view that due to multiple wants, an individual could not fulfill all his desires
by himself alone due to lack of capacity. Thus co-operation among individuals should be
necessary to satisfy their mutual desires. Some people are specialized in performing some
certain tasks.

These are features of Plato’s ideal state.

Q.no.2 Discuss Aristotle classification of Government.

Classification of Governments of Aristotle:

Aristotle’s classification of Government is one the earliest classification. Aristotle wrote

more than 100’s of constitution of which hardly few left today.

Some writers do not make any distinction between state and government. They use
government and state in one and the same sense while giving a classification of states.
Modern writers do not agree with this type of classification.

According to them, there can be no classification of states, as all the states are equal in so
much as the four attributes-population, territory, government and sovereignty-are essential for
all the states. American writer Willoughby is of the view that there can be no classification of
states; the states can be classified only on the basis of administration. In fact, the
classification of the governments is the classification of the states. State expresses its will
through the government. Leacock and Gilchrist also agree that there should be the
classification of governments.
Aristotle’s Classification:

Aristotle’s classification of states is based on two principles:

(1) The number of persons who exercise supreme power;

(2) The ends they seek to serve self-interest or benefit of the community.

Aristotle was of the view that when the rulers aimed at the good of the community, the states
would be a pure form of state. When the rulers in such a state became selfish, the state would
be called a perverted state.

Aristotle's Classification

According to Aristotle, if sovereignty resides in one person, it is Monarchy. Its perverted

(motivated by self-interest) form of Monarchy is Tyranny. If sovereignty resides in a small
minority of the population, it is Aristocracy. If this small minority uses the sovereignty for its
own selfish ends, it is Oligarchy. If the sovereign power resides in a large proportion of the
population, it is polity. Its perverted form is Democracy.

Aristotle’s Cycle of political change:

Aristotle has not only given the classification of states or governments, he has also tried to
investigate their development and cycle of change. According to him, change has taken place
in all the forms of administration as a natural process, because the forms of state revolve like
the wheels of a cycle.

Number of Rulers Normal (virtuous on Perverted (motivated

General interest) by Self-interest)

One Monarchy Tyranny

Few Aristocracy Oligarchy

Many Polity Democracy

According to him, “The first governments were kingships; probably for this reason, in olden
times, when cities were small, men of eminent virtues were few. They were made kings
because they were made benefactors and hence benefits could only be bestowed by virtuous
men. But when many persons equal in merit arose, against the pre-eminence of one, they
formed a Commonwealth and set up a constitution. The ruling class soon deteriorated and
enriched themselves out of the public treasury. Riches became the path to honour and hence
oligarchies grew up.

They passed into tyrannies, and tyrannies into democracies. The love of gain in the ruling
classes always tended to diminish their number and so it strengthened the masses. The
masses, in the end, set upon their masters and established democracies”.

It is clear from this statement of Aristotle that first of all monarchy war established in the
society and the superior person in the society was elected as king. After some time when the
kings began to exploit the masses for their selfish ends, tyranny was established.

People did not tolerate this type of administration for long and they gave the sovereign power
to a few intellectuals. Thus, Aristocracy was established. With the lapse of time, the character
of Aristocracy deteriorated and Oligarchy was established. But the people could not, for long,
tolerate a government, the aim of which was the benefit of the ruling class-alone. When
opportunity came, citizens as a whole made a successful revolt against such authority and
established a Polity, the supreme power being vested in the hands of a large proportion of the
population.

It was used by them for the common good, “hen Polity became perverted, it was substituted
by Democracy. Democracy degenerates and people rise in revolt against it and thus
democracy disappears. Again the people elect a warrior-statesman as their administrator and
Monarchy is established. In this way, Aristotle’s cycle of political change revolves.

Discuss the views of St Thomas Acquinas on Law

St. Thomas Aquinas was a 13th Century theologian, philosopher and priest. In his 'Treatise
on Law,' Aquinas explored the origins of law. This lesson briefly explains Aquinas' 'Treatise
on Law.'

Source of the Law

St. Thomas Aquinas was a philosopher and priest. He was known for combining theology
with philosophy and putting forward theories that combined faith with logical reasoning.
Aquinas theorized that both faith and reasoning ultimately come from God, and therefore are
naturally meant to go hand-in-hand.

Aquinas used this viewpoint to explore law. He authored Treatise on Law in the mid-1200s.
This handwritten commentary uses philosophy and theology to explore the origins of law.
According to Aquinas, God is the source of all law.
He explains that 'law' refers to an obligation. For example, you are obligated to travel at a
safe speed in your car and not endanger others by breaking the speed limit. But where does
this obligation come from? The general obligation exists regardless of whether or not the rule
is written down and enacted into an official law. Aquinas determines that the obligation
comes from our natural sense of justice and morality, and that natural sense comes from God.

Essence of the Law

Aquinas divided his treatise into several different questions. He poses a question and then
provides an answer. One question explores the essence of the law. In other words, when we
call something a 'law,' what exactly do we mean?

Aquinas decided that there are four characteristics of all law:

An order of practical reason

Directed toward the common good

Made by someone who cares for the community

Promulgated, or publicized

Let's look at these characteristics a little closer. First, a law is an order, meaning it binds, or
obligates, a person to a particular behavior. For example, I still have free will and can
voluntarily choose to speed down my street anyway. However, my free will is bound to the
obligation to obey the speed limit. I use my practical reasoning skills to choose whether or
not I will comply with this obligation. According to Aquinas, I will choose based on what
brings me the most happiness.

Second, a law is directed toward the common good. This means the law is meant to further
the interests and the overall happiness of the community. It's in the best interests of the
community to promote safe driving, whether or not I individually find happiness from this
law. Though our individual 'goods' might differ, they are all ultimately directed toward
overall human happiness.

Next, a law is an order made by someone who cares for the community. Because laws are
meant to increase the common good, the community should be permitted to make their own
laws. Aquinas says this can be accomplished a couple of different ways. The people can enact
their laws, or laws can be made through a representative who works on behalf of the common
good.

Lastly, the law must be promulgated. This means the law must be publicized. I cannot be
bound, or obligated, to a set speed limit if that speed limit has not been communicated to me.
The people must be notified of the laws in order to be obligated to follow them.
Kinds of Law

Aquinas recognizes four main kinds of law: the eternal, the natural, the human, and the
divine. The last three all depend on the first, but in different ways. Were we to arrange them
in a hierarchy, eternal would be at the top, then natural, then human. Divine law is not in
conflict with natural law, but it reaches human beings by a different route, revelation.

Eternal Law

Eternal law is identical to the mind of God as seen by God himself. It can be called law
because God stands to the universe which he creates as a ruler does to a community which he
rules. When God's reason is considered as it is understood by God Himself, i.e. in its
unchanging, eternal nature (q91, a1) , it is eternal law.

Divine Law

Divine law is derived from eternal law as it appears historically to humans, especially
through revelation, i.e., when it appears to human beings as divine commands. Divine law is
divided into the Old Law and the New Law. The Old and New Law roughly corresponding to
the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. When he speaks of the Old Law, Thomas is
thinking mainly of the Ten Commandments. When he speaks of the New Law, the teachings
of Jesus.

Old Law -- commands conduct externally -- reaches humans through their capacity for fear --
Law promised earthly rewards (social peace and its benefits)

New Law -- commands internal conduct -- reaches humans by the example of divine love --
promises heavenly reward

Human Law

Thomas' philosophy, as we should expect knowing how much he is indebted to Aristotle, is

pervaded with a sense of teleology. Nowhere is this clearer and more important than in his
discussion of human law. You might think here that he would define human law as what we
sometimes nowadays call positive law, the laws actually enacted and put in force in our
human communities. But in fact human law fits just those so-called positive laws which are
what written and enacted laws should be. So-called laws which fall short of what they should
be are not true laws at all, according to Thomas.

I shall hold off giving Thomas' own definition of human law, because it relies upon the
concept of natural law to which we will turn to later. We can say now that Thomas thinks of
human laws as laws, devised by human reason adapted to particular geographical, historical
and social circumstances.

Law is directed to the common good, and human law is no exception. The promotion of
virtue is necessary for the common good, and human laws are instruments in the promotion
of virtue. Aristotle already pointed out that most people are kept from crime by fear of the
law. Thomas accepts this judgment, suggesting that by coercion even men who are evilly
disposed may be led in the direction of virtue.

Laws are also important, says Thomas, for other reasons noted by Aristotle.

(1) It is easier to find a few wise persons who can make good laws than to find many who, in
the absence of laws, can judge correctly in each instance.

(2) Lawmakers can deliberate at length before making laws while many particular cases must
be judged quickly, when they arise.

(3) Lawmakers judge in the abstract and are less likely to be swayed by emotions evoked by
concrete circumstances or by the kinds of things that tend to corruption. There is less danger
of perversion of law, which is formulated in general, than there would be perversion of
judgment in particular cases where no law exists to guide judgment.

Q.No A Brief note on Saptanga Theory

Kautilya’s Saptang Theory of State

The Mauryan era of ancient India gave the world a significant treatise, the Arthashastra of
Kautilya.It offers deep insights into political statecraft. Kautilya is known as the Indian
Machiavelli because of his ruthless and shrewd tactics and policies reflecting an approach to
statecraft including warfare.

Nature of State

Kautilya Saptang Theory

Kautilya Saptang Theory of State

The state of ‘nature’ is imagined to be one of total anarchy, in which ‘might was right’.When
people were oppressed by Matyanyaya, the law of the fish, according to which the bigger fish
swallows the smaller ones they selected Manu– son of Vivasvat the king.
It was settled that the king should receive one-sixth of the grain and one-tenth of merchandise
and gold, as his due. It was the revenue which made it possible for the king to ensure the
security and prosperity of his subjects. People agreed to pay taxes and he ruled by one person
in order that they might be able to enjoy well-being and security. In Kautilya’s Arthashastra,
there is no explicit theory of social contract as laid down by the contractualist. Neither does
Kautilya use the contract to make the king all powerful.

Elements of State

Kautilya enumerated seven prakritis or essential organs of the state. They are as follow

(i) Swami (The Ruler)

(ii) Amatya (The Minister)

(iii) Janapada (The Population)

(iv) Durga (The Fortified Capital)

(v) Kosha (The Treasury)

(vi) Danda (The Army)

(vii) Mitra (Ally and Friend)

Swami(The Ruler)

It is the first and the most important element. Swami means the monarch. He should be a
native of the soil and born in a noble family. He should be brave and well learned. He makes
all the important appointments and supervises the government. He has to be virtuous and
should treat his subjects like his own children. Kautilya has given extensive powers to the
monarch but those powers are meant for the welfare of them subjects. In the welfare and
happiness of his subjects, lies his own happiness.

Amatya (The Minister)

It refers to the council of ministers as well as the supporting officials and subordinate staffs.
They are meant for assisting the monarch in day to day affairs of the state. Amatya gives
suggestions to king, collects taxes, develops new villages and cities, ensures defense of the
state and all other tasks as assigned by the king.

Janpada (The Population)

It refers to territory and people of the state. The territory of the state should be fertile and
should have abundance of forest, rivers, mountains, minerals, wild life etc. It should have
have good climate. People should be loyal to their king, hard working, disciplined, religious,
ready to fight for their motherland, should pay taxes regularly and happily.

Durga (The Fortified Capital)

It refers to forts. The state should have sufficient number of forts across its territory at
strategic locations for ensuring defense against foreign invasions. Forts should be built near
hills/mountains, deserts, dense forests and big water bodies. They garrison soldiers, store
food grains for emergency and also serve as a hideout for the king when his life in danger.

Kosha(The Treasury)

This means treasury of the state. Finance is life blood of any state without which it is almost
impossible to run it. Money is needed for paying salaries, building new infrastructure, etc.
The treasury should be full of money and valuable metals and gems. It can be increased
through taxation and plundering enemy states in war.

Danda(The Army)

It refers to military. The state should have a regular, large, disciplined and well trained
military. It is crucial for the security of the state. The soldiers should be recruited from those
families which are traditionally associated with military. The soldiers should paid well and
their families should be taken care of in most suitable way. Proper training and equipment
should be made available. Well fed and well trained soldiers can win any battle. The king
should take care of the soldiers and the soldiers will be ready to sacrifice even their life for
him.

Mitra (Ally and Friend)

It refers to friends of the king. The monarch should maintain friendly relationship with
traditional friends of his forefathers. He should also make new friendships. He should send
gifts and other pleasantries for his friends. They should be helped in times of emergency.
They should be loyal. Friends add to the power of the state. They are also important from
foreign trade view point.

Role of king

Kautilya gives extensive powers to the kings and attaches an element of divinity. His
foremost duty is protection of the subjects and their property. King’s sources of power
revolving around three sources– Prabhu Shakti (the power of the army and the
treasury),Manta Shakti (advice of wise men, specially the council of ministers) and Utsah
Shakti (charisma). Duties of Kings Kautilya’s Arthashastra does not believe in the ‘Theory of
Divine’ origin of the Monarch. According to him, state is a human institution and it should be
manned by a human being. So, the king should be the protector of the dharma of whole
society. Arthashastra pointed out duties of kings are :
Should follow his rajya dharma.

Should exhibit attributes, i.e. Atma Vrata (self-control) l Should ease the six enemies—
Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Lobh (greed), Mana (vanity), Mada

(haughtiness), and Harsh (overjoy).

System of Law

Although, Kautilya’s state theory states the monarchical democracy, but the sole authority
vested under the king to make law and that it derived from four sources Dharma (sacred law),
Vyavhara (evidence), Charita (history and custom) and Rajasasana (edicts of the king).

Arthashastra represents a system of civil, criminal and mercantile law. For instance, the
following were codified a procedure for interrogation, torture, trial, the rights of the accused,
Constitution of permissible evidence, a procedure for autopsy in case of death in suspicious
circumstances, Constitution of (deformation) and procedure for claiming damages, invalid
and invalid contract.

Machinery of Government

The Arthashastra catalogues a phalanx of officers called superintendents, lower in importance

than the ministerial officers and much below them, belonging to the sixth order, according to
remuneration. They are not heads of departments. The superintendents might be as chiefs of
sections dealing with various economic and other activities of the government. Most of these
sections are the modern business departments. A dual control is exercised over the
superintendents. As far as control of the services of the personal and collection of revenue are
concerned, they are under the Collector-General.

Conclusion

The Arthashastra is a textbook of practical politics and statecraft. One of the outstanding

contributions of Kautilya’s Arthashastra to statecraft and governance in a monarchical state.

Hence, Kautilya’s theory of state envisages a rational approach to governance and state craft
which conceptualizes the state and the office of the kingship to be human artifacts.

Unit 3

Give a Brief note on Individualism

Statement of the Theory of Individualism:

The principle of individualism is also called Laissez Faire in French language, which means,
‘leave the individual alone’ and there should be minimum interference, in his functions, by
the government. It should be left to the will of the individual to do what he desires.
The state or the government should only interfere when it feels that one individual is
unnecessarily interfering in the liberty of the other. The state is, in fact, a necessary evil. The
unity in the society is possible only when violence, deception and fraud are suppressed.
Therefore, the function of the government should be limited to the protection of the citizens’
life and property; beyond this the individual should be left completely free.

John Stuart Mill, in his famous essay ‘On Liberty’ said, “The sole end for which mankind is
warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their
member, is self-protection. The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised
over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His
own goods either physical or moral is not sufficient warrant over himself, over his own body
and mind, the individual is sovereign”.

Thus according to Mill, the main function of the state is protection. Therefore, the
maintenance of army, police, navy and courts is justified, but the things which ‘ire not
directly protective, like Post Office, Telegraph, Railways, Education, Hospitals, etc., should
not be run by the government.

According to those who believe in individualism, the government should perform the
following functions:

(1) The protection of the state and individuals against foreign aggression.

(2) Protection of individual against individual, in matters of physical harm (injury, aggression
and killing), slander, personal restraint, etc.;

(3) The protection of property (theft, dacoity and other types of protection of property).

(4) Protection of individuals against false contracts or breach of contracts.

(5) Protection of the invalid persons.

(6) Protection of individuals against preventable epidemics like plague or malaria. Many
individualists do not agree with the last two functions of the state.

Development of Individualistic Theory:

Though the germs of individualism can be traced in the Renaissance and Reformation
movements of Europe, yet its real origin took place during the second half of the eighteenth
century at the hands of Physiocrats of France.
This was given as a counterblast to mercantilism, which stood for the protection, regulation
and control of industry, trade and commerce. Individualists were of the people. They
preached in favour of open competition in trade and commerce in the name of natural rights.
They were of the view that the open competition would benefit all.

Adam Smith was the staunch supporter of this theory, but we have complete explanation of
this theory in the writings of John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer. Other supporters of this
theory are the German philosophers. Kant and William Humboldt and the British writer
Henry Sidgwick.

Bases of Individualism:

There are four main bases of this theory:

(1) Ethical;

(2) Political;

(3) Scientific;

(4) Economic.

(1) Ethical Basis:

Thinkers like Kant, Fichte, Mill and Humboldt are the supporters of ethical basis. According
to them, state interference goes against the development of the individual’s personality and
character. They say that each individual is wise enough to understand his interest well.
Therefore, he should have freedom to work according to his will.

The individual should be left free to himself to enable him to develop his personality and
character. When the government encroaches upon the individual’s field, the individual loses
all sense of responsibility and his self-reliance and personality are destroyed.

The interference by the government will result into many weaknesses in the individual and
his natural powers will be destroyed. The rule of the nature is open competition and
individual’s maximum development is possible only in it. By nature every individual wants
maximum freedom. Therefore, there should be no state interference.

Humboldt says, “The real aim of the individual, which has been fixed by the orders of
wisdom, is the maximum and complete development of human faculties.” Mill is of the view,
that “Government interference starves the development of some portion of the bodily or
mental faculties when it deprives one from doing what one is inclined to do or from acting
according to one’s judgement of what is desirable”.

Mill has divided the functions of the individual into two parts:

(1) Personal; (2) Affecting Society.

Personal functions are those which affect the individual who performs them, and which are
related to him. Other functions are those which affect the society. Mill says that the state has
no right to interfere in the functions of the individual, because the individual is supreme in
those matters. However, in social functions the state must interfere.

(2) Political basis:

The political basis of this theory was developed by way of protest under the Social Contact
Theory as propounded by John Locke against the claims of kings to absolute powers. John
Locke advocated that the people enjoyed certain natural rights in the state of nature.
Therefore, the duty of the state should be to protect those rights. The individualists supported
the theory of Laissez Faire or ‘leave the individual alone’ not on the basis of any absolute
justice, but they did it on the basis of the real achievement through state.

They said that the State was mean, not an end. Therefore, the state is essential for the welfare
of individual. The individual is not for the welfare of the state. Therefore, the functions of the
state should not be unlimited.

Secondly, the state has already many functions to perform, and it is not advisable to increase
them as Mill has said, “Every additional function means a new burden on a body already
over-charged with duties; the result is that most things are ill-done, and much is not done at
all.”

Moderate and Extreme Individualism:

Whereas Mills intends to limit the functions of the state and he does not want to abolish the
state completely, Herbert Spencer is not ready to make the state a continuous institution.
According to him, after completing certain conditions, the state can be abolished.

That is why Mill is called a Moderate Individualist and Spencer as an extreme individualist.
Herbert Spencer said, “Every, man is free to do that which he will, provided he infringes not
upon the equal freedom of any other man”.

Regarding the state he says, “It is unquestionably true that the government is begotten of
aggression and by aggression… Have we not shown that government is essentially immoral?
Does it not exist because crime exists, and must government not cease when crime ceases, for
the very lack of objects on which to perform its function?” In this way Herbert Spencer
opposed the government interference in trade and industries.

3) Scientific Basis:

Herbert Spencer has supported individualism on the biological basis. He says that in biology
there is a continuo’s struggle among the organisms and animals. Only the strong survive in
this struggle and the weak perish. This is the law of nature.
He asks why this law of natural development should not be applied to human life. Incapable
and feeble people shall automatically perish in society and only strong and able persons will
survive. He believes in the survival of the fittest.

He feels that the state is rendering the society weak by protecting development. According to
Spencer, compulsory education, help to the poor, social laws, and changing the law of natural
development are useless efforts.

Spencer further says, “Government should let poverty and insanitary houses alone, so that the
weaker types may soon die out; it should let industrial competition alone, however intense,
because from such competition, the best individuals come to the top”.

(4) Economic Basis:

Adam Smith supported individualism on the economic basis. He was of the view that the
state or the government should not interfere in the economic sphere as far as possible. Each
individual is competent to safeguard his interests well. He maintained that the government
which governed least, governed best.

The trade and industry flourish best if left to private enterprise. Thus wages, rent, interest and
prices should be left unfettered so that they may adjust themselves to the prevailing
conditions. Non-interference by the government will encourage open competition, which will
give opportunity to the capitalist to earn more and more.

Consequently, he will invest more in the market, and the labourer will work more to earn
better wages. Open competition will not only benefit the capitalist but it will also benefit the
labourer and the consumer.

On the other hand, government control will hinder the enthusiasm of the capitalists. If the
state fixes minimum wages and working hours for the labourers, it will be difficult to have
cheap labour and thus it will be difficult to get work from them. This will also reduce the
production.

According to the individualists, the state should not fix the rates of the commodities because
they will be settled automatically under the formula of supply and demand. If the demand of
a commodity is in excess of the supply, the rates shall go high, but if the demand is less and
supply is in abundance, the prices shall go down.

In this way the industries, commerce and trade should be left without any regulation and
control, because thus they will develop to a great extent. According to individualists that
government is best which governs the least.

Cainer observes, “Laissez-faire assumes that the interests of human beings are fundamentally
the same, that which is best for the interest of one is the best for others, that the individual
known’s his interests in the sense in which they are coincident with the interests of others and
that in the absence of coercion, he will in this sense follow them”.

Critically evaluate the contributions of Karl Marx on the theory of Marxism

(Communism)

COMMUNISM OR SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM

QUESTION FORMAT

1. Explain Karl Marx’s view’s on scientific socialism.

2. Explain the principles of Karl Marx.

3. Explain the political ideas of Karl Marx.

SYNOPSIS

Introduction

What is communism?

Communism : Features or fundamental postulates

INTRODUCTION

Communism stands primarily associated with the names of Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin and
Mao. Initially Marx and Engels had preferred to use the term ‘Scientific Socialism’ in their
work, the Communist Manifesto. Later on in order to distinguish their ideology from the
ideas of Utopian Socialists, social reformers, and others, they decided to adopt the term
Communism for Scientific Socialism.

WHAT IS COMMUNISM?

Since the term communism is used to express many different meanings, it becomes rather
difficult to give a concrete definition of communism. Since it is used to denote a theory of
society in which all property is held common. Some scholars, however, prefer to describe it
as a working class doctrine which stands for making the workers economic and political
power holders in the society. It is also described by some as revolutionary socialism.

According to Joad, “Communism is essentially a theory of method, it seeks to lay the

principles upon which the transition from capitalism to socialism is to be accomplished and
its two essential doctrines are the class struggle and the revolutionary transference of power
to the proletariat.”

COMMUNISM: FEATURES OR FUNDAMENTAL POSTULATES

Since communism has for its philosophical foundations the ideas and theories formulated

by Karl Marx, it is essential that we should explain these at the very beginning of our
discussion of the features of Marxism.

1. MARXISM AS THE IDEOLOGICAL BASIS OF COMMUNISM:

Communism is based upon the ideas and theories as propounded by Marx and supplemented
by Lenin. The main theories that provide foundations to the ideology of communism are as
follows;

i) DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM – In this theory Marxism advocates that what is real is

matter i.e, material means of life. Matter in the form of material means, is living and
evolutionary. It evolves by the laws of dialectics- the laws of transformation by imperceptible

quantitative mutations. Matter evolves and reaches its highest stage, and then the dialectic
leap(revolution) comes and it enters the next stage. It represents a unity of opposites and
evolves by the law negation of negation. In other words matter evolves dialectically.

ii) HISTORICAL MATERIALISM – Historical materialism is the application of the

principles of dialectical materialism to the development of the society. It is in fact, on
economic or materialistic interpretation of history. Marx begins the theory of the
materialisticconception of history with the belief that economic activities are the basis of
political, legal, cultural and religious institution and belief.

Various forms of state or varieties of legal system cannot be taken as results of development
of human mind, but have their origin in the material conditions of human life. The theory
starts with the simple truth that man must eat to live and in order to eat he must produce.

Thus, his survival depends on the success which he can produce what he wants from nature.
Production is the most important of all human activities. Society is the result of these
necessities of man.

iii) CLASS STRUGGLE – Marx advocates the view that each society has been and shall
continue to be inhabited by two classes- the haves and the have-nots. The haves own the
means of production and the have-nots are the sellers of their labour. The former exploit the
latter.

The rich are the exploiters and the poor are the victims of exploitation. The class struggle is
the creed of every society.

iv) SURLPUS VALUE- This theory is based on the labour theory of value which holds that
labour is the real producer of value. A piece of brass when converted into a brass tap by the
labourer, registers a big value hike. The profit earned from selling it is really the share of the
labour because it is the surplus value created by him. Capitalism is a system of exploitation
because in it the capitalist retains this surplus value as his profit. The capitalist exploits the
fruits of labour and use it for exploiting labour. Hence capitalism is an evil system of
exploitation.

2. FAITH IN REVOLUTION – Communism has a firm faith in revolution. It holds that when
the social evolution at a particular stage reaches its saturation, a revolution comes to usher it
into the next stage. Communism advocates and seeks to prepare the workers for a revolution
against capitalism. They argue that since the of capitalism is certain and it is to come through
a revolution, the workers must prepare and stage the revolution and usher the social evolution
towards its final destination-the communist society

3. DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT – Communism holds that after the overthrow

of capitalism by a workers revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat will be established
and operationalised. It will be used to eliminate all remaining features of capitalism. Under it
the workers will own the means of production. They will use and direct the organized power
of the state against the capitalists and other enemies of revolution and socialism. The
liquidation of the class of capitalists and their other supporters will be effected under the
dictatorship of the proletariat. It will also give a death blow to the state.

4. OBJECTIVE OF COMMUNISM – CLASSLESS, STATELESS SOCIETY –

Communism stands for the establishment of a communist society- a classless and stateless
society in which each one will work according to his capacity and each one will get according
to his needs. After the overthrow of capitalism by a proletarian revolution, the dictatorship of
the proletariat wilbe established. Under it capitalism will be fully liquidated. The state will
also wither away. The pre history will end and the real history will begin after the
establishment of the final stage of social evolution- the communist society. In other words
communism stands for the establishment of a classless and stateless society as its final
objective.

Give a note on Socialism

Socialism

Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the
means of production and workers' self-management as well as the political theories and
movements associated with them. Social ownership can be public, collective or cooperative
ownership, or citizen ownership of equity. There are many varieties of socialism and there is
no single definition encapsulating all of them, with social ownership being the common
element shared by its various forms

Functions of a socialist state.

1. Rejects capitalism as an economic philosophy;

2. To end exploitation of the poor and workers;
3. To check concentration of wealth in few hands;
4. To avert hoarding and black marketing of essential commodities;
5. To remove artificial scarcity and profiteering;
6. To halt the deliberate and mischievous economic upheavels in the form of booms and
depressions
7. Social and economic inequalities should be reduced
8. Establishing harmony in the society.

Q, Discuss Gandhiji’s Political thought.

Political Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi : A brief outline

Gandhi claimed that satyagraha is a socio-economic and political armament which is based
on truth and non-violence. This soul-force takes various forms depending upon the situations.
Satyagraha is a means of resistance and conflict. It has different forms. They are:

- Civil Disobedience

- Non-Cooperation

- No Destruction

- Hunger strike (fasting)

- Hartal (striking work)

- Hijrat (immigration).

Satyagraha has stimulated the huge number of people as few ideas have been able to do. In
the movement led by Abdul Ghaffar Khan, satyagraha developed Muslim connotations, but
its objective remained political independence and social reform. Gandhi was unwilling to
speculate on the nature of a government based on nonviolence, but it is clear that the sense of
community provoked in the people by satyagraha would be the basis of the new polity.
Democracy, or self-government, intended independence of controls whether those exercised
by a foreign power or those of a centralized national government. The principles of the rebel
could never be fully realized, Gandhi acknowledged, but state intervention in the conduct of
human affairs could be considerably reduced if the democratic state were in actual fact a
federation of village communities in which voluntary associations succeeded, rights flowed
from the fulfilment of obligations, and a high degree of self-sufficiency made possible the
relative independence of each town.

According to Gandhi there are five simple maxims in his concept of non-violence. They are:

1. "Non-violence suggests as complete self-purification as is humanly possible.

2. Man for man the strength of non-violence is in exact proportion to the ability, not the
will, of the non-violent person to inflict violence.
3. Non-violence is without exception superior to violence, i.e., the power at the disposal
of a non-violent person is always greater than he could have if he was violent.
4. There is no such thing as defeat in non-violence. The end of violence is surest not a
defeat.
5. The ultimate end of non-violence is surest victory if such a term may be used of
nonviolence. In reality where there is no sense of defeat, there is no sense of victory."

Gandhian Equality

Equality is not only a cardinal principle of Gandhian thought but it is one of the most aspired
concepts of most other writers on social and political thought. But if we analyze the concept
we would be faced with the differences on the outlook of these writers. We are accustomed to
use the term to mean equality of characteristics and also equality of treatment. Leaving aside
the former, the criteria of equality have been used in so many senses as (a) impartiality (b)
equal share to all (c) equal share to equals (d) proportional equality (e) unequal shares
corresponding to relevant differences.

Unit 4

What do understand about Welfare state? Explain the functions of the welfare state.

The welfare state is a form of government in which the state protects and promotes the
economic and social well-being of the citizens, based upon the principles of equal
opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for citizens unable
to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.[1] Sociologist T. H.
Marshall described the modern welfare state as a distinctive combination of democracy,
welfare, and capitalism.

Functions of a welfare state.

1. A welfare state aims to promote the interest of the society apart from its normal
functions like collecting taxes and maintaining peace and order.
2. The state undertakes the responsibility of bringing about the material welfare of the
people within the framework of democratic political institutions
3. The state takes initiative of protecting the health and economic security of the citizens
4. The state takes steps to abolish illiteracy, poverty and unemployment. It establishes
school, hospitals and other institutions to meet the needs of the people
 5. The state is expected to provide reasonable working conditions, minimum hours of
work with leisure, subsidized food facilities, housing, medical relief.
6. It upholds rights of all without showing any discrimination against any individual or
group of people
7. State has to undertake certain social service measures such as running child homes, old
age homes, orphanages, rehabilitation of physically handicapped , mentally retarded,
welfare of women and children.
8. The state regulates the economic and other activities of the people in the larger
interests of the society.

These are the functions of a welfare state.

Define Rights. Explain the relationship between Rights and Duties.

Main features of Rights:

Rights exist only in society. These are the products of social living.

Rights are claims of the individuals for their development in society.

Rights are recognized by the society as common claims of all the people.

Rights are rational and moral claims that the people make on their society.

Since rights are here only in society, these cannot be exercised against the society.

Rights are to be exercised by the people for their development which really means their
development in society by the promotion of social good. Rights can never be exercised
against social good.

Rights are equally available to all the people.

The contents of rights keep on changing with the passage of time.

Rights are not absolute. These always bear limitations deemed essential for maintaining
public health, security, order and morality.

Rights are inseparably related with duties. There is a close relationship between them “No
Duties No Rights. No Rights No Duties.” “If I have rights it is my duty to respect the rights
of others in society”.

Rights need enforcement and only then these can be really used by the people. These are
protected and enforced by the laws of the state. It is the duty of a state to protect the rights of
the people.

Relation between Rights and Duties!

1. Rights and Duties always go together:

Rights and duties are closely related and cannot be separated from one another. Both go side
by side. These are the two sides of the same coin. If the state gives the right to life to a
citizen, it also imposes an obligation on him to not to expose his life to dangers, as well as to
respect the life of others. If I have a right to work and earn, it is also my duty to recognize the
same right of others.

2. Right of One is the Duty of Others:

Rights can be enjoyed only in the world of duties. For every right there is corresponding duty.
When the people fail to discharge their duties properly, the rights all become meaningless. “I
can enjoy my rights only if the others allow me to do the same. I have” the right to life and it
is the duty of others to respect my life and not to cause any harm to me.”

3. Rights of a Citizen also implies Duties for him:

Rights are not the monopoly of a single individual. Everybody gets these equally. This means
that “others also have the same rights which I have, and it is my duty to see that others also
enjoy their rights.” Laski has rightly said that one man’s right is also his duty. It is my duty to
respect the rights of others as well as the duty to use my rights in the interest of society.

4. Rights are to be used for Social Good:

Rights originate in society. Therefore, while enjoying rights, we must always try to promote
social interest. It is the duty of every one of us to use our rights for promoting the welfare of
the society as a whole.

5. Duty towards the State:

Since state protects and enforces rights, it also becomes the duty of all citizens to be loyal to
the state. It is their duty to obey the laws of the state and to pay taxes honestly. Citizens
should always be ready to defend the state. Thus a citizen has both Rights and Duties. He
enjoys rights and performs his duties. Rights and Duties are the two sides of the same coin.

Unit 5

A brief note on democracy

Modern democracy:

Western governments are called democracies. Democracy only works if voters are active and
informed. Now modern democracy has found deep change as and revolutions in ideal and
practice. It has wide variety of elements. Modern democracy is drafted to fit the modern
political life of humankind.

Major features of modern democracy:

To preserve modern democracy, a country needs to fulfil some basic requirements and they
need not only be written down in its constitution but must be kept up in everyday life by
politicians and authorities:
- Guarantee of basic Human Rights to every individual person vis-à-vis the state and its
authorities as well as vis-à-vis any social groups (especially religious institutions) and vis-à-
vis other persons.

- Separation of Powers between the institutions of the state: Government (Executive Power),
Parliament (Legislative Power) and Courts of Law (Judicative Power)

- Freedom of opinion, speech, press and mass media

- Religious liberty

- General and equal right to vote (one person, one vote)

- Good Governance (focus on public interest and absence of corruption)

The "majority rule" is labelled as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without

governmental or constitutional protections of individual liberties, it is possible for a minority
of individuals to be troubled by the "tyranny of the majority". An essential process in
representative democracies is competitive elections that are fair both substantively and
procedurally. Additionally, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom
of the press are indispensable so that inhabitants are informed and able to vote in their
personal interests.

Popular dominion is common but not a universal motivating subject for establishing a
democracy. In some countries, democracy is based on the logical principle of equal rights.
Many people use the term "democracy" as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may
include additional elements such as political pluralism; equality before the law; the right to
petition elected officials for redress of grievances; due process; civil liberties; human rights;
and elements of civil society outside the government.

In the United States, separation of powers is often named as a supporting attribute, but in
other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant philosophy is parliamentary
sovereignty. In other cases, "democracy" is used to mean direct democracy. Freedom of
speech is the basis of democracy. Governments are held responsible by free speech, every
decision must have a reason, every cent must be accountable, bad decisions are punished at
election time. The free flow of information allows both people and governments to make the
best informed decisions.

Democracy consists of four basic elements:

1. Political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair
elections.
2. The active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life.
3. Protection of the human rights of all citizens.
4. A rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.
I) Democracy as a Political System of Competition for Power:

Democracy is a means for the people to choose their leaders and to hold their leaders
accountable for their policies and their conduct in office. The people decide who will
represent them in parliament, and who will head the government at the national and local
levels. They do so by choosing between competing parties in regular, free and fair elections.

Government is based on the consent of the governed. In a democracy, the people are
sovereign. They are the highest form of political authority. Power flows from the people to
the leaders of government, who hold power only temporarily.

Laws and policies necessitate majority support in parliament, but the rights of minorities are
protected in various ways. The people are free to disapprove their elected leaders and
representatives, and to observe how they conduct the business of government.

Elected representatives at the national and local levels should listen to the people and respond
to their needs and suggestions.

Elections have to occur at regular intervals, as prescribed by law. Those in power cannot
extend their terms in office without asking for the consent of the people again in an election.

For elections to be free and fair, they have to be administered by a neutral, fair, and
professional body that treats all political parties and candidates equally.

All parties and candidates must have the right to campaign freely, to present their proposals
to the voters both directly and through the mass media.

Voters must be able to vote in secret, free of intimidation and violence.

Independent observers must be able to observe the voting and the vote counting to ensure that
the process is free of corruption, intimidation, and fraud.

There needs to be some impartial and independent tribunal to resolve any disputes about the
election results.

II) Participation: The role of the citizen in a democracy:

Major role of citizens in a democracy is to participate in public life. Citizens have

responsibility to become informed about public issues, to watch cautiously how their political
leaders and representatives use their powers, and to express their own opinions and interests.
Voting in elections is another important public duty of all citizens.

But to vote intelligently, each citizen should listen to the opinions of the different parties and
candidates, and then make his or her own decision on whom to support. Participation can also
involve campaigning for a political party or candidate, standing as a candidate for political
office, debating public issues, attending community meetings, petitioning the government,
and even protesting.
Major participation comes through active membership in independent, non-governmental
organizations, what we call “civil society.”

These organizations signify a variety of interests and beliefs: farmers, workers, doctors,
teachers, business owners, religious believers, women, students, human rights activists. In a
society, women must participate fully both in politics and in civil society. To do this, civil
society organizations must have to educate women about their democratic rights and
responsibilities, improve their political skills, represent their common interests, and involve
them in political life. Political parties are vital organizations in a democracy, and democracy
is solider when citizens become active members of political parties.

III) The Rights of Citizens in a Democracy:

In an egalitarianism, every citizen has some basic rights that the state cannot take away from
them. These rights are guaranteed under international law. Citizens have the right to have
their own beliefs, and to speak and write what they think. There is freedom of religion.
Everyone is free to choose their own religion and to worship and practice their religion as
they see fit. Every individual has the right to follow their own culture, along with other
members of their group, even if their group is a minority.

There is freedom and pluralism in the mass media.

Citizens can choose between different sources of news and opinion to read in the newspapers,
to hear on the radio, and to watch on television. They have the right to associate with other
people, and to form and join organizations of their own choice, including trade unions.

IV) The Rule of Law:

Democracy is a system of rule by laws, not by people. In a democracy, the rule of law guards
the rights of citizens, maintains order, and limits the power of government. All citizens are
equal under the law. No one may be discriminated against on the basis of their race, religion,
ethnic group, or gender. No one may be arrested, imprisoned, or exiled arbitrarily.

If people are detained, they have the right to know the charges against them, and to be
presumed innocent until proven guilty according to the law. No one may be taxed or
prosecuted except by a law established in advance. Torture and cruel and inhumane treatment
are absolutely forbidden.

The rule of law places limits on the power of government. No government official may
violate these limits. No ruler, minister, or political party can tell a judge how to decide a case.
Office holders cannot use their power to enrich themselves. Independent courts and
commissions punish corruption, no matter who is guilty.

V) The Limits and Requirements for Democracy:

If there is democracy in country, citizens must not only participate and exercise their rights.
They must also observe certain principles and rules of democratic conduct.

People must respect the law and reject violence. Nothing ever justifies using violence against
political opponents. Every citizen must respect the rights of his or her fellow citizens, and
their dignity as human beings. No one should condemn a political opponent as evil and
illegitimate, just because they have different views. People have a right to question the
decisions of the government, but not discard the government’s authority. Every group has the
right to practice its culture and to have some control over its own affairs, but each group
should accept that it is a part of a democratic state.

Q. Secularism and secular state- Explain.

Secularism and the Indian Constitution

ecularism, as defined in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, is the "indifference to, or rejection

or exclusion of, religion and religious considerations". In certain context, the word can refer
to anticlericalism, atheism, desire to exclude religion from social activities or civic affairs,
banishment of religious symbols from the public sphere, state neutrality toward religion, the
separation of religion from state, or disestablishment (separation of church and state).

As a philosophy, secularism seeks to interpret life on principles taken solely from the
material world, without recourse to religion. Secularism draws its intellectual roots from
Greek and Roman philosophers such as Zeno of Citium and Marcus Aurelius; from
Enlightenment thinkers such as Erasmus, John Locke, Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Baruch
Spinoza, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine; and from more recent
freethinkers atheists such as Matthew W. Dillahunty, Robert Ingersoll, Bertrand Russell, and
Christopher Hitchens. It shifts the focus from religion to other "temporal" and "this-worldly"
things, with emphasis on nature, reason, science, and development.

Secular state

A secular state is an idea pertaining to secularity, whereby a state is or purports to be

officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor irreligion.[1] A secular
state also claims to treat all its citizens equally regardless of religion, and claims to avoid
preferential treatment for a citizen based on their religious beliefs, affiliation or lack of either
over those with other profiles.

Secular states do not have a state religion (e.g. an established religion) or an equivalent,
although the absence of an established state religion does not necessarily imply that a state is
fully secular or egalitarian in all respects. For example, many states that describe themselves
as secular have religious references in their national anthems and flags, or laws which
advantage one religion or another.
There is a clear incorporation of all the basic principles of secularism into various provisions
of constitution.

The term ‘Secular’ was added to the preamble by the forty-second constitution Amendment
Act of 1976, (India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic).

It emphasise the fact that constitutionally, India is a secular country which has no State
religion. And that the state shall recognise and accept all religions, not favour or patronize
any particular religion.

While Article 14 grants equality before the law and equal protection of the laws to all, Article
15 enlarges the concept of secularism to the widest possible extent by prohibiting
discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

Article 16 (1) guarantees equality of opportunity to all citizens in matters of public

employment and reiterates that there would be no discrimination on the basis of religion,
race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth and residence.

Article 25 provides ‘Freedom of Conscience’, that is, all persons are equally entitled to
freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practise and propagate religion.

As per Article 26, every religious group or individual has the right to establish and maintain
institutions for religious and charitable purposes and to manage its own affairs in matters of
religion.

As per Article 27, the state shall not compel any citizen to pay any taxes for the promotion or
maintenance of any particular religion or religious institution.

Article 28 allows educational institutions maintained by different religious groups to impart

religious instruction.

Article 29 and Article 30 provides cultural and educational rights to the minorities.

Article 51A i.e. Fundamental Duties obliges all the citizens to promote harmony and the spirit
of common brotherhood and to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.

Q Totalitarianism

Totalitarianism is a political system or a form of government that prohibits opposition parties,

restricts individual opposition to the state and its claims, and exercises an extremely high
degree of control over public and private life. It is regarded as the most extreme and complete
form of authoritarianism. Political power in totalitarian states has often been held by autocrats
which employ all-encompassing propaganda campaigns broadcast by state-controlled mass
media.
Totalitarian regimes are often characterized by

1. extensive political repression.

2. a complete lack of democracy.
3. widespread personality cultism.
4. absolute control over the economy.
5. restriction of speech, mass surveillance, and
6. Widespread use of state terrorism.
7. Other aspects of a totalitarian regime includes the use of concentration camps,
repressive secret police.
8. religious persecution or state atheism, extensive practice of capital punishment,
9. possible possession of WMDs.( weapons of mass destructions)
10. fraudulent elections (if they take place), and potentially state-sponsored mass murder
and genocides.

Historian Robert Conquest describes a totalitarian state as one recognizing no limits to its
authority in any sphere of public or private life and which extends that authority to whatever
length feasible

Books for further reference

Principles of Social and Political theory- Ernest Barker

History of Political Theory – George H Sabine

Substance of Politics – A. Appadorai

Political theory – Ray- Mohit Bhattacharya

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy