Relative density

SALIM MHEIDY SALIH

MSc. CIVIL ENGINEERIG
SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
The term relative density is commonly used to
indicate the in situ denseness or looseness of
granular soil. It is defined
as :

𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆𝒐
𝑫𝒓 ( % ) =
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏
 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆𝒐
𝑫𝒓 ( % ) =
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏

Where :

Dr = relative density, usually given as a percentage

𝒆𝒐 = in situ void ratio of the soil
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏 = void ratio of the soil in the densest state
Or :
Ɣ𝒅 − Ɣ𝒅 𝒎𝒊𝒏 Ɣ𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑫𝒓 ( % ) =
Ɣ𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒙 Ɣ𝒅 𝒎𝒊𝒏 Ɣ𝒅
−
Where :
Dr = relative density, usually given as a
percentage
Ɣ𝐝 = in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio of 𝒆𝒐 )
Ɣ𝐝 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = dry unit weight in the loosest condition
(at a void ratio of 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
Ɣ𝐝 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = dry unit weight in the densest condition
(at a void ratio of 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏 )
General notes
1 - The values of Dr may vary from a
minimum of 0% for very loose soil to a
maximum of 100% for very dense soils.
2 - In-place soils seldom have relative
densities less than 20 to 30%.
3 - Compacting a granular soil to a relative
density greater than about 85% is difficult.
Soils engineers qualitatively describe the granular soil
deposits according to their relative densities, as shown in the
following Table :

Relative density ( % ) Description of soil deposit

0 - 15 Very loose

15 - 50 Loose

50 -70 Medium

70 -85 Dense

85 - 100 Very dense

Grain shape of coarse soil

(1) (2) (3) (4 ) (5) (6)

( 1 ) = Very angular
( 2 ) = Angular
( 3 ) = Subangular
( 4 ) = Subrounded
( 5 ) = Rounded
( 6 ) = Well-rounded
Grain shape of fine soil

Flaky shape Needle like shape

Grain size distribution
Sieve analysis
SALIM MHEIDY SALIH
MSc. CIVIL ENGINEERIG
SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Mechanihcal analysis
Mechanical analysis is the determination of
the size range of particles present in a soil,
expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight.
Two methods generally are used to find the
particle-size distribution of soil:
(1) Sieve analysis—for particle sizes larger than
0.075 mm in diameter,
(2) Hydrometer analysis—for particle sizes
smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter.
Sieve analysis
Sieve analysis consists of shaking
the soil sample through a set of
sieves that have progressively
smaller openings. U.S. standard
sieve numbers and the sizes of
openings are given in the following
table.
Samples of sieves
To conduct a sieve analysis, one must
first oven-dry the soil and then break
all lumps into small particles. The soil
then is shaken ( for 10 min ) through a
stack of sieves with openings of
decreasing size from top to bottom (a
pan is placed below the stack).
The following
figure shows a
set of sieves in
a shaker used
for conducting
the test in the
laboratory.
The smallest-sized sieve that
should be used for this type of
test is the U.S. No. 200 sieve.
After the soil is shaken, the
mass of soil retained on each
sieve is determined.
When cohesive soils are analyzed, breaking
the lumps into individual particles may be
difficult. In this case, the soil may be mixed
with water to make a slurry and then
washed through the sieves. Portions
retained on each sieve are collected
separately and oven-dried before the mass
retained on each sieve is measured.
Table of results
The results obtained from this test can be tabulated as
follows :

Weight of
Sieve % Retained
soil Cumulative % Finer
Sieve No. opening (%R)
retained retained (%F)
( mm )
( gm )
The cumulative weight of soil retained above each
sieve ( ith sieve ) can be calculated as follows :

Cumulative weight = M1 + M2 + M3 + · · · + Mi

% Retained on ith sieve ( % R ) can be calculated as

follows :

𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆

%𝑹= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞
% Finer than ith sieve ( % F ) can be calculated as
follows :
% 𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − % 𝑹

Once the percent finer for each sieve is calculated

the calculations are plotted on semi logarithmic
graph paper with percent finer as the ordinate
(arithmetic scale) and sieve opening size ( grain
size ) as the abscissa (logarithmic scale). This plot
is referred to as the particle-size distribution
curve.
 Particle-size distribution curve
% Finer

Grain size
 Well graded soil

Poorly graded soil

Well graded soil Poorly graded soil
The particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the
following parameters for a given soil :

1 - (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size

distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer. It is also called as
( effective size of a granular soil ), which is a good measure to
estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.
2 - (D30): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size
distribution curve corresponding to 30% finer.
3 - (D60): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size
distribution curve corresponding to 60% finer.
D60

D30

D10
We can use these parameters to determine the following
coefficients :
1 - Coefficient of uniformity (Cu):
This parameter is defined as :
𝑫𝟔𝟎
𝑪𝒖 =
𝑫𝟏𝟎

2 - Coefficient of curvature (Cc):

This parameter is defined as :
( 𝑫𝟑𝟎 )𝟐
𝑪𝒄 =
𝑫𝟔𝟎 ( 𝑫𝟏𝟎 )
We can use these coefficients to set if the soil is poorly graded
soil or well graded soil , as follows :

For ( gravel ) :
If Cu > 4.0 and Cc = ( 1.0 – 3.0 ) , the gravel can
be classified as ( well graded gravel ) , otherwise it is
( poorly graded gravel ) .

For ( sand) :
If Cu > 6.0 and Cc = ( 1.0 – 3.0 ) , the sand can be
classified as ( well graded sand) , otherwise it is ( poorly
graded sand) .
Weight-volume
relationships
SALIM MHEIDY SALIH
MSc. CIVIL ENGINEERIG
SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
In natural occurrence, soils are three-
phase systems consisting of soil solids,
water, and air . To develop the weight–
volume relationships, we must separate
the three phases :
(that is, solid, water, and air)
Soil sample

S : Solids
W : Water
A : Air
General elements of soil

General state Dry state Saturated state

The total volume and total weight of a given soil sample can be
expressed as follows :
Where :
V : Total volume of soil sample
Vs : Volume of soil solids
Vv : Volume of voids
Vw : Volume of water in the voids
Va : Volume of air in the voids

W : Total weight of soil sample

Ws : Weight of soil solids
Ww : Weight of water in the voids
Wa : Weight of air in the voids = 0
Thus :
Vv = Vw + Va
But V = Vs + Vv
So that V = Vs + ( Vw + Va )

W = Ws + Ww + Wa = Ws + Ww + 0
So that W = Ws + Ww
The volume relationships commonly used for the three
phases in a soil element are :
Void ratio , Porosity , and Degree of saturation

Void ratio (e) : It is defined as the ratio of the

volume of voids to the volume of solids.
Thus :

𝑽𝒗
𝒆=
𝑽𝒔
Porosity (n) : It is defined as the ratio of the
volume of voids to the total volume.
Thus :
𝑽𝒗
𝒏=
𝑽

𝒆
𝒏=
𝟏+𝒆
Degree of saturation (S) : It is defined as the ratio
of the volume of water to the volume of voids .
Thus :

𝑽𝒘
𝑺= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑽𝒗
The common terms used for weight relationships
are moisture content and unit weight of soil .
Moisture content (wc) : It is also referred to as
water content and is defined as the ratio of the
weight of water to the weight of solids in a given
soil sample .
Thus :
𝒘𝒘
𝒘𝒄 =
𝒘𝒔
Specific gravity (𝑮𝒔 ) : It is defined as the
ratio of the unit weight of soil solids to the
unit weight of water .
The specific gravity of soil solids is often
needed for various calculations in soil
mechanics . Most of its values full within a
range of ( 2.0 – 2.9 ) .
The following equation is very useful for
solving problems involving three-phase
relationships.

𝒆 ∗ 𝑺 = 𝑮𝒔 ∗ 𝒘𝒄
) Wet Density ( )𝜸𝒎 (
The unit weight can also be expressed in
terms of the weight of soil solids, the
moisture content, and the total volume.
Thus :

𝑾
𝜸𝒎 =
𝑽
Or :
𝑮𝒔 ∗ 𝜸𝒘 ( 𝟏 + 𝒘𝒄 )
𝜸𝒎 =
(𝟏+𝒆)
Where :
𝑮𝒔 : Specific gravity of soil solids
𝒘𝒄 : Water content
𝒆 : Void ratio
𝜸𝒘 : Unit weight of water , which is equal to :
( 1.0 gm / cm³ )

or ( 1000 kg / m³ )

or ( 9.81 kN / m³ )
) Dry Density ( )𝜸𝒅 (
Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must
know the weight per unit volume of soil, excluding
water. This weight is referred to as the dry unit
weight , ) 𝜸𝒅 ( . Thus :
𝑾𝒔
𝜸𝒅 =
𝑽
Or :
𝑮𝒔 ∗ 𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒅 =
(𝟏+𝒆)
So that :

𝜸𝒎
𝜸𝒅 =
( 𝟏 + 𝒘𝒄 )
Or :

𝜸𝒎 = 𝜸𝒅 ( 𝟏 + 𝒘𝒄 )
) Saturated Density ( )𝜸𝒔 (
If the soil sample is saturated—that is, the void
spaces are completely filled with water ( S = 100 % )
, the relationship for saturated unit weight ( 𝜸𝒔 )
can be derived in a similar manner :

𝑮𝒔 + 𝒆 ∗ 𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒔 =
(𝟏+𝒆)
) Submerged Density ( ) 𝜸𝒃 (
It is the density of the soil when it is submerged
under the water . The relationship for submerged
unit weight ( 𝜸𝒃 ) can be derived in a similar
manner :
𝑮𝒔 − 𝟏 ∗ 𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒃 =
(𝟏+𝒆)
Or :
𝜸𝒃 = 𝜸𝒔 − 𝜸𝒘
Clay minerals
SALIM MHEIDY SALIH
MSc. CIVIL ENGINEERIG
SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Clay minerals
Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicates
composed of two basic units:

(1) Silica tetrahedron.

(2) Alumina octahedron.

Each tetrahedron unit consists of four oxygen atoms

surrounding a silicon atom. The combination of

tetrahedral silica units gives a silica sheet.
Tetrahedral unit and sheet
Three oxygen atoms at the base of each
tetrahedron are shared by neighboring
tetrahedra.
Octahedral unit and sheet

The octahedral units consist of six

hydroxyls surrounding an aluminum
atom , and the combination of the
octahedral aluminum hydroxyl units
gives an octahedral sheet. (This also is
called a gibbsite sheet).
Octahedral unit and sheet

Sometimes magnesium replaces the aluminum

atoms in the octahedral units; in this case, the
octahedral sheet is called a brucite sheet.
Types of clay minerals
1 – kaolinite

2 – Illite

3 - Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
Of the three important clay minerals, kaolinite
consists of repeating layers of elemental silica-
gibbsite sheets in a 1 : 1 lattice. Each layer is about
7.2 Å thick. The layers are held together by
hydrogen bonding. Kaolinite occurs as platelets,
each with a lateral dimension of 1000 to 20,000 Å
and a thickness of 100 to 1000 Å. The surface area
of the kaolinite particles per unit mass is about 15
m²/g. The surface area per unit mass is defined as
specific surface.
Note : 1 Å = 10¯¹º m
Kaolinite
Illite
Illite consists of a gibbsite sheet bonded to
two silica sheets—one at the top and
another at the bottom. It is sometimes
called clay mica. The illite layers are bonded
by potassium ions. The negative charge to
balance the potassium ions comes from the
substitution of aluminum for some silicon in
the tetrahedral sheets.
Illite
Illite
Illite particles generally have
lateral dimensions ranging from
1000 to 5000 Å and thicknesses
from 50 to 500 Å. The specific
surface of the particles is about
80 m²/g.
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite has a structure
similar to that of illite—that is, one
gibbsite sheet sandwiched between
two silica sheets.
In montmorillonite there is
isomorphous substitution of
magnesium and iron for aluminum in
the octahedral sheets.
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Particles of montmorillonite
have lateral dimensions of
1000 to 5000 Å and
thicknesses of 10 to 50 Å.
The specific surface is about
800 m²/g.
The clay particles carry a net negative
charge on their surfaces. This is the result
both of isomorphous substitution and of a
break in continuity of the structure at its
edges. Larger negative charges are derived
from larger specific surfaces. Some
positively charged sites also occur at the
edges of the particles.
A list of the reciprocal of the average surface densities of the
negative charges on the surfaces of some clay minerals follows:

Reciprocal of average surface

density of charge
Clay mineral (Ų/electronic charge)

25
Kaolinite

Clay mica and 50

chlorite
75
Vermiculite

100
Montmorillonite
Structure of clay particles

Face to face structure

Edge to face structure

Structure of clay particles

Flocculant Structure

Dispersed Structure
Grain size distribution
Hydrometer analysis
SALIM MHEIDY SALIH
MSc. CIVIL ENGINEERIG
SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Hydrometer analysis
Hydrometer analysis is used only for
soils passing sieve No. 2oo ( grains less
than 0.075 mm ). It is based on the
principle of sedimentation of soil grains
in water. When a soil specimen is
dispersed in water, the particles settle
at different velocities, depending on
their shape, size, weight, and the
viscosity of the water.
For simplicity, it is assumed that all the soil particles are spheres
and that the velocity of soil particles can be expressed by
Stokes’ law, according to which :

𝜸𝒔 − 𝜸𝒘
𝐕= ∗ 𝑫𝟐
𝟏𝟖 𝝁
Where :
V = Velocity of drop of soil particles
𝛾𝑠 = Unit weight of soil particles
𝛾𝑤 = Unit weight of water
𝜇 = Viscosity of water
𝐷 = Diameter of soil particle
Thus we can use Stokes’ law for determining the diameter
of the grain settled in the water as follows :

𝟏𝟖 𝝁 𝒉
𝑫= ∗
𝜸𝒔 − 𝜸𝒘 𝒕
Where :
h = Distance of settling = Effective depth ( L )
t = time elapsed
If we take 𝜸𝒘 = 1.0 gm / cm³ , we can simplify the
last law as :

𝑳 ( 𝒄𝒎 )
𝑫 𝒎𝒎 = 𝒌 ∗
𝒕 ( 𝒎𝒊𝒏 )

Where the values of ( k ) can be taken from Table

( 6 – 4 ), while the values of ( L , t ) can be taken
from the hydrometer test results .
Values of ( k )
Type of hydrometer
The type of hydrometer
used in the laboratory is
( ASTM 152H )

which has gradations of :

0 , 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 , 60
(60 , 50 , 40 , 30 , 20 , 10 , 0 )

(60 , 50 , 40 , 30 , 20 , 10 , 0 )
In the laboratory, the hydrometer
test is conducted in a
sedimentation cylinder usually with
50 g of oven-dried sample. The
sedimentation cylinder is 457 mm
high and 63.5 mm in diameter. It is
marked for a volume of 1000 ml.
Sedimentation cylinders
Dispersing agent
Sodium hexametaphosphate
generally is used as the
dispersing agent. The volume of
the dispersed soil suspension is
increased to 1000 ml by adding
distilled water.
Concentration and quantity of
dispersing agent
The quantity of
dispersing agent
added to the soil
sample is ( 125 cc )
and its concentration
is ( 4 % ) . Electrical
mixer is usually used
for ( 1 min ) .
Readings of hydrometer
When a hydrometer is placed in the soil
suspension at any time (t) , measured from
the start of sedimentation it measures the
specific gravity in the vicinity of its bulb at
an effective depth ( L ) . The values of ( L )
can be taken from Table ( 6 – 5 ) depending
on actual hydrometer reading ( Ra )
corrected for meniscus ( Ra + 1.0 ) .
The specific gravity is a function of the
amount of soil particles present per unit
volume of suspension at that depth. Also, at
a time ( t ) , the soil particles in suspension
at a depth ( L ) will have a diameter smaller
than ( D ) as calculated . The larger particles
would have settled beyond the zone of
measurement.
Hydrometers are designed
to give the amount of soil,
in grams, that is still in
suspension. They are
calibrated for soils that
have a specific gravity of
( Gs = 2.65 ) . So that the
readings for soils of other
specific gravities must be
corrected . See Table
( 6 -2 ) .
By knowing the amount of soil in suspension , L ,
and t , we can calculate the percentage of soil by
weight finer than a given diameter. Note that L is
the depth measured from the surface of the water
to the center of gravity of the hydrometer bulb at
which the density of the suspension is measured.
The value of L will change with time t.
𝑹𝒄 ∗ 𝒂
%𝑭= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒔
𝑹𝒄 ∗ 𝒂
%𝑭= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒔
𝑹𝒄 ∗ 𝒂
%𝑭= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒔
 𝑹𝒄 ∗ 𝒂
%𝑭 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒔
Where :

% 𝑭 = Percentage of soil by weight finer than a given diameter

𝒂 = Correction for specific gravity taken from table ( 6 – 2 )
𝑾𝒔 = The amount of soil used , in grams
𝑹𝒄 = Corrected reading

The actual reading of hydrometer ( Ra ) must be corrected for

temperature and dispersing agent before it used in the above
law , ( Ra Rc ) .
Corrections for actual readings of hydrometer

As mentioned above the main corrections of

hydrometer readings are :
1 – Dispersing agent correction :
It has a value of ( 3.0 ) which is usually
subtract from the actual reading so as to remove
the effect of the dispersing agent .
2 - Temperature correction ( C T ) :
It depends on the temperature of the
suspension , and its values can be taken from
Table ( 6-3 ) .
Thus :
We can say that :
Rc = Ra – 3.0 + CT
Where :
Rc = Corrected reading of hydrometer used for
𝑹𝒄 ∗𝒂
finding ( % F ) . [%𝑭= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ]
𝑾𝒔
Ra = Actual reading of hydrometer .
CT = Temperature correction , taken from Table
( 6 – 3 ).
 Readings of hydrometer must be taken at time
intervals :

1 min , 2min , 4min , 8min , 15 min , ½ hr , 1hr , 2hr , 24hr

At each hydrometer reading , temperature of the

suspension must be taken using a thermometer .
Origin of Soil and
Formation
SALIM MHEIDY SALIH
MSc. CIVIL ENGINEERIG
SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Historical Background
For engineering purposes,
SOIL is defined as :
The uncemented aggregate
of mineral grains and decayed
organic matter (Solid Particles)
with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the
solid particles.
SOIL is used as a
construction material in
various civil engineering
projects, and it supports
structural foundations.

Thus, civil engineer must

study the properties of soil,
such as its origin, grain size
distribution, ability to drain
water, compressibility,
shear strength, and load
bearing capacity.
SOIL MECHANICS is the branch of science that deals with
the study of the physical properties of soil and the behavior
of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.

SOIL ENGINEERING is the application of the principles

of soil mechanics to practical problems.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING is the sub discipline

of civil engineering that involves natural materials found
close to the surface of the earth. It includes the application
of the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to
the design of foundations, retaining structures, and earth
structures.
ORIGIN OF SOIL AND GRAIN SIZE
In general, soils are formed by weathering of
rocks.
The physical properties of soil are primarily
dictated by the minerals that constitute the soil
particles and, hence, the rock from which it is
derived.
This lecture provides an outline of the rock
cycle and the origin of soil and the grain-size
distribution of particles in a soil mass.
TYPES OF ROCKS
1- Igneous rocks

2- Sedimentary rocks

3- Metamorphic rocks
WEATHERING
Weathering is the process of breaking down
rocks by mechanical and chemical processes
into smaller pieces.
TYPES OF WEATHERING

1- Mechanical Weathering.
2- Chemical Weathering.
1- Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion
and contraction of rocks from the continuous gain and
loss of heat, which results in ultimate disintegration.
Frequently, water seeps into the pores and
existing cracks in rocks. As the temperature drops,
the water freezes and expands. The pressure
exerted by ice because of volume expansion is
strong enough to break down even large rocks.
Other physical agents that help disintegrate rocks
are glacier ice, wind, the running water of streams
and rivers, and ocean waves. It is important to
realize that in mechanical weathering, large rocks
are broken down into smaller pieces without any
change in the chemical composition.
2- Chemical Weathering
In chemical weathering, the original rock minerals
are transformed into new minerals by chemical
reaction. Water and carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere form carbonic acid, which reacts with
the existing rock minerals to form new minerals
and soluble salts. Soluble salts present in the
groundwater and organic acids formed from
decayed organic matter also cause chemical
weathering.
WEATHERING PRODUCTS
Type of soil Grain size ( mm )
Gravel More than ( 4.75 ) mm

Sand ( 4.75 – 0.075 ) mm

Silt ( 0.075 – 0.002 ) mm

Clay Less than ( 0.002 ) mm

Transportation of Weathering
Products
The products of weathering may stay in the
same place or may be moved to other places
by ice, water, wind, and gravity.
The soils formed by the weathered products
at their place of origin are called Residual
Soils.
An important characteristic of residual soil is
the gradation of particle size. Fine grained soil
is found at the surface, and the grain size
increases with depth. At greater depths,
angular rock fragments may also be found.
Transported Soils
The transported soils may be classified
into several groups, depending on their
mode of transportation and deposition:

1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation

and deposition of glaciers.
2. Alluvial soils—transported by running
water and deposited along streams.
Transported Soils
3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in
quiet lakes.
4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the
seas.
5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited
by wind.
6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of
soil from its original place by gravity, such as
during landslides.
Atterberg limits
SALIM MHEIDY SALIH
MSc. CIVIL ENGINEERIG
SOIL MECHANICS & FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Introduction
When clay minerals are present in fine-
grained soil, the soil can be remolded in the
presence of some moisture without
crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by
the adsorbed water surrounding the clay
particles. A Swedish scientist named
Atterberg developed a method to describe
the consistency of fine-grained soils with
varying moisture contents.
At a very low moisture content, soil behaves
more like a solid. When the moisture
content is very high, the soil and water may
flow like a liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary
basis, depending on the moisture content,
the behavior of soil can be divided into four
basic states—solid, semisolid, plastic, and
liquid—
Definitions
Liquid limit (L.L.) :
It is the moisture content, in percent, at the point of
transition from plastic state to liquid state .
Plastic limit (P.L.) :
It is the moisture content, in percent, at the point of
transition from semisolid state to plastic state .
Shrinkage limit (S.L.) :
It is the moisture content, in percent, at the point of
transition from solid state to semisolid state .
These parameters are also known as Atterberg limits.
See the following Table .
 Degree of
States or Limits Volume Color
Saturation

Liquid State

The soil is fully saturated

The volume is decreased

Liquid Limit ( L.L. )

( S = 100 % )
Plastic State

Dark
Plastic Limit ( P.L. )

Semi-Solid State

Shrinkage Limit ( S.L. )

Partially
The volume
Solid State saturated Light
is constant
( S ˂ 100 % )
 Liquid limit ( L.L. )
A liquid limit device or
( Cassagrande device ) is
shown in the adjacent
picture . This device
consists of a brass cup
and a hard rubber base.
The brass cup can be
dropped onto the base
by a cam operated by a
crank.
To perform the liquid limit
test, the soil must air dried
and passed through sieve
No. 40, then water added
to the soil to make a paste
which placed in the cup of
the device. A groove is then
cut at the center of the soil
pat with the standard
grooving tool (as shown in
the picture ) .
By the use of the crank-
operated cam, the cup is
lifted and dropped from a
height of 10 mm at a rate
of ( 2 blows /sec ) . The
moisture content, in
percent, required to close a
distance of 12.7 mm along
the bottom of the groove
after 25 blows is defined as
the liquid limit .
 It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in the soil to
meet the required 12.7 mm closure of the groove in the soil
pat at 25 blows. Hence, at least three tests for the same soil
are conducted at varying moisture contents, with the
number of blows ( N ) required to achieve closure of the
groove . The moisture content of the soil, in percent, and
the corresponding number of blows are plotted on semi
logarithmic graph paper . The relationship between
moisture content and log N is approximated as a straight
line. This line is referred to as the flow curve. The moisture
content corresponding to ( N = 25 ) , determined from the
flow curve, gives the liquid limit of the soil.
From the analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests, the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (1949) in Mississippi, proposed an
empirical equation of the form :

𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟏
𝑵
𝑳. 𝑳. = 𝒘. 𝒄 ×
𝟐𝟓
Where :
N = Number of blows in the liquid limit device for a ( 12.7
mm ) groove closure .
wc = Corresponding moisture content .
Plastic limit ( P.L. )
The plastic limit is defined
as the moisture content in
percent, at which the soil
crumbles, when rolled into
threads of 3.0 mm in
diameter. The plastic limit is
the lower limit of the plastic
stage of soil. The plastic limit
test is simple and is
performed by repeated
rollings of an ellipsoidal-
sized soil mass by hand on a
ground glass plate (see the
adjacent Figure).
Plasticity Index ( P.I. )
The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between
the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil, or :

P.I. = L.L. – P.L.

Where :
P.I. = Plasticity Index
L.L. = Liquid Limit
P.L. = Plastic Limit
The plasticity index is important in
classifying fine-grained soils. It is
fundamental to the Cassagrande plasticity
chart , which is currently the basis for the
Unified Soil Classification System.
The Plasticity Index can be classified in a qualitative manner as
follows:

P.I. Description

0 Nonplastic
1-5 Slightly plastic
5 - 10 Low plasticity
10 - 20 Medium plasticity
20 - 40 High plasticity
˃ 40 Very high plasticity
Liquidity Index ( L . I . )
The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural
state can be defined by a ratio called the liquidity index ,
which is given by :
𝒘 − 𝑷. 𝑳 .
𝑳 .𝑰 .=
𝒘 − 𝑷.𝑳.
𝑳𝑰 =
𝑷.𝑰 . 𝑷. 𝑰.
Where :
W = In situ water content of soil
P.L. = Plastic Limit
P.I. = Plasticity Index
Consistency Index ( C . I . )
Another index that is commonly used for engineering
purposes is the Consistency Index , which may be
defined as :

𝑳.𝑳. − 𝒘
𝑪𝑰 =
𝑷.𝑰.
Where :
W = In situ water content of soil
L.L. = Liquid Limit
P.I. = Plasticity Index
Correlation between (CI) and Unconfined
Compression Strength of Clay

Unconfined Compression
C.I.
Strength ( kN / m² )
˂ 0.5 ˂ 25
0.5 – 0.75 25 - 80
0.75 – 1.0 80 - 150
1.0 – 1.5 150 - 400
˃ 1.5 ˃ 400
Activity
Because the plasticity of soil is caused by
the adsorbed water that surrounds the clay
particles, we can expect that the type of
clay minerals and their proportional
amounts in a soil will affect the liquid and
plastic limits. Skempton (1953) observed
that the plasticity index of a soil increases
linearly with the percentage of clay-size
fraction (% finer than 2 μm by weight)
present .
Skempton defined a quantity called activity, which
may be expressed as :

𝑷. 𝑰.
𝑨=
( % 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 )
Where :
A = Activity
P.I. = Plasticity Index
Activity is used as an index for identifying the swelling
potential of clay soils . Typical values of activities for
various clay minerals are given in the following Table :

Clay mineral Activity

Kaolinite 0.3 – 0.5

Illite 0.5 – 1.2

Montmorillonite 1.5 – 7.0