DIPLOMA IN TOOL

ENGINEERING AND
DIGITAL
MANUFACTURING

CP01
SEMESTER 3
METROLOGY - MASTERFILE

Prepared by: Mr. Manu George

Verified by: Mr. Jayaraj B
Rev No : 0 Manu George
Released Date: 02/01/2020 SME: Mr. Manu George
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.0 HARDNESS CHECKING .................................................................................................................. 3
11.1 Hardness – property ....................................................................................................................... 3
11.2 Brinell hardness testing................................................................................................................... 5
11.3 Rockwell hardness testing method ................................................................................................ 7
11.4 Vickers hardness ............................................................................................................................. 9
11.5 Shore hardness testing ................................................................................................................. 10
12.0 INTERFEROMETRY ..................................................................................................................... 21
12.1 Monochromatic lights .................................................................................................................... 21
12.2 Optical flat...................................................................................................................................... 25
12.3 Flatness Interferometer ................................................................................................................. 28
12.4 Application of optical Interference ................................................................................................ 30
13.0 FORM AND POSITION FEATURES ............................................................................................ 33
13.1 Straightness .................................................................................................................................... 33
13.2 Measurement of straightness ........................................................................................................ 35
13.3 Flatness .......................................................................................................................................... 37
13.4 Parallelism ..................................................................................................................................... 38
13.5 Parallelism to two axes ................................................................................................................. 43
13.6 Squareness .................................................................................................................................... 46
13.7 Squareness of an axis of rotation with a given plane ................................................................... 50
13.8 Concentricity- checking using dial indicator ................................................................................. 56
13.9 Run out ......................................................................................................................................... 57
14.0 MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENTS ......................................................................................... 59
14.1 Checking the angle of a piece tapered at one end. ...................................................................... 59
14.2 To check the angle of a tapered hole ........................................................................................... 64
14.3 Gear Tooth Vernier ....................................................................................................................... 67
14.4 Test Plug method of Checking Pitch Diameter and Tooth spacing .............................................. 77
15.0 SURFACE TEXTURE AND MEASUREMENT ................................................................................ 81
15.1 Meaning of surface texture .......................................................................................................... 81
15.2 Effective Profile............................................................................................................................. 85
15.3 Method of measuring ................................................................................................................... 88
15.4 Stylus probe instrument ............................................................................................................... 93
15.5 Profilometer .................................................................................................................................. 94

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 15.6 The Tomlinson surface meter ......................................................................................................... 95
15.7 The Taylor Hobson Talysurf ............................................................................................................ 97
15.8 The Sigma micro test ...................................................................................................................... 98
15.9 The Ruler ‘Mecrin’ roughness instrument ...................................................................................... 98
15.10 Talysurf (Electronic surface indicator) ......................................................................................... 100
15.11 Analysis of Surface Traces ........................................................................................................... 100

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 11.0 HARDNESS CHECKING
11.1 Hardness – property

Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property.

Hardness is a measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of
permanent shape change when a compressive force is applied.
It is also defined as the Resistance to indentation

Hardness is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation.

There are three main types of hardness measurements:

 Scratch hardness (Fig.1)
 Indentation hardness (Fig.2)
 Rebound hardness (Fig.3)

Scratch hardness tester

Fig.1

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to fracture or

permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object.

The principle is that an object made of a harder material will scratch an object
made of a softer material.

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When testing coatings, scratch hardness refers to the force necessary to cut
through the film to the substrate. The most common test is Mohs scale, which is
used in mineralogy. One tool to make this measurement is the sclerometer.

Indentation hardness tester

Indentation hardness measures the resistance of a sample to material deformation

due to a constant compression load from a sharp object; they are primarily used in
engineering and metallurgy fields.

The tests work on the basic premise of measuring the critical dimensions of an
indentation left by a specifically dimensioned and loaded indenter.

Fig.2

Common indentation hardness scales are

 Rockwell
 Vickers
 Shore
 Brinell.

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Rebound hardness tester

Fig.3

Two scales that measures rebound hardness are the

 Leeb rebound hardness test scale
 Bennett hardness scale.

11.2 Brinell hardness testing

This test is performed using a Brinell hardness tester. (Fig.4)

BRINEL HARDNESS TESTER (Fig.4)

This is an Indentation hardness scale type. It is most suitable method to check soft
materials like Cast iron, Aluminium, Copper alloys, lead, and die zinc alloys etc.
(Material of low and medium hardness

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The typical test uses a steel ball of diameters 1, 2.5, 5, or 10 mm steel ball as an
indenter with forces ranging from 100, 250,500,1000,1500,2000,2500 or 3,000 kgf
force for a specified period of time on an indentation tool
For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder mat., a tungsten carbide
ball is substituted for the steel ball.
After the removal of the tool, the circular impression made by the tool is
measured in mm using a microscope (Fig.5)

Fig.5
Brinell Hardness number (HBN) is calculated using the formula

Where “P” is the applied load in Kgf

“D” is the diameter of the indenter
“d” is the mean diameter of the impression
Mean diameter is the average of the two readings at right angles to each
other

It is not necessary to make a separate calculation for each test. Standard BHN
tables are readily available forming various combinations of load, Ø of ball &
impression Ø

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11.3 Rockwell hardness testing method

This test is performed using a Rockwell hardness tester. (Fig.6)

Fig.6

This is an Indentation type hardness scale.

The Hardness is measured according to the depth of indentation under a constant
load.
This is the most widely used hardness test and generally accepted due to:
1. Its speed
2. Freedom from personal error
3. Ability to distinguish small hardness difference
4. Small size of indentation

Principal of the Rockwell Test

The position of the surface area to be measured should be close to the indenter.
The Applied the minor load and a zero reference position is established. The major
load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero. The major
load is released leaving the minor load applied. (Fig.7)

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 Fig.7

The Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero reference
position as a result of the applied major load.
The dial contains 100 divisions, each division representing a penetration of 0.002
mm.(Fig.8)

(Fig.8)

Rockwell Hardness scale

Rockwell hardness number (RHN) represents in different scale, A, B, C,..depending

on types of indenters and major loads used.

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 The following table shows different details related to ‘B’ and ‘C’ scales.

Scale Material Indentation tool Minor load Major load Hardness Range
For copper 1.588 mm (1/6”)
Hardness Rockwell aluminum 10 kgf 100 kgf HRB
diameter steel
B-scale(HRB) alloy Mild (98.1N) (981 N) 0 to 130
ball
steel
Hardness Rockwell Hardened Diamond Cone- 10 kgf 150 kgf HRC
C-Scale (HRC) Steel face (98.1 N) (1471 N) 0 to 100

11.4 Vickers hardness

This testing method can be performed using a Vicker hardness tester (Fig.9). This
method is similar to Brinell, but a single size indentation tool is used for all the
tests.

VICKER’S HARDNESS TESTER (Fig.9)

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This test is meant only for testing hard specimens like cutting tools and heat
treated components. The indentation tool is a highly polished pyramid having a
point angle of 136˚ (Fig.10)

Fig.10

Where
P is the applied load, kg
L is the average length of diagonals, mm
Θ is the angle between opposite faces of diamond = 136o.
The unit can be VHN, DPH, Hv

Vickers hardness test uses the loads ranging from 1-120 kgf, applied for between
10 and 15 seconds.
Provide a fairly wide acceptance for research work because it provides a
continuous scale of hardness, for a given load.

11.5 Shore hardness testing

Shore method using a shore scleroscope (Fig.11) is useful for finding hardness of
big parts like machine beds etc. which cannot be carried to the testing machine.

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 Fig.11
In this method a diamond hammer will be dropped through a certain height on to
the work piece. The height of the 1st rebound indicates the hardness of the
workpiece on the graduated glass tube.

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 Annexure 1

Hardness testing
Brinell hardness number

Ball
impression Brinell hardness number for 10 mm ball HB for the loads/kgf
dia.m, mm
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
2.00…. 158 316 473 632 788 945
2.05…. 150 300 450 600 750 899
2.10…. 143 286 428 572 714 856
2.15….. 136 272 408 544 681 817
2.20…. 130 260 390 520 650 780

2.25…. 124 248 372 496 621 745

2.30…. 119 238 356 476 593 712
2.35….. 114 228 341 456 568 682
2.40…. 109 218 327 436 545 653
2.45…. 104 208 313 416 522 627

2.50… 100 200 301 400 500 601

2.55…. 96.3 193 289 385 482 578
2.30… 92.6 185 278 370 462 555
2.65… 89.0 178 267 356 445 534
2.70 85.7 171 257 343 429 514

2.75… 82.6 165 248 330 413 495

2.80… 79.6 159 239 318 398 477
2.85… 76.8 154 230 307 384 461
2.90… 74.1 148 222 296 371 444
2.95… 71.5 143 215 286 358 429

3.00…. 69.1 138 207 276 346 415

3.05… 66.8 134 200 267 334 401
3.10… 64.6 129 194 258 324 388
3.15… 62.5 125 188 250 313 375
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 3.20… 60.5 121 182 242 303 363

3.25… 58.6 117 176 234 293 352

3.30… 56.8 114 170 227 287 341
3.35.. 55.1 110 165 220 276 331
3.40… 53.4 107 160 214 267 321
3.45… 51.8 104 156 207 259 311

3.50… 50.3 101 151 201 252 302

3.55… 48.9 97.8 147 196 244 293
3.60… 47.5 95.0 142 190 238 285
3.65… 46.1 92.2 138 184 231 277
3.70… 44.9 89.8 135 180 225 269

Ball
impression Brinell hardness number for 10 mm ball HB for the loads/kgf
dia.m, mm
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
3.75… 43.6 87.2 131 175 218 262
3.80… 42.4 84.8 187 170 212 255
3.85… 40.3 82.6 127 165 207 248
3.90… 40.2 80.4 121 161 201 241
3.95… 39.1 78.2 117 156 196 235

4.00… 38.1 76.2 114 152 191 229

4.05… 37.1 74.2 111 148 186 223
4.10… 36.2 72.4 109 145 181 223
4.15… 35.3 70.6 106 141 177 212
4.20… 34.4 68.8 103 138 172 207

4.25… 33.6 67.2 101 134 167 201

4.30… 32.8 65.6 98.3 131 164 197
4.35… 32.0 64.0 95.9 128 160 192
4.40… 31.2 62.4 93.6 125 156 187

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 4.45… 30.5 61.0 91.4 122 153 183

4.50… 29.8 59.6 89.3 119 149 179

4.55… 29.1 58.2 87.2 116 145 174
4.60… 28.4 56.8 85.2 114 142 170
4.65… 27.8 55.6 83.3 111 139 167
4.70.. 27.1 54.2 81.4 108 136 163

4.75… 26.5 53.0 79.6 106 133 159

4.80… 25.9 51.8 77.8 104 130 156
4.85… 25.4 50.8 76.1 102 127 152
4.90… 24.8 49.6 74.4 99.2 124 149
4.95… 24.3 48.6 72.8 97.2 122 146

5.00… 23.8 47.6 71.3 95.2 119 143

5.05… 23.3 46.6 69.8 93.2 117 140
5.10… 22.8 45.6 68.3 91.2 114 137
5.15… 22.3 44.6 66.9 89.2 112 134
5.20… 21.8 43.6 65.6 87.2 109 131

5.25… 21.4 42.8 64.1 85.6 107 128

5.30… 20.9 41.8 62.8 83.6 105 126
5.35… 20.5 41.0 61.5 82.0 103 123
5.40… 20.1 40.2 60.3 80.4 101 121
5.45… 19.7 35.6 53.5 71.2 89.2 107

5.50… 19.3 38.6 57.9 77.2 96.5 116

5.55… 18.9 37. 56.8 75.6 95.0 114
5.60… 18.6 37.2 55.7 74.4 92.5 111
5.65… 18.2 36.4 54.6 72.8 90.8 109
5.70… 17.8 35.6 53.5 712 89.2 107

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 Ball
impression Brinell hardness number for 10 mm ball HB for the loads/kgf
dia.m, mm
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
5.75… 17.5 35.0 52.5 70.0 87.5 105
5.80… 17.2 34.4 51.5 68.8 85.8 103
5.85… 16.8 33.6 50.5 67.2 84.2 101
5.90… 16.5 33.0 49.6 66.0 82.5 99.2
5.95… 14.8 29.6 44.3 59.2 73.8 88.7

6.00… 15.9 31.8 47.7 63.6 79.5 95.5

6.05… 15.6 31.2 46.8 62.4 78.0 93.7
6.10… 15.3 30.6 46.0 61.2 76.7 92.0
6.15… 15.1 30.2 45.2 60.4 75.3 90.3
6.20… 14.8 29.6 44.3 59.2 73.8 88.7

6.25… 14.5 29.0 43.5 58.0 72.6 87.1

6.30… 14.2 28.4 42.7 56.8 71.3 85.5
6.35.. 14.0 28.0 42.0 56. 7.0 84.0
6.40… 13.7 27.4 41.2 548 68.8 82.5
6.45… 13.5 27.0 40.5 54.0 67.5 81.0

TABLE 1
Approximate hardness conversion numbers for non-austenitic steels

Brinell hardness number, HB

Scleroscope Rockwell C Vikers hardness 10-mm 10-mm carbide
hardness hardness number, number, HV standard ball, ball, 3000-kgf
HRC 3000-kgf load load
97.3 68 940 … …
95.0 67 900 … …
92.7 66 865 … …
90.6 65 832 … 739
88.5 64 800 … 722
86.5 63 772 … 705
84.5 62 746 … 688
82.6 61 720 … 670
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 80.8 60 697 … 654
79.0 59 674 … 634
77.3 58 653 … 615
75.6 57 633 … 595
74.0 56 613 … 577
72.4 55 595 … 560
70.9 54 577 … 543
69.4 53 560 … 525
67.9 52 544 500 512
66.5 51 528 487 496
65.1 50 513 475 481
63.7 49 498 464 469
62.4 48 484 451 455
61.1 47 471 442 443

Brinell hardness number, HB

Scleroscope Rockwell C Vikers hardness 10-mm 10-mm carbide
hardness hardness number, number, HV standard ball, ball, 3000-kgf
HRC 3000-kgf load load
59.8 46 458 432 432
58.5 45 446 421 421
57.3 44 434 409 409
56.1 43 423 400 400
54.9 42 412 390 390
53.7 41 402 381 381
52.6 40 392 371 371
51.5 39 382 362 362
50.4 38 372 353 353
49.3 37 363 344 344
48.2 36 354 336 336
47.1 35 345 327 327
46.1 34 336 319 319
45.1 33 327 311 311
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 44.1 32 318 301 301
43.1 31 310 294 294
42.2 30 302 286 286
41.3 29 294 279 279
40.4 28 286 271 271
39.5 27 279 264 264
38.7 26 272 268 258
37.8 25 266 253 253
37.0 24 260 247 247
36.3 23 254 243 243
35.5 22 248 237 237
34.8 21 243 231 231
34.2 20 238 226 226

ANNEXURE II
Brinell hardness Tensile
Vickers hardness Rockwell
(10 mm steel ball Shore hardness strength
(Load 50 kg) hardness C scale
3000 kg) (approx)
940 - 68.0 97
920 67.5 96
900 67.0 95
880 66.4 93
860 65.9 92
840 65.3 91
820 64.7 90
800 64.0 88
780 63.3 87
760 62.5 86
740 61.8 84
720 61.0 83
700 59.7 81
690 59.2
680 58.8 80
670 58.3

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 Brinell hardness
Vickers hardness (10 mm steel Rockwell Tensile strength
Shore hardness
(Load 50 kg) ball hardness C scale (approx)
3000 kg)
660 57.8 79 232
650 57.3 228
640 56.8 77 224
630 56.3 221
620 55.7 75 217
610 55.2 214
600 54.7 74 210
590 54.1 207
580 53.6 72 203
570 53.0 200
560 52.3 71 196
550 505 51.7 193
540 496 51.1 69 189
530 488 50.5 186
520 480 49.8 97 183
510 473 49.8 176
500 465 49.1 66 173
490 456 48.4 169
480 448 47.7 64 162
470 441 48.9 158
460 433 46.1 62 155
450 425 45.3 151
440 415 44.5 59 148
430 405 43.6 144
420 397 42.7 57 141

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 Rockwell Hardness
Brinell Tensile
Vickers
hardness strength
hardness
(10 mm A scale B scale C scale Shore (approx)
(Load 50
steel ball hardness
kg)
3000 kg) Kg/ mm2
410 388 71.4 41.8 41.8 137
400 379 70.8 40.8 55 134
390 389 70.3 39.8 130
380 360 69.8 (110.0) 38.8 52 127
370 350 69.2 37.7 123
360 341 68.7 (109.0) 36.6 50 120
350 331 68.1 35.5 117
340 322 67.6 (108.0) 34.4 47 113
330 313 67.0 33.3 110
320 303 66.4 (107.0) 32.2 45 106
310 294 65.8 31.0 103
300 284 65.2 (105.5) 29.8 42 99
295 280 64.8 29.2 98
290 275 64.5 (104.5) 28.5 41 96
285 270 64.2 27.8 94
280 265 63.8 (103.5) 27.1 40 92

Rockwell Hardness
Brinell Tensile
Vickers
hardness strength
hardness
(10 mm A scale Shore (approx)
(Load 50
steel ball B scale C scale hardness
kg)
3000 kg) Kg/ mm2
275 261 63.5 26.4 91
270 256 63.1 (102.0) 25.6 38 89
265 252 62.7 24.8 87
260 247 62.4 (101.0) 24.0 37 85
255 243 62.0 23.1 84
250 238 61.6 99.5 22.2 36 82
245 233 61.2 21.3 80

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 240 228 60.7 98.1 20.3 34 78
230 219 96.7 (18.0) 33 75
220 209 95.0 (15.7) 32 71
210 200 93.4 (13.4) 30 68
200 190 91.4 (11.0) 29 65
190 181 89.5 (8.5) 28 62
180 171 87.1 (6.0) 26 59
170 162 85.0 (3.0) 25 56
160 152 81.7 (0.0) 24 53
150 143 78.7 22 50
140 133 75.0 21 46
130 124 71.2 20 44
120 114 66.7 40
110 105 62.3
100 95 56.2
95 90 52.0
90 86 48.0
85 81 41.0
NB: Values in brackets are considered outside the common scale range

Answer the following questions:

1. Define Hardness?
2. What are the different methods for checking hardness of metal?
3. Explain about Rockwell hardness test?
4. Write a short note on Vickers hardness test?

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 12.0 INTERFEROMETRY

Introduction

Wavelength of light is a standard of measurement process which is a very small

unit of measure and has the advantage of being accurate. The wave nature of light
is ever present but not apparent under ordinary conditions. Only when the light
waves interact with each other the wave effect is visible and this is made use of for
measuring purposes. The phenomenon of interaction of light is called interference.

When light is made to interfere it produces a pattern of dark bands, which

correspond to very accurate scale of divisions. The value of this scale is exactly one
half wave length of light used. Because this length is very constant, it was used to
be considered as international standard of length a few years ago.

The use of interferometric technique enables the size of slip gauges and end bars
to be determined directly in terms of the wavelength of light sources whose
relationship to the international Krypton standard is known to be of a high order of
accuracy. The interferometrically calibrated reference grade slip gauges form the
basis of controlling the size of subsidiary length standards, such as inspection and
workshop grade slip gauges, setting masters etc., used in manufacturing
industries.

12.1 Monochromatic lights

The light is a form of energy being propagated by electromagnetic waves which
may be represented by a sine curve. The high point of the wave is called the crest
and the low point is called trough. The distance between two crests or two troughs
is called the wave length . Light travels along the axis OX as shown in Fig.1 and
the time taken in travelling one wavelength  is called the time period (T). The
maximum disturbance of the wave is called the amplitude (A), and the velocity of
the transmissions is  / T, 1/T being called the frequency.

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 Fig.1 Nature of light.

A ray of ordinary light can be considered as composed of an infinite number of

wave lengths. The value of wave length  determines the colour of light and the
amplitude ‘A’ determines the intensity of light.

White light is a combination of all colours of visible spectrum red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet. Each colour band consist of a group of similar wave
lengths since light is a combination of all the wave lengths of the visible spectrum;
it is not in a form suitable for length measurement by Interferometry. To
overcome the difficulty, monochromatic light source such as mercury isotope 198
discharge lamp is used. A ray having a single frequency and wavelength produces
monochromatic light. The advantages of mono-chromatic light are:
 Its characteristics are virtually independent of any ambient conditions.
 Its wavelength has precise value.
 It is exactly reproducible (e.g. Mercury 198, Krypton 86)
 It has an accuracy of about one part in one hundred million.

Principle of interference

As stated earlier light is a form of energy being propagated by electromagnetic

waves which may be represented by a sine curve. When two rays of the same
wavelength meet at some point, a mutual interference occurs and the nature of
interference will depend on the phases of two waves at their meeting point.
If the waves are in the same phase, Fig.2 they will reinforce each other and the
resulting intensity will be the sum of the two intensities. However if two waves are
out of phase, Fig.3 the resultant intensity (also amplitude) will be the difference of
the two. If both the waves having same amplitude are in phase, the resultant
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amplitude and hence the intensity becomes twice, and the result will be a bright
spot. However if these two waves (with same amplitude) are out of phase the
resultant intensity will be zero and the result will be a dark spot.

Fig.2 – Two rays in Phase Fig.3 – Two rays out of Phase

The interference can occur only when two light rays are coherent, that is the two
rays maintain their phase relationship for an appreciable length of time. This is
possible only when the rays originate from the same point of the light source at
the same time.

A method for production of interference bands is shown in Fig.4. Light passes

through a very narrow slit A and then through slits B and C which are close
together. Thus two separate sets of rays (beams) of light are formed which pass
through and cross one another in the same medium. In such a case the effects
produced by one are totally independent of the effects produced by the other,
and interference band pattern is produced.

Fig.4 Method of producing interference pattern

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If the paths of BO and CO are exactly equal then the rays on these paths will be in
phase. A constructive interference takes place producing the maximum intensity.
At some point M, the ray path difference will be equal to ½ wave length, i.e.,CM-
BM = ½ 
Thus at the screen; the waves will be 180˚ out of phase i.e., the resultant intensity
will be zero and a destructive interference takes place producing total darkness at
M and at N. At point P, the ray path difference will be one wave length, and the
rays again will be phase and a bright band will be produced. Thus a series of bright
and dark bands are produced. The bands are known as interference bands.

It is not possible to produce interference with two independent sources. This is

because, with two independent sources or with two separate portions of the
same, the phases of the two waves emanating from them will be changing
independently of each other so that the phase difference cannot be constant. This
results in rapid alternations of brightness and darkness and hence general
illumination.

Light Sources of Interferometry

To obtain interference over large path differences, it is essential to use a source

with very narrow lines. It means that the temperature and pressure of the
discharge must be low so that the surface brightness will be moderate. A wide
variety of light sources are available for Interferometry.

The selection of a proper source for an application depends on the results to be

obtained by interferometer, cost and convenience. For simple applications like
testing of surface geometer, where the difference between interfering path is
only in the order of a few wave lengths only, a tungsten lamp with a filter
transmitting only a narrow band of wavelength would be adequate.

However sophisticated application requires the use of light sources such as

Mercury 198, Cadmium, Krypton 86, Thallium, Helium, Hydrogen, Neon, Sodium,
Potassium, Zinc, laser mixed radiations, etc. In these sources the discharge lamp is
charged with one particular element and contains means to vaporize them. The

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atoms of these elements are excited electrically, so that they emit radiation at
certain discrete wave lengths.

12.2 Optical flat

The simplest illustration of the interference is the use of optical flat. It provides
precision as well as accuracy in the measurement of flatness. Optical flats are
cylindrical pieces 25 to 300 mm in diameter with a thickness of about 1/6th of the
diameter. They are made of transparent material such as quartz, glass, sapphire,
etc. Optical flats made of quartz are more commonly used because of its
hardness, low coefficient of expansion, resistance to corrosion and much longer
useful life. One or both surfaces of optical flats may be highly polished. An arrow
is made on the flat to indicate the finished surface. For measuring flatness, in
addition to optical flat, a mono-chromatic light source, emitting light of single
wavelength is also required. The yellow orange light radiated by helium gas is
most satisfactory for use with optical flat.

Sometimes the optical flats are coated with a thin film of Titanium Oxide. This
reduces the loss of light due to reflection which makes the band clearer. The
coating is so thin that it does not affect the position of the fringe band but such a
flat requires greater care. For greater accuracy, optical flat must be used in an
area where the temperature is constant. It is advisable to use lint free paper for
cleaning the optical flat and the surface of the part to be checked.

Optical flats are of two types

Type A: It has a single flat working surface. It is used for testing flatness of
precision measuring surfaces of flats, slip gauges, measuring tables
etc.

Type B: It has both working surfaces flat and parallel to each other. It is used
for test measuring surfaces of micrometer, measuring anvils, meters
and similar measuring devices for testing flatness and parallelism.

In each type, there are two grades. Reference Grade or Grade 1 and Working
Grade or Grade II.

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The tolerance on flatness for Grade I is 0.05 µm and for Grade II is 0.10 µm.
The tolerance on parallelism for Grade I is 0.15 µm and for Grade II is 0.20 µm
respectively and
The tolerance on thickness for Grade I is 0.20 µm and for Grade II is 0.30 µm
respectively (IS.5440-1969)

The flats are marked clearly on the cylindrical surface with the grade and type and
an identifying serial number together with the manufacturers trademarks. For
example:
1. Grade I type A flat of diameter 250 mm is designated by: Optical flat IA 25-
IS:5440
2. Grade II type B flat of thickness 12.125 mm is designated by: Optical flat II B
12.125-IS:5440

The grade I is identified by a black dot about 1mm in diameter on the cylindrical
surface for the flat and away from other markings

Optical flats are used to test the flatness of lapped surfaces such as gauge blocks,
gauges, micrometer anvils, etc. When an optical flat is placed on the surface of
the work piece it will not form an intimate contact, but will be slightly inclined
forming an air wedge between the surfaces.
If the optical flat is now illuminated by monochromatic source of light,
interference fringes will be observed. These are produced by the interference of
light rays reflected form the bottom face of the optical flat and top face of the
work piece being tested through the layers of air

In fig.5, consider a ray of light at ‘A’ on optical flat placed over a work piece to be
tested.

Fig.5 Optical Flat

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It passes through the optical flat and its bottom face is divided into two
components. One component of the incident ray gets reflected from the bottom
of the optical flat at ‘B’ in the direction BC and the other portion, transmitted
through the layer of the entrapped air will be reflected by the top face for the
work piece at ‘D’ in the direction DEF
The paths travelled by both the reflected rays differ by an amount DBE i.e., the
second component of the rays lags behind the first by an amount equal to twice
the air gap. Though both the components have the same wave- length and start,
the difference in their paths causes them to be either in phase or out of phase at
C and F.

As explained earlier, Fig.6 it the path difference between the reflected rays is even
multiple of half wave length, they will be out of phase and dark band will be
observed.

Fig.6 Interference Pattern Formation

If the path difference is odd multiple of half wave length, they will be in phase
with each other and will reinforce each other. So brightness will be observed.
Depending upon the air gap between surfaces, we will get alternate dark and
bright bands due to interference of light

Limitations of optical flat

The optical flat suffers from the following limitations for precise work
1. It is difficult to control the optical flat and orient the fringes to the best
advantage.

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 2. The fringes pattern is not viewed directly from above and the resulting
obliquity can cause distortion and errors in viewing.

Use of optical flats

Depending on their accuracy, that is tolerance on flatness for Type ‘A’ and Type
’B’, They are classified as follows.
1. Reference Grade or Grade I
2. Working Grade or Grade II
For Type A optical flats, their diameter and grade are important.

Testing of optical flats

Type A optical flats are tested for flatness of working face.

Type B for flatness of working face, parallelism of working faces and thickness.

Care and maintenance of optical flats

Before using optical flat, it should be ensured that the both the flat and working
piece are clean and free from dirt, dust, oil or finger prints. Apply grain alcohol on
the flat and the work piece and polish their surfaces with clean chamois leather,
or tissue paper.

Optical flat should never be rotated on workpiece because it scratches too much.
It should be placed carefully and firmly pressed down evenly on work piece with
two fingers till interference bands are visible.

Sliding, creeping and wringing of flat over workpiece are extremely harmful and
should be avoided. It can only be pressed.

If interference bands do not appear, it may be due to presence of dust or dirt

between flat and work piece or by lack of sufficient polish on the work to reflect
the light.

12.3 Flatness Interferometer

Interferometer: It is a precision optical instrument for checking flatness,
parallelism and surface roughness. The precision measurements of length are
done by interferometer technique.

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Monochromatic light: It is a light of single wavelength

Optical interference: The combined effect of two rays of monochromatic light of

the same wave length emanating from a single source. The rays are then reunited
after being separated and made to travel over different distances

Fig.6a shows optical arrangement of the N.P.L. flatness interferometer. This

instrument as the name suggests is mainly used for checking the flatness of flat
surfaces.

Fig.6a N.P.L. Flatness Interferometer

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In this instrument mercury vapour lamp is used as a light source whose radiations
are passed through a green filter, thus leaving a green monochromatic light. The
wave length of resulting monochromatic radiation is of the order of 0.5 µm
(0.0005 mm). This radiation is then brought in to focus on pin hole in order to
obtain an intense point of source monochromatic light which is in the focal plane
of a collimating lens and is thus projected as a parallel beam of light.

This beam is directed on to the gauge to be tested which is wrung on the base
plate, via an optical flat so that optical fringes are formed across the face of the
gauge, the fringes being viewed directly from above by means of a thick glass plate
semi-reflector set at 45˚ to the optical axis

Fig.6b Fig.6c Fig.6d

In case of taper, fringe patterns as shown in Fig.6b are obtained. In case the gauge
surface is convex/ concave then fringe patterns as shown in Fig.6c are obtained. In
case the gauge surface is flat and not parallel then fringe patterns like Fig.6d are
obtained.

12.4 Application of optical Interference

1. Measurement of flatness of a lapped surface by means of an optical flat

2. Testing the accuracy of block gauges as regards to the flatness, parallelism
and surface roughness
3. Measuring block gauge sizes, etc.

The schematic diagram of an interferometer setup is shown in Fig.7

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 Fig.7 Interferometer

The light from a mercury vapour lamp is passed through a gelatin filter to isolate
the strong green monochromatic rays. It is focused on a pin hole about 1mm
diameter using a lens. This pin hole is situated at the focal point of a collimating
lens. The collimating lens renders the light parallel and directs it downwards onto
a horizontal optical flat supported on a tripod.

The gauge to be tested is wrung onto this base plate underneath the optical flat.

The upper surface of the gauge and the surrounding surface of the base plate is
viewed by semi reflection in a thick glass plate. The thick glass is interposed at an
angle of 45˚ between the pinhole and the collimating lens.

The gauge is viewed and the fringes formed are taken into account for the flatness
finish. The different types of interference fringes are shown in Fig.8

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 Fig.8A Fig.8B Fig.8C Fig.8D

If the surface of the gauge block is truly flat the fringes are straight and equally
spaced as in Fig.8A or 8B. If error in the gauge block is found, the fringes can be
seen as in Fig.8C or 8D.

Answer the following

1. Explain how interference fringes are produced?
2. What is a wave length? Explain the terms – Crest, Trough, Wavelength,
Amplitude.
3. What is Optical Flat?
4. What are the light sources used for Interferometry?
5. How can slip gauge size be measured by an interferometer?
6. What is meant by monochromatic light?
7. Explain destructive & constructive interference of light?
8. What are the necessary conditions for interference of light?
9. Draw the fringe patterns for the following characteristic surfaces
(a) Complete flat Surface (b) Concave Surface
(c) A flat surface with wear at both edges (d) Convex Surface
10.Draw the fringe pattern obtained while checking with an optical flat on
(a) Flat Surface (b) Concave Surface
11.If the angle between the optical flat and job is increased, what type of fringe
pattern will be observable? Give reasons
12.Show with a sketch, fringe pattern obtained while checking with an optical flat
on concave and flat surfaces

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 13.0 FORM AND POSITION FEATURES

Introduction

The geometric shapes dealt with specifically in this chapter are:

(i) Straightness
(ii) Roundness
(iii) Flatness
(iv) Parallelism
(v) Squareness
(vi) Alignment etc.
The specification of geometrical tolerance in addition to the normal dimensional
tolerance is becoming a common practice because.
(i) The geometrical accuracy of the component is as important as their size for its
correct functioning with mating parts.
(ii) It also influences the wear on the moving parts.
(iii) It is of fundamental importance for correct functioning of the measuring
instruments and machine tools, where the ability of slides to move along
straight line and spindles to rotate about fixed axis essential.
(iv) For stationary locating parts, the geometrical inaccuracy may affect the class of
fits required as the clearance between meeting parts may be changed.

13.1 Straightness

A line is said to be strength over a given length, if the variation of the distance of
its point from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the
generation direction of the line remains within the specified tolerance limits; the
reference plane being so chosen that their intersection is parallel to the straight
line joining two points suitably located on the line to be tested and the two points
being close to the ends of the length to be measured.

The tolerance on the straightness of a line is defined as the maximum deviation in

relation of the reference strength line going to the through extremities of the line
under examination. Fig.1

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 Fig.1 – Illustration of straightness

The straightness error of line is defined as the distance ‘e’ between two lines
drawn parallel to the mean true line and enveloping the actual contour by passing
through the highest and lowest points on the measured line as shown in the Fig.2.

Fig.2 – Graphical evaluation of the straightness error

The mean true line should be chosen so that it passes through the maximum
number of points measured and the sum of the areas above it must be equal to
the sum of areas below it.

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The maximum straightness error can then be graphically determined by measuring
the normal distance (e) between the two straight lines drawn parallel to the mean
true line, enveloping all measured points.

For measuring the straightness of line and its error, the following instruments are
used:
(i) Straight edge
(ii) Spirit level
(iii) Auto collimator

13.2 Measurement of straightness

(i) By using a spirit level (Fig.3a) - the most convenient method of testing
straightness of a surface of any length to a high degree of accuracy is by
using spirit level. A straight line is drawn on the surface of which
straightness is to be checked. A sensitive spirit level fitted with two feet at a
convenient distance apart is moved along this line in steps equal to the pitch
distance between the center lines of the feet.

Fig.3a

For each position, the reading is noted variation in the bubble position
represent angular variation in the surface and these are converted into
difference in height of the feet above or below the straight point.

(ii) Auto collimator method (Fig.3b) – The main principle of this is the same as
that of the spirit level method. In this method a block fitted with feet at a
convenient distance apart and carrying a plate reflector is moved along the

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 surface in steps equal to the pitch of the feet. Angular variations at each
position are used to plot the graph of errors.

Fig.3b

When testing vertical surface and optical square may be interposed so that
auto collimator can be used in the horizontal position. This is usually more
convenient than arranging the instrument with its axis vertical. A particular
feature of this method is that it can be used for vertical side or horizontal
sideways where the level cannot be used.

(iii) Straight edge method (Fig.3c) – This is the simplest method of testing
straightness of a surface a straight edge of known accuracy is applied to the
surface to be tested and the degree of contact is determined by marking,
feelers or light gap. The more accurate method of measuring straightness by
a straight edge is by the wedge method.
A straight edge is supported at the points for minimum deflection on two
unequal piles of slip gauges so that it is at a slight inclination to the surface
to be tested. The distance between the supports is divided into number of
equal parts and marked on the straight edge. If both straight edge and
surface are perfectly straight, the gap at each point will vary uniformly.

Fig.3c

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 Assume that the slip gauges used have values 10 mm and 10.1 mm as shown
in the Fig.3c.Let the distance between the slip values be divided in to 5
number of equal parts. The gap at each point will, therefore vary by 0.02
mm (0.1/5). Now we can determine the value pile of slips required for exact
contact at each position, e.g. at the first position its 10 mm; at the second
position it will be 10.02 mm; at the third it will be 10.04 mm and so on.
Insert the slip gauges of appropriate value at each marked position. If there
is no error, the slips will contact both the surfaces exactly at the marked
position. If, however there are errors in straightness, the slip will not fit
exactly at their marked positions, but will be displaced one way or other
along the straight edge by amounts proportional to the errors.

This is very sensitive method of measurement and can be made sensitive as

desired by choosing a small wedge angle and large number of measuring
positions. Care must be taken to see that the slip do not wring to the
surface, otherwise the whole sensitivity will be lost.

13.3 Flatness
According to ISO: 2063-1962, surface is deemed to be flat with in a given range of
measurement when the variation of the perpendicular distance of its point from a
geometrical plane (this plane should be exterior to the surface to be tested)
parallel to the general trajectory of the plane to be tested remains below a given
value. The geometrical plane may be represented by either by means of a surface
plane or by a family of straight line obtained by the displacement of a straight
edge or a spirit level or a light beam.

It is well known that a surface can be considered to be composed of an infinitely

large number of lines. The surface will be truly flat only if all the lines are straight
and they lie in the same plane.

Flatness deviations (errors of flatness) are indicated as follows:

(i) µ or mm per meter when convexities are allowed as well as concavities.
(ii) Concave to …. µ or mm, when between the ends, only concave surface are
allowed; and
(iii) Convex to …. µ or mm, when between the ends, only convex surfaces are
allowed.

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13.4 Parallelism

a) Parallelism of two planes. Two planes/surfaces are said to be parallel when the
distance between them measured from anywhere, remains the same. This is of
course an ideal condition. Taking production consideration into account, the
distance between the two planes/surfaces at any place should not deviate
beyond a minimum value agreed between the manufacturer and the user.

The test for parallelism of two planes is carried out in two directions (generally
perpendicular to each other). The dial indicator, which is held on a support with
a flat base, is moved in one over a given length, and the feeler is made to rest
against the second plane; and the deviations noted down. (Fig.5)

Fig.5

Dial test indicators are instruments of high precision, used for comparing and
determining the variation in the sizes of a component. (Fig.6) these instruments
cannot be given the direct reading of the sizes like micrometer and Vernier
caliper. A dial test indicator magnifies small variations in size by means of a
pointer on a graduated dial. This direct reading of deviations gives an accurate
picture of the condition of the part being tested.

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 Fig.6

Dial indicator

Principle of working: The magnification of the small movement of the plunger or

stylus is converted into a rotary motion of the pointer on a circular scale. (Fig. 7)

Fig.7

Types:

Two types of dial test indicators are in use according to the method of
magnification. There are:
- Plunger type (Fig.8)
- Lever type (Fig.9)

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 Plunger type (Fig.8) Lever type (Fig.9)

Plunger type dial test indicator

The external parts and features of a plunger dial test indicator are as shown in
Fig.8a

1. Pointer
2. Rotatable bezel
3. Bezel clamp
4. Back lug
5. Transparent dial
cover
6. Stem
7. Plunger
8. Anvil
9. Revolution counter

Plunger type (Fig.8a)

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For converting the linear motion of the plunger, a rack and pinion mechanism is
used. (Fig.10)

Fig.10

Lever type dial test indicator

The external parts and features of a lever dial test indicator are as shown in Fig.11

External parts & Features

are:
1. Pointer
2. Rotatable Bezel
3. Bezel Clamp
4. Transparent dial cover
5. Stylus
6. Body
7. Clamp

Lever type (Fig.11)

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In the case of this type of test indicators, the magnification of the movement is
obtained by the mechanism of the lever and scroll. (Fig.11a)

Fig.11a

It has a stylus with a ball- type contact, operating in the horizontal plane. This can
be conveniently method of a surface gauge stand and can be used in places where
the plunger type dial test indicator application is difficult. (Fig.11b)

Fig.11a

Important features of Dial test indicators

An important feature of the dial test indicators is that the scale can be rotated by a
ring bezel, enabling it to be set readily to zero. Many dial test indicators read plus
in clockwise direction from zero and minus in the anti-clockwise direction so as to
give plus and minus indicators.
Uses

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 (i) To compare the dimension of a work piece against a known standard,
example: slip gauges.
(ii) To check plane surface for parallelism and flatness.
(iii) To check parallelism of shaft and bars.
(iv) To check concentricity of holes and shafts.
(Fig. 12, 13 and 14 show a few applications)

13.5 Parallelism to two axes

Assume that the parallelism of axes of two cylinders is to be tested. Fig.15. The
instrument used for the test is dial indicator. It is supported on a base of such a
shape that the base slides along one of the cylinders. The dial indicator is so
adjusted that its feelers (plunger) slides along another cylinders. The maximum
deviation between the axis of the cylinders at any point may be determined by
gently rocking the dial indicator in a direction perpendicular to the axes.

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Parallelism of an axis to plane: In this test, (Fig.16) a dial indicator is held on a
support with a flat base and placed over the plane under test. The feeler (plunger)
of the dial indicator is made to touch the surface of the cylinder representing the
axis. This instrument is moved along the plane for a distance over which
parallelism test is to be performed. At each point of measurement, readings of the
instrument are noted. If the maximum difference between the several readings
taken at number of points does not exceed a predetermined value, the axis can be
said to be parallel to the plane.

Parallelism of an axis to the intersection of two planes. The set-up is shown in fig.
17 and this test is also conducted in two perpendicular planes of the greatest
importance.

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Parallelism of the intersection of two planes to the third plane. This test is like
the parallelism of an axis to the intersection of two planes as described above. The
plunger instead of touching the cylindrical surface touches the third plane to be
tested. The feeler is at right angle to the plane.

Parallelism of two straight lines each formed by the intersection of two planes.
Fig.18 shows the set-up for checking the parallelism in two perpendicular planes.
This set-up recommended only in case where the distance between two lines is
relatively small. In case where the distance is larger than the v blocks are covered
by a straight edge and check made by a spirit level.

The tolerance (permissible deviations) of parallelism of straight lines or plane

surface are specified as: 0.015 mm on 300 mm (free end of spindle in upwards
direction only relative to the table surface).

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13.6 Squareness
Checking whether one plane is at right angles to another plane is called
squareness testing. Two planes, two straight lines, or a straight line and a plane
are said to be perpendicular when the error of parallelism in relation to the
standard square doesn’t exceed a given value. The reference square may be an
optical square or a right-angle level. The permissible error is specified as ‘Errors
relating to the right angle ± …. µ or mm on a given length’ and the permitted
direction of error may also be specified, such as free end of spindle inclined only
towards the support.

The importance of squareness for correct functioning of parts can be illustrated

from the following examples:
(i) If a cross-slide does not move at right angle to the spindle axis, then a flat
surface won’t be produced during a facing operation.
(ii) If a depth micrometer spindle is not square to the locating face an incorrect
measurement, involving a cosine error, will be introduced.
Tri square

The tri square (fig.19) is a precision instrument which is used to check squareness
(angle of 90°) of a surface.

The accuracy of measurement by a tri square is about 0.002 mm per 10 mm

length, which is accurate enough for most workshop purposes. The tri square has a
blade with parallel surfaces. The blade is fixed to the stock at 90°.

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Uses:
The tri square is used to: -

Check the sureness of machined or tiled

surfaces. (Fig.20)

Check flatness of surfaces (Fig.21)

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 Mark lines at 90° to the edges of work
pieces (Fig.22)

Set work pieces at right angle on

work holding devices. (Fig.23)

Tri square are made of hardening steel. Tri square are specified according to the
lengths if the blade. i.e. 100 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm

Squareness testing

(i) Using Engineer’s square- for many purposes where high degree of accuracy
is not desired, the work pieces can be tested against the engineer’s square.
It only indicates the deviation of the surface from squareness. The
judgement is purely based upon the eye. To determine the magnitude of the
error and for checking square blocks, the following methods are used.

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 (ii) Indicators method. Fig.24 shows the indicator method of testing the
squareness of a square block whose opposite faces are expected to be
parallel and adjacent faces are at normally at right angles.

Fig.24

The instrument known as squareness tester consists of a vertical frame and a flat
base, with a dial gauge fitted on the vertical frame. A knife edge contact is also
fixed on the vertical frame as shown. The block and the tester are both placed on a
surface plate of known accuracy and the height of the indicator is adjusted to
make contact near the top of the side of the block. The knife edge is pushed
against one side of the block (side AB for instance) and reading is obtained on the
indicator.

The block is then turned around, and the reading is obtained on the other side CD.
If the two sides AB and CD are truly parallel, then the two readings will be equal,
for a true right angle.

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If AB and CD are not exactly at the right angles the two readings (say R1 and R2) will
be equally above and below the reading for a true right angle. Thus, the difference
of R1 and R2 will be double the error in squareness of workpiece over the length L,
between the fixed contact and the dial gauge anvil, i.e. squareness error = ½ (R1 -
R2) over length L.

13.7 Squareness of an axis of rotation with a given plane

Assume that squareness of an axis of rotation of a spindle with a plane is to be

tested.Fig.25. A dial indicator is mounted on the arm attached to the spindle. The
feeler (plunger) of the indicator is adjusted parallel to the axis of rotation of the
spindle, so that the spindle revolves, the plane of rotation of free end of the
plunger is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Now the plunger of the dial
indicator is made to touch the plane under test. The spindle is slowly revolved, and
readings are noted at various positions. The variation in the readings of the
instrument represent the deviation of the parallelism between the plane of free
end of the plunger and the plane under test or deviation in the squareness of the
axis of rotation of the spindle with the plane under test.

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Optical test for Squareness

The squareness of any two machined surface can be more accurately checked by
using the auto-collimator. Fig.26.The axis of the indicated beam from the auto-
collimator forms the measuring datum. An optical square is utilized for turning the
incident beam through exactly 90°. It is assuming that the faces of the surface are
perfectly straight. A stainless steel mirror block with a flat base is used for the
horizontal surface for aligning the collimator with the surface.

If two surfaces S1 and S2 are square, then the image of the actual cross wire-mark
seen through the auto collimator coincides with the image of the cross-wire mark
reflected from the mirror, provided the paths of the incident and the reflected rays
are the same. By moving the mirror along the vertical surface and the cross-wire
mark along the horizontal surface, the squareness can be checked along the entire
length of both the surface under consideration.

Equidistance
Equidistance Fig.27 relates to the distance between the axis and the reference
plane. Equidistance exists when the plane passing through the axis is parallel to
the reference plane. It may be different axis or the same axis, occupying different
positions after pivoting.
The test consists in first testing that the two axes are parallel to the plane and then
testing that they are equidistant from this plane. The set up is shown in the figure

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below. A dial gauge is made to rest on the reference plane and with the same
gauge; readings are noted on the cylindrical surface representing the two axes by
sliding the dial gauge on the reference plane. If the two cylinders are not identical,
then difference of radii of the tested section should be taken in to account.

Fig.27

Concept of circularity

In an assembly of circular parts, only the dimensional tolerance on diameter will

not fulfil the requirement but it is the geometrical accuracy or form that is most
frequently needed. If cylindrical parts are measured by means of a device such as
micrometer the parts though may be within the dimensional tolerances and still
may be perfectly circular. Such type of work is often produced in centre less
grinding and this condition is known as lobing.

Ovality- In this case there is some difference between the major and minor axes.

Irregularities of no specific forms Fig. 28 shows the irregularities of no specific

forms.

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Roundness/circularity testing

Roundness or circularity is defined as the radial uniformity of work surface

measured from the center line of the workpiece. The error of circularity or out of
the roundness is defined as the radial distance between the minimum inscribing
circle and the maximum inscribing circle, which contain the profile of the surface
at section perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Causes of Out of roundedness – The various sources of out of roundness may be:
1. Clamping distortion
2. Spindle run out
3. Presence of dirt and chip on clamping surfaces
4. Poor alignment of centers, heat and vibration, excessive feeds.
5. Erratic cutting action
6. Inadequate lubrication
7. Poor bearing in the spindle, etc.
Lobing is particularly difficult to avoid in many machining processes. A round bar
or ring type of part held in chuck is compressed at points of contact. Even when
the part is turned or grown perfectly round on the machining after it is removed
from the chuck, the stress on the metal gets relieved, causing the lobes.

The deviation from roundness occurs in the form of waves about the
circumference of the part. Those are generally identified as so many waves, lobes,
or undulations about the circumference. The number of lobes can vary from 2 to

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several hundred about the circumference of the cross section. 2,3,5,7 and 9 lobed
parts are common result of machining process.

Methods for measurement of roundness

The most commonly used methods of measurement of roundness are:

1. ‘V’ block and Dial indicator method.

A very simple and most commonly used method of measuring out of roundness
is by using the ‘V’ block and dial indicator. The set up employed for this purpose
is shown in Fig.29. The v block is placed on the surface plate and the work to be
checked is placed upon it.

Fig.29

2. Roundness measuring machine.

A sensitive dial indicator is firmly fixed in a stand and its feeler made to rest
against the surface of the work. The work is rotated about the diameter to be
checked, the dial indicator records any variation in dimensions due to Out of
roundness.

3. Bench center method.

This method (Fig.30 and 31) converts the diameter measurement to a chordal
height variation and presents a new set of measurement peculiarities which are

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dependent upon the included angle of the ‘V’ block and the number of lobes
present on the circumference of the workpiece to be measured.

Talyrond instrument
For measuring out of roundness to a high degree of precision, roundedness
measuring machine is used. In this instrument the effects of varying V block
angles, the position of the indicator and the shape of the work piece i.e., the
number of lobes are completely eliminated.

In this instrument Fig.32, a truly running spindle mounted on the high precision
ball bearings and carrying a micron indicator is employed. The indicator pointer is
rotated around the work about an accurately stable axis. Deviations from
roundedness are then shown on the indicator, which is connected through an
amplifying unit to a pen recorder which traces a polar graph of the work outline. A
reversal of this method that is to rotate the work on an axis against a fixed
indicator can be used to obtain results of less precision. In this type the work is
placed on circular table with its center set as closely as possible to the eye, on its
axis of rotation. A dial gauge, supported from a fixed base, is placed with its
plunger in contact with the edge of the disc.

This method is more accurate, a record of the exact profile of the job is made
automatically and thus the waviness is also superimposed upon the profile of the
job. A permanent polar chart record is usually provided, and the method leads
itself to standardization. The sophisticated machines have the provision to check
concentricity, roundness, alignment, squareness, parallelism and flatness.

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13.8 Concentricity- checking using dial indicator

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13.9 Run out

Circularity of a profile: The difference between the diameter of the smallest

described circle and smallest measurable diameter of the shaft is the error in
circularity of a shaft at any section. This error is also called as “Out of roundness”.

Out of true running or run out: If circularity error is not taken in to account, then
the run out is twice the radial throw of the axis. Radial throw of an axis rises when
the geometrical axis does not coincide exactly with the axis of rotation (fig given
below).

Measurement of run out: A dial gauge is fixed on the static part of the machine
tool like the bed. The feeler is brought into contact with the spindle (or a mandrel
fixed in the spindle bore) and the latter rotated through 360° slowly. The
difference between the maximum and the minimum readings will give the run out.
(Fig.34 & 35)

Answer the followings:

1. Define straightness.
2. Define the term flatness.
3. Define the term parallelism.
4. Define the term lobing.
5. Explain the method of checking straightness using an auto collimator.
6. What is the function of collimating lens in an auto collimator?
7. Briefly explain the working of an auto collimator.
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 8. Name different types of geometric irregularities found in manufactured
parts.
9. Explain the method of checking the parallelism of two axes with neat
sketch.
10.Explain the method of checking the straightness using wedge method.
11.Define the term roundness.
12.Explain about optical flat.
13.Write the uses of dial indicator.
14.What are the parts of a plunger type dial indicator?
15.How can flatness be checked by straight edge method?
16.How the squareness is checked by the dial indicator?
17.Write the method of checking the parallelism of two axes.
18.List out any six important geometrical features of a surface.
19.Define Ovality. Explain method of checking Ovality.
20.How will you measure the error of squareness of a rectangular block?
21.Describe a method to find lobes on a cylindrical workpiece.
22.Explain the method of checking roundness using Talyrond.
23.What is a run out? How it can be checked?

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 14.0 MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENTS

14.1 Checking the angle of a piece tapered at one end.

This can be done by using discs of different sizes, slip gauges and a dial indicator.
The length of slip gauges required for the purpose is calculated and the slip gauge
combination of that length prepared. The two discs (whose diameter are known)
and slip gauges are placed on a surface plate as shown in Fig.1 and the discs are
clamped in position against an angle plate by ‘C’ clamps. The work is then placed
on the top of the discs and clamped against the angle plate. If the angle of the
piece is correct then the top edge will be parallel to the surface plate.

Fig.1

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To Determine the Included angle of an Internal Dovetail

In dovetail the sloping slides act as guide and prevent the lifting of the female
mating part during mating operation. The angle which the sloping face makes with
an imaginary vertical centre plane is important in case of dovetail.

For measuring this angle we require two pins of equal size, slip gauges and
micrometers. First the two pins are placed touching both the sides of dovetail as
shown in Fig.2 and distance l1 is measured across these pins with a micrometer.

Fig.2

Then the pins are raised on two sets of equal slip gauge blocks. Here care should
be taken that the pins do not extend above the top surface of dovetail. Again
distance l2 across the pins is measured. Let height of slip gauges be h.

Then Thus knowing l1, l2 and h, the angle A can be calculated.

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This method is also suitable for measuring the angle of a taper plug gauge or any
round or flat tapered work which can be placed on a surface

To Measure the internal Taper in Blind Hole

Let tapered angle = A. For this method, we require two steel balls of equal size and
slip gauges. First two balls of equal diameter are placed in each bottom corner of
the taper shown in Fig.3 and the space between the balls is filled with a correct
combination of slip gauges. The length of slip gauges which just fits in the space
between the balls must be noted very carefully and let it be l1.

Next prepare a combination of slip gauges of convenient height 'h' and place it in
the hole as support. Again place the two balls in upper position, each touching the
tapered hole and the space between them again being filled up by suitable
combination of slip gauges. Let the length of slip gauges in this case be l2.

Then angle O1O2B equals half the taper angle, where O1 and O2 are the centres of
the balls and O1O2B is a right angled triangle.

Fig.3
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Thus the internal tapered angle can be calculated. In this method, h should be
chosen as large as possible. The radius of rollers should be small so that contact
between the rollers and the flanks of sloping sides is made in a plane near to the
base and close to the top portion (mouth).
The error in angle measurement can be decreased by increasing l1 - l2 and hence
large h and small r.

To Measure the angle of V- groove

For this method we require two discs or pins of different sizes and a height gauge.
The sizes of the two discs are determined exactly.

First the small disc is placed in the groove and height of disc above the surface
plate is measured with a height gauge. Next small disc is removed and bigger disc
is placed in the groove and again its height above surface plate is measured.

The discs must be of such diameter that they always touch only the sloping sides
of the groove.

For higher accuracy, height h1 and h2 can be measured using slip gauges and
sensitive indicator as shown in Fig.4a.

In Fig.4 O1 and O2 are the centres of the two balls. O1B is drawn parallel to one of
the inclined surfaces and O2B  O1B. Then O2O1B equals half the angle of V-groove.

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 Fig.4 Fig.4a

To determine the width of a V- groove

It is actually very difficult to measure the width of a V-groove directly with

standard tools. This method requires the use of a steel ball and a Vernier height
gauge. By only one reading, i.e. height of ball above the base, one can determine
the width of groove. Since reading can be taken without removing or changing the
set up, this method can be used while machining or grinding operation is being
carried out.

First the angle of V-groove is determined by the two balls method or it must be
known exactly. A ball of diameter d is then placed in the groove and reading h1
noted down (Fig.5). Next the height of V-block is noted down and let it be h2. Let
angle of groove be A. Let width of groove be w. O is the centre of the ball. Draw OE
 to one of the sloping sides and OB a horizontal line.

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 Fig.5

14.2 To check the angle of a tapered hole

For this method; two balls of different sizes, depth gauge, height gauge, etc. are
required First a small ball of radius R1 is inserted in the hole in lower position and
depth H1 from the upper surface of tapered hole to the top of the ball is
measured. Then the bigger ball of radius R2 is placed in the hole and height H2 is
taken from the top of the ball to the upper surface of the tapered hole using a
height gauge.

In Fig.6 O1 & O2 represent the centers of two balls. Draw a line from O2 to tangent
point A. Draw O1 S parallel to the side of the tapered hole. Then O2 S will be
perpendicular to O1 S. Then angle O2 O1 S = α/2; where α is the angle of tapered
hole

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 Fig.6

To find out the Radius of a Concave surface

i. When the edges are well-defined.

ii. When the edges are rounded up.

When the edges are well-defined. This method is applicable to those parts which
have large radius to curvature. This requires the use of a surface plate, angle plate,
height gauge, depth micrometer, slip gauges and a C-clamp.
The part to be tested is kept on a surface plate and with the help of a depth
micrometer the maximum depth of the cavity is determined. Let it be h. Next the
part is kept in such a way that cavity is resting against an angle plate and the part
is then clamped in this position. The hole is then measured from edge to edge with
a height gauge having a sharp scribing arm. Let the maximum reading, i.e.
diameter of the hole be d (Fig.6).
Let O be the assumed centre of the cavity and R the radius of curvature.

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 Fig.6

When the edges are rounded up. When the edges of the cavity are rounded up,
then
the radius of curvature can be measured by a depth micrometer and slip gauges.
The width of the depth micrometer base is measured with the help of slip gauges.
Let it be d. Then it is placed in the cavity till it fully rests in the cavity, its frame
touching all the sides of cavity (Fig.6a). The measuring tip is then lowered down till
it touches the base. The reading is then noted on the thimble and let it be h. Now
the case is similar to previous one and the radius of curvature R can be found out
by the same formula.

Fig.6a Fig.6b

Other method to note down d and h is by using a heavy steel block, a steel ball and
slip

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gauges as shown in Fig.6b. In this method, the steel ball is placed in the cavity and
the heavy steel block also put into the cavity. The space between the block and
ball is filled up by a suitable length of slip gauges so that block is just touching the
sides of cavity.
Here length of block is d and length of slip gauges and diameter of ball constitute
h. The formula for finding the radius of curvature remains the same.

14.3 Gear Tooth Vernier

It is used to measure the thickness of gear teeth racks at the pitch line or chordal
thickness of teeth and the distance from the top of a tooth to the chord. The
thickness of a tooth at pitch line and the addendum is measured by an adjustable
tongue, each of which is adjusted independently by adjusting screw bars. The
effect of zero errors should be taken into consideration. Fig.7

Fig.7
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This method is simple and inexpensive. However it needs different setting for a
variation in number of teeth for a given pitch and accuracy is limited by the least
count of the instrument. Since the wear during use is concentrated on the two
jaws, the calliper has to be calibrated at regular intervals to maintain the accuracy
of measurement

Gear Nomenclature

• Pitch Surface: The Surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that
the toothed gear may be considered to replace.
• Pitch Circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
• Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth in a right section
of the gear.
• Root(or Dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the
teeth in a right section of the gear
• Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum
circle.
• Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
• Clearance: The difference between the Dedendum of one gear and the
addendum of the mating gear.
• Face of a Tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch
surface.
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 • Flank of a Tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
• Circular Thickness also called the tooth thickness: The thickness of the
tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the
length of a straight line.
• Tooth space: Pitch diameter the distance between adjacent teeth measured
on the pitch circle.
• Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the
tooth space of the mating gear.
• Circular pitch (Pc): The width of a tooth and a space measured on the pitch
circle. Pc =  D / N
• Diametral pitch (Pd): The number of teeth (N) of a gear unit pitch diameter.
The Diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of teeth divided by pitch
diameter. Pd = N / D
• Module (m): Pitch diameter divided by the number of teeth. The pitch
diameter is usually specified in inches or mm; in the former case the module
is the inverse of Diametral pitch. m = D/N

Gear Tooth Vernier – Parts

 A – Graduated Vertical
beam
 B – Graduated Horizontal
beam
 C – Fixed Jaw
 D – Thin blade
 E & F – Sliding heads
 G – Movable Jaw
 H & I – Fine adjustment
heads
 J – Locking screws

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 Fig.8 Fig.8a

The gear tooth Vernier caliper as shown in Fig.8 has a (I) shaped frame which
integrates the fixed jaw (C) , the graduated vertical beam (A) and the graduated
horizontal beam (B) to which sliding heads (E) and (F) with Vernier scales are
assembled. The vertical sliding head carries a thin blade (D) and the horizontal
sliding head carries the movable jaw (G). Both the slides are controlled by fine
adjustment heads (H) and (I) that can be locked in position by screws (J).

Measurement of tooth thickness.

The permissible error or the tolerance on thickness of tooth is the variation of

actual thickness of tooth from its theoretical value. The tooth thickness is generally
measured at pitch circle and is therefore, the pitch line thickness of tooth. It may
be mentioned that the tooth thickness is defined as the length of an arc, which is
difficult to measure directly. In most of the cases, it is sufficient to measure the
chordal thickness i.e., the chord joining the intersection of the tooth profile with
the pitch circle.

Also the difference between chordal tooth thickness and circular tooth thickness
is very small for gear of small pitch. The thickness measurement is the most
important measurement because most of the gears manufactured may not
undergo checking of all other parameters, but thickness measurement is a must
for all gears.

There are various methods of measuring the gear tooth thickness.

(i) Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth Vernier calliper.
(ii) Constant chord method.
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 (iii) Base tangent method
(iv) Measurement by dimension over pins.

Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth Vernier calliper.

The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured by a gear tooth Vernier.
Since the gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth,
the instrument must be capable of measuring the tooth thickness at a specified
position on the tooth.
Further this is possible only when there is some arrangement to fix that position
where the measurement is to be taken. The tooth thickness is generally measured
at pitch circle and is, therefore, referred to as pitch-line thickness of tooth. The
gear tooth Vernier has two Vernier scales and they are set for the width (w) of the
tooth and the depth (d) from the top, at which w occurs.

Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical values of

w and d can be found out which may be verified by
the instrument. In Fig.9, it may be noted that w is a
chord ADB, but tooth thickness is specified as an arc
distance AEB. Also the distance d adjusted on
instrument is slightly greater than the addendum CE,
w is therefore called chordal thickness and d is called
the chordal addendum.

In Fig.9, w =AB=2AD, Now, Angle AOD = θ = 360°/4N,

where N is the number of teeth,
w = 2AD = 2 x AO sin θ = 2R sin 360/4N (N = pitch
circle radius)

Fig.9
Also from Fig.9, d = OC- OD

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Any error in the outside diameter of the gear must be allowed for when measuring
tooth thickness.

Constant Chord Method.

In the above method, it is seen that both the chordal thickness and chordal
addendum are dependent upon the number of teeth. Hence for measuring a large
number of gears for set, each having different number of teeth would involve
separate calculations. Thus the procedure becomes laborious and time-consuming
one.

The constant chord method does away with these difficulties. Constant chord of a
gear is measured where the tooth flanks touch the flanks of the basic rack. The
teeth of the rack are straight and inclined to their centre lines at the pressure
angle as shown in Fig.10

Fig.10

Also the pitch line of the rack is tangential to the pitch circle of the gear and, by
definition, the tooth thickness of the rack along this line is equal to the arc tooth
thickness of the gear round its pitch circle. Now since the gear tooth and rack
space are in contact in the symmetrical position at the points of contact of the
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flanks, the chord is constant at this position irrespective of the gear of the system
in mesh with the rack. This is the property utilised in the constant chord method of
the gear measurement.

The measurement of tooth thickness at constant chord simplified the problem for
all number of teeth. If an involute tooth is considered symmetrically in close mesh
with a basic rack form, then it will be observed that regardless of the number of
teeth for a given size of tooth (same module), the contact always occurs at two
fixed point A and B. AB is known as constant chord. The constant chord is defined
as the chord joining those points, on opposite faces of the tooth, which make
contact with the mating teeth when the centre line of the tooth lies on the line of
the gear centres. The value of AB and its depth from the tip, where it occurs can be
calculated mathematically and then verified by an instrument. The advantage of
the constant chord method is that for all number of teeth (of same module) value
of constant chord is same.

In other words, the value of constant chord is constant for all gears of a meshing
system. Secondly it readily lends itself to a form of comparator which is more
sensitive than the gear tooth Vernier.

The Base Tangent Method ('David Brown’ tangent comparator)

In this method, the span of a convenient number of teeth is measured with help of
the tangent comparator. This uses a single Vernier calliper and has, therefore the
following advantages over gear tooth Vernier which used two Vernier scales:

(i) The measurements do not depend on two Vernier readings, each being function
of the other.
(ii) The measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw with the
face.

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Consider a straight generator (edge) ABC being rolled back and forth along a base
circle
(Fig.11). Its ends thus sweep out opposed involutes A2 AA1 and C2CC1 respectively.

Fig.11

Thus the measurements made across these opposed involutes by span gauging will
be constant (i.e.AC = A1C1 = A2C2 = A0C0) and equal to the arc length of the base
circle between the origins of involutes.

Further the position of the measuring faces is unimportant as long as they are
parallel and on an opposed pair of the true involutes. As the tooth form is most
likely to conform to a true involute at the pitch point of the gear, it is always
preferable to choose a number of teeth such that the measurement is made
approximately at the pitch circle of the gear.
The value of the distance between two opposed involutes, or the dimension over
parallel faces is equal to the distance round the base circle between the points
where the corresponding tooth flanks cut i.e., ABC in Fig.11. It can be derived
mathematically as follows:

The angle between the points A and Con the pitch circle where the flanks of the
opposed involute teeth of the gear cut this circle can be easily calculated.

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 Fig.11a
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Tables are also available which directly give this value for the given values of S, N
and m. This distance is first calculated and then set in the 'David Brown' tangent
comparator (Fig.12) with the help of slip gauges. The instrument essentially
consists of a fixed anvil and a movable anvil· There is a micrometer on the moving
anvil side and this has a very limited movement on either side of the setting. The
distance is adjusted by setting the fixed anvil at desired place with the help of
looking ring and setting tubes.

Tangential gear tooth Calliper

It is utilised for measuring variations on the basic tooth profile from the outside
diameter of spur and helical gears. The instrument consists of body, on the
underside of which there are two slides having the tips acting like measuring
contacts. The extended spindle of a dial indicator with the contact point A passes
between the two tips along the vertical axis of symmetry of the instrument. The
measuring tips are spread apart or brought together simultaneously and
symmetrically in reference to the central axis by a screw which has a right-hand
and a left-hand thread. The contact faces of the measuring tips are flat and
arranged at angles of 14.5˚ or 20˚ with the central axis. The calliper is set up by
means of a cylindrical master gauge of proper diameter based on the module of
the gear being checked.

Fig.12

After adjusting the tips by the screw, these are locked in position by locking nuts.
The properly set up instrument is applied to the gear tooth and the dial indicator

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reading shows how much the position of the basic tooth profile deviates in
reference to the outside diameter of the gear.

14.4 Test Plug method of Checking Pitch Diameter and Tooth spacing

Measurement over the rollers placed in the space between a pair of gear teeth
gives a convenient method for checking tooth spacing and the pitch diameter. The
special case of the roller with its centre on the pitch circle simplifies the problem.
It is therefore, considered desirable to find the diameter on the roller whose
centre will lie on the pitch circle and to derive an expression for the distance over
the rollers placed in opposite teeth spaces with the centres of rollers lying on the
pitch circle.

Fig.13 Fig.13a

In Fig.13 and 13a, a rack tooth is shown symmetrically in mesh with a gear tooth
space, the curved sides of the gear tooth touching the straight rack sides at A and
B on the line of action. Let us assume that the centre of the roller lies on the pitch
point O. Now, if the rack tooth be considered as an empty space bounded by its
outline, a circle with centre O and radius OB would fit and touch the rack space at
A and B since OA and OB are perpendicular to the sides of the rack tooth. Thus the
circle would touch the gear teeth at A and B.
In ∆OBD, OB is the radius of roller
OD = Circular pitch/2 = (/4)m
OBD =90°, BOD = ϕ =pressure angle, :. OB = OD cos ϕ = (/4) m cos ϕ
Dia. of roller= 2 x OB = 2 x (m/4) cos ϕ = (/4) m cosϕ.

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This is the diameter of a roller which will rest in tooth space and lie with its centre
on the pitch circle. This value is constant for all gears of same pitch and pressure
angle.

For gears with even number of teeth, a direct measurement by placing two rollers
in exactly opposite tooth spaces is possible. In this case, the gauging diameter over
the rollers

If the gear has an old number of teeth, a radial measurement with the gear
between centres can be carried out, using a comparator with the gear. The
accuracy of the spacing over any number of teeth may be checked by finding the
angles subtended at the centre and comparing this with that obtained from a
chordal check of the plugs.
As already indicated, precision gears and other gears are generally checked for
tooth thickness by dimension over pins, as the dimensions over pins reading is
mathematically related to the tooth thickness. This also verifies the correctness of
profile and other elements of gear. Under this method two pins of equal diameter
are placed in two opposite tooth spaces and compared with required value found
using the equation,

for gears having even number of teeth, and

for gears having odd number of teeth.

Where M =Required size over the wires, m =Module, ϕ =Pressure angle, d

=Diameter of
wire = 1. 728 x m, ϕm = Pressure angle at centre of pin and is given by the relation

Using the above equations, the size 'M' over wires can be calculated.

Example:
Calculate for a 36 Teeth gear of 5 mm module and 20° pressure angle
(a) Plug size

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 (b) Distance over two plugs placed in opposite spaces,
(c) Distance over two plugs spaced 10 teeth apart.

Answer the following:

1. Define module and addendum of a gear?
2. What is meant by module of a gear?
3. Define tooth thickness of a gear?

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 4. Describe a method to check the taper of a piece tapered at one end?
5. Describe a method to check a taper of a hole?
6. What is the use of gear tooth Vernier?
7. Explain about constant chord method?
8. Explain about how the gear tooth thickness is measured using a Gear tooth
Vernier?
9. Explain with a neat sketch the parts of a gear tooth Vernier. Mention its
parts?

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 15.0 SURFACE TEXTURE AND MEASUREMENT
15.1 Meaning of surface texture

When components are produced either by machining or by hand processes, the

movement of the cutting tool leaves certain lines or patterns on the work surface.
This is known as surface texture. These are, in fact irregularities caused by the
production process with regular or irregular spacing which tend to form a pattern
on the work piece.
(Fig.1)

Fig.1 The components of Surface texture

Definitions

Roughness (Primary Texture- Fig.2a)

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The irregularities in the surface texture result from the inherent action of the
production process. These will include traverse feed marks and irregularities
within them.

Waviness (Secondary Texture- Fig.2b)

This is the component of the surface texture upon which is roughness is
superimposed. Waviness may result from machine or work deflections, vibrations,
chatter, heat treatment, or warping stain. The requirement of surface quality
depends on the actual use to which the component is put.

Fig.2a Fig.2b

Examples
In the case of slip gauges (Fig.3) the surface texture has to be extremely fine with
practically no waviness. This will help the slip gauges to adhere to each other
firmly wrung together.

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 Fig.3
The cylinder bore of an engine (Fig.4) may require a certain degree of roughness
for assisting lubrication needed for the movement of the piston.

Cylinder
Bore

Piston

Fig.4
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For sliding surfaces the quality of surface texture is very important.

When two sliding surfaces are placed one over the other, initially the contact will
be on the high spots.(Fig.5) These high spots will wear away gradually. This
wearing away depends on the quality of the surface texture.

Fig.5

Due to this reason it is important to indicate the surface quality of components to

be manufactured. The surface texture quality can be expressed and assessed
numerically. The most commonly used method of expressing the surface texture
quality numerically is using Ra value. This is also known as a centre line average
(CLA) Fig.6

The profile curve is then drawn along the average line so that the profile below
this is brought above.
A new mean line (Fig.7) is then calculated for the curve obtained after folding the
bottom half on the original profile.
The ‘Ra’ value is expressed in terms of micron. This also can be indicated in the
corresponding roughness grade number, ranging from N1 to N12. When only one
‘Ra’value is specified, it represents the maximum permissible value of surface
roughness
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15.2 Effective Profile

It is the real contour of a surface obtained by using instrument.

Flaws : Flaws are surface irregularities or imperfections which occur at infrequent

intervals and at random intervals. Examples are: scratches, holes, cracks, porosity,
etc. These may be observed directly with the aid of penetrating dye or other
material which makes them visible for examination and evaluation.

Surface Texture: Repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface which
forms the pattern on the surface. Surface texture includes roughness, waviness,
lays and flaws.

Lay

It is the direction of predominant surface pattern produced by tool marks or

scratches. It is determined by the method of production used. Symbols used to
indicate the direction of lay are given below:

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II = Lay parallel to the boundary line of the nominal surface that is, lay parallel to
the line representing surface to which the symbol is applied. E.g. parallel shaping,
end view of turning and O.D. grinding

Perpendicular = Lay perpendicular to the boundary line of the nominal surface,

that is lay perpendicular to the line representing surface to which the symbol is
applied. E.g. end view of shaping, longitudinal view of turning and O.D. grinding

X = lay angular in both directions to the line representing the surface to which
symbol is applied. E.g. traversed end mill, side wheel grinding

M = Lay multi directional e.g. lapping, super finishing, honing

C = Lay approximately circular relative to the centre of the surface to which the
symbol is applied. E.g. surface ground on a turn table, fly cut and indexed on end
mill.

The various types of lays are shown in diagrammatically in Fig.8. It should be noted
that surface roughness is measured at 90˚ to the direction of lay

Fig.8 – Types of lay

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Sampling length

It is the length of the profile necessary for the evaluation of the irregularities to be
taken into account. It is also known as ‘cut-off’ length. It is measured in a direction
parallel to the general direction of the profile.
The sampling length should bear some relation to the type of profile. It is found
that the required length can be related to the process employed for finishing and a
series of Indian standard sampling lengths or cut off values, have been evolved to
cover the majority of finishing processes normally used.

These standard lengths are 0.08, 0.25, 0.8, 2.5 and 25mm. Table below gives the
recommended sampling lengths for various finishing processes. However, when it
is not specified it is considered to be 0.8 mm for majority of the finishing
processes.

Table - Recommended Sampling Lengths

Types Process Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable
of Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
surface Length Length Length Length Length Length
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Milling - 0.8 2.5 8 10 -
Boring - 0.8 2.5 8 10 -
Turning - 0.8 2.5 – – –
Grinding 0.25 0.8 2.5 – – –
Planning – – 2.5 8 10 25
Reaming – 0.8 2.5
Broaching – 0.8 – – – –
Diamond boring 2.5 0.8 – – – –
Diamond 0.25 0.8 - - - -
Honing
turning 0.25 0.8 - - - -
Lapping 0.25 0.8 - - - -
Super-finishing 0.25 0.8 - - - -
Buffing - 0.8 2.5 - - -
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 Polishing - 0.8 2.5 - - -
Shaping - 0.8 2.5 - - -
Spark machining - 0.8 2.5 - - -
Burnishing - 0.8 2.5 - - -
Drawing - 0.8 2.5 - - -
Extrusion - 0.8 2.5 - - -
Moulding - 0.8 2.5 - - -
Electron- - 0.8 2.5 - - -
polishing

Mean Line of Profile: It is the line dividing the effective profile such that within the
sampling length the sum of the squares of vertical ordinates (y1,y2,…) between the
effective profile points and the mean line is minimum.

Fig.9

Centre Line of Profile: It is the line dividing the effective profile such that the areas
embraced by the profile above and below the line are equal. For repetitive wave
form (profile) the centre line and mean line are equivalent. Though true repetitive
profile is impossible in any manufacturing process, mean line and centre line are
assumed to be equivalent for practical purposes.

15.3 Method of measuring

Measurement of surface finish/surface texture: The method used for measuring
the surface finish can be classified broadly into two groups.

(A) Inspection by comparisons.

(B) Direct instrument measurement.

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A) Inspection by comparisons

In these methods, the surface texture is assessed by observation of the surface.

These are the methods of qualitative analysis of the surface texture. The texture of
the surface to be tested is compared with that of a specimen of known roughness
value and finished by similar machining processes.

Though these methods are rapid, the results are not reliable because they can be
misleading if comparisons is not made with the surface produced by similar
techniques. The various methods available for comparison are:

(1) Visual inspection

(2) Touch inspection
(3) Scratch inspection
(4) Microscopic inspection
(5) Surface photographs
(6) Micro-interferometer
(7) Wallace surface dynamometer
(8) Reflected light intensity

Touch inspection: This method can simply assess which surface is more rough; it
cannot give the degree of surface roughness. Secondly, the minute flaws can’t be
detected. In this method, the finger tip is moved along the surface at a speed of
about 25 mm per second and the irregularities as small as 0.0125 mm can be
detected. In modified method a tennis ball is rubbed over the surface and surface
roughness is judged.

Visual inspection: In this method the surface is inspected by naked eyes. This
method is always likely to be misleading particularly when surface with high
degree of finish are inspected. It is therefore limited to rougher surfaces.

Scratchy Inspection: In this method a softer material like lead, Babbitt or plastic is
rubbed over the surface to be inspected. The impression of the scratches on the
surface produced is then visualized.

Microscopic inspection: This is probably the best method for examining the
surface texture by comparisons. But since, only a small surface can be inspected at
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the time several readings are required to be an average value. In this method, a
master finished surface is placed under the microscope and compared with the
surface under inspection. Alternatively, a straight edge placed on the surface to be
inspected and a beam of light projected at about 60° to the work. Thus, the
shadow is cast into the surface, the scratches are magnified, and the surface
irregularities can be studied.

Surface photographs: In this method magnified photographs of the surface are

taken with different types of illumination to reveal the irregularities.

If the vertical illumination is used, then defects like irregularities and scratches
appear as dark spots and flat portion of the surface appears as bright area. In case
of oblique illumination, reverse is the case. Photographs with different illumination
are compared and the result is assessed.

Micro interferometer: In this method, an optical flat is placed on the surface to be

inspected and illuminated by a monochromatic source of light. Interference bands
are studied through a microscope. The scratches in the surface appears as
interference as lines extending from the dark bands into the bright bands. The
depth of the defect is measured in terms of the fraction of the interference bands.

Wallace Surface Dynamometer: It is a sort of friction meter. It consists of a

pendulum in which the testing shoes are damped to a bearing surface and a
predetermined spring and allowed to swing over the surface to be tested. If the
surface is smooth, then there will be less friction and the pendulum swings for a
longer period. Thus, the time of swing of swing is a direct measure of surface
texture.

Reflected Light Intensity: In this method a beam of light of known quantity is

projected upon the surface. This light is reflected in several directions as beams of
lesser intensity and the change in light intensity in different directions is measured
by a photocell. The measured intensity changes are already calibrated by means of
reading taken from surface of known roughness by some other suitable method.

Surface Roughness Comparison Specimen: The roughness comparison specimens

are either flat or segmented cylindrical piece having known roughness value. They
are used for quantitative assessment of surface roughness of a finished product by
comparison. These specimens are made up of hard, wear resistant materials such

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as steel having hardness of 400 HB, nickel alloy or metalized plastics. They are
rigidly supported on a base to prevent warping or distortion during use.

The assessment of surfaces roughness of a finished product is done by comparison

with the specimen of known roughness value and finished by machining process
like that of the product under test. The comparison may be made visual inspection
or touch inspection.

In visual inspection, the product, the product and the specimen are seen
simultaneously, and the roughness of the product is compared with that of the
specimen by naked eye. In touch inspection, the feel of the surface is experienced
by naked hand. In touch inspection, the feel of the roughness of the product to be
tested afterwards moving across the surface of the specimen of known roughness
value. Then two feels are compared to asses the surface roughness of the product.

These specimens have also proved to very good devices for training the personnel
to judge the RA value by feel and appearance of the surface. It should be noted
that the surface being compared should be clean and dry. However, the results
obtained by comparisons vary from person to person. Errors may also be caused
due to difference in the material, shape, method of machine, method of finish, etc.
of the product and the specimen.

B) Direct Instrument Measurement

These are the methods of quantitative analysis. These methods enable to

determine the numerical value of the surface finish of any surface by using
instruments of stylus probe type operating on electrical principles. In these
instruments the output has to be amplified, and the amplified output is used to
operate recording or indicating instrument.

Principle, construction and operation stylus probe type surface texture measuring
instruments:

It a finely pointed probe or stylus be moved over the surface of a workpiece, the
vertical movement of the stylus caused due to the irregularities in the surface
texture can be used to assess the surface finish of the workpiece.Fig.10

Stylus which is a fine point made of diamond or any such hard material is drawn
over the surface to be tested. The movements of the stylus are used to modulate a
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high frequency carrier current or to generate a voltage signal. The output is then
amplified by suitable means and used to operate a recording or indicating
instrument.

Fig.10

Stylus type instrument generally consist of the following units:

(1) Skid or shoe
(2) Finely pointed stylus or probe
(3) An amplifying device for magnifying the stylus movement and indicator
(4) Recording device to produce a trace and
(5) Means for analysing the trace

Skid or shoe is drawn slowly over the surface either by hand or by motor drive. It
follows the general contours of the surface and provides a datum for
measurements. The stylus moves over the surface with the skid. It moves vertically
up and down due to surface roughness and records the micro-geometrical form of
the surface. The stylus movements are magnified by an amplifying device and
recorded to produce a trace. The trace is then analysed by some automatic device
incorporated in the instrument.

Advantages:
The main advantage of such instruments is that the electrical signal available can
be processed to obtain any desired roughness parameter or can be recorded for
display or subsequent analysis. Therefore, the stylus type instruments are widely
used for surface texture measurements despite the following disadvantages.

Disadvantages:
(i) These instruments are bulky and complex
(ii) They are relatively fragile
(iii) Initial cost is high
(iv) Measurements are limited to section of a surface.
(v) Needs skilled operators for measurements
(vi) Distance between stylus and skid and the shape of the skid introduced
errors in measurement for wavy surface.
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 The stylus probe instruments currently in use for surface finish measurement
are:
(i) Profilometer
(ii) The Tomlinson surface meter
(iii) The Taylor Hobson Talysurf
(iv) The sigma micro test
(v) The Rubert Mercin roughness indicator

15.4 Stylus probe instrument

This instrument consists of the following feature (Fig.11)

1. Measuring stylus
2. Skids
3. Indicator scale
4. Adjustment screw

Fig.11

The stylus is made of diamond, and its contact will have a light radius.

When the stylus is slowly traversed across the test surface the stylus moves
upward and downwards depending on the profile of the surface, (Fig.12). This
movement is amplified and transferred to the dial of the surface indicator. The
pointer movement indicates the surface irregularities.

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 Fig.12

When using mechanical surface indicator, measurements must be read as it is

moved over the surface and then a profile curve is drawn manually to complete
the mean value.

15.5 Profilometer

A Profilometer (Fig.13) is an indicating and recording instrument used to measure

roughness in microns. The principle of the instrument is like gramophone pick up.
It consists of two principle units: a tracer and an amplifier. Tracer is a finely
pointed stylus. It is mounted in the pick-up unit which consists of induction coil
located in the field of a permanent magnet. When the tracer is moved across the
surface to be tested, it is displaced vertically up and down due to surface
irregularities. This causes the induction coil to move in the permanent magnet and
induces a voltage. The induced voltage is amplified and recorded.

Fig.13
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This instrument is best suited for measuring surface finish of deep bores.

15.6 The Tomlinson surface meter

The Tomlinson surface meter (Fig.14) is a comparatively cheap and reliable

instrument. It was originally designed by Dr. Tomlinson.

Fig.14

It consists of a diamond probe (stylus) held by spring pressure against the surface
of a lapped steel cylinder and is attached to the body of the instrument by a leaf
spring. The lapped cylinder is supported on one side by the probe and on either
side by fixed rollers. A light spring steel arm is attached to the lapped cylinder. It
carries at its tip a diamond scriber which rests against a smoked glass. The motion
of the stylus in all the directions except the vertical one is prevented by the force
exerted by the two springs.

For measuring surface finish, the body of the instrument is moved across the
surface by screw rotated by a synchronous motor. The vertical movement of the
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probe caused by surface irregularities makes the horizontal lapped cylinder to roll.
This causes the movement of the arms attached to the lapped cylinder. A
magnified vertical movement of the diamond scriber on the smoked glass is
obtained by the movement of the arm. This vertical movement of the scriber
together with horizontal movement produce a trace on the smoked glass plate.
This trace is further magnified at X 50 or X 100 by an optical projector for
examination.

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15.7 The Taylor Hobson Talysurf
The Taylor Hobson Talysurf is a stylus and skid type of instrument working on
carrier modulating principle. Its response is more rapid and accurate as compared
to Tomlinson’s surface meter.
The measuring head of this consist of a sharply pointed diamond of stylus of about
0.002 mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means
of a motorized driving unit.

In this instrument the stylus is made to trace the profile of the surface
irregularities, and the oscillatory movement of the stylus is converted into charges
in electric currents by the arrangement as shown in Fig 15. The arm carrying the
stylus forms an armature which pivots about the centre piece of E-shaped
stamping. On two legs of (outer pole piece) the E-shaped stamping, there are coils
carrying an A.C. current. These two coils with other two resistances form an
oscillator. As the armature is pivoted about the central leg, any movement of the
stylus causes the air gap to vary and thus the amplitude of the original A.C. current
flowing into recoils is modulated. The output of the bridge thus consists of a
modulation only as shown in the Fig.15. This is further demodulated so that the
current now is directly proportional to the vertical displacement of the stylus only.

Fig.15
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The demodulated output is caused to operate a pen recorder to produce a
permanent record and the meter to give a numerical assessment directly.

15.8 The Sigma micro test

Sigma micro test is also a readily portable and rapid use. For measuring the surface
finish the measuring head of the instrument is drawn across the surface finish the
measuring head of the instrument is drawn the surface by hand at a speed of
approximately 25 mm per second. The stylus is connected to the piezo-electrical
crystal, the output from which it is amplified electronically. The circuit
incorporates a filter to cut of the effects of any waviness of the surface having a
pitch of more than 0.8 mm. The CLA (ra) value of the surface roughness is
indicated on a meter scale.

15.9 The Ruler ‘Mecrin’ roughness instrument

This is a recent development which provides Ra value. It’s also called as Mecrin
gauge.

Principle of the Mecrin gauge: Mecrin roughness instrument assesses the surface
through its frictional properties and the average slope of the irregularities. A thin
metallic blade when pushed against the surface at a certain angle either slide or
buckle depending on the two factors:
(i) The surface roughness
(ii) The angle of attack. i.e., the angle of the blade with the surface.

The essential behaviours of the blade in Fig.16 at angles below the critical angle of
the blade tip will simply slide along the surface, but if the angle is successfully
increased at certain angle the blade just begins to buckle. This angle is the critical
angle of attack. The smoother the surface the greater the critical angle thus this
angle is a function of the degree of the roughness encountered.

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 Fig.16 – Behaviour of blade in Mecrin gauge

Fig.17 shows the form of the instrument. The angle of attack is measured with a
gravity dial indicator which incorporates a pendulum and a gear mechanism. The
buckling blade is observed through the transparent cover. The dial is calibrated in
terms of the N grades and the corresponding Ra values.

Fig.17

This instrument can be used:

1. To provide µm Ra value for relatively smooth irregular surface.
2. As a comparator for two surfaces as a limit gauge for roughness.
3. To establish the direction of the lay of surface.
4. To determine the direction of the maximum roughness if the surface has a
definite lay.
5. To increase shot lengths down to 1mm which may be inaccessible to stylus
instrument

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6. As a comparator for a non-metallic surface, e.g., paper, plastic, wood, painted
surface, etc.
7. To establish a numerical scale of the frictional qualities of rough regular surface.

15.10 Talysurf (Electronic surface indicator)

This is an electronic instrument for measuring surface texture. This instrument can
be used for factory and laboratory use. (Fig.18)

Fig.18 Talysurf

The measuring head of this unit consists of a stylus (a) and a motor race (b) which
controls the movement of the instrument head across the surface. The movement
of the stylus is converted to electrical signals. These signals are amplified in the
surface analyser/ amplifier (c) which calculates the surface parameter and
presents the result on a digital display or in the form of diagram through a
recorder (d).

15.11 Analysis of Surface Traces

A numerical assessment may be assignment to a surface to indicate its degree of
smoothness (or roughness), in several ways. Different countries use different
techniques, for instance Great Britain, many commonwealth countries, and the
U.S.A (since 1955), use an average height; Sweden and many continental European
countries used to peak to valley height value, while other countries use a root
mean square value.

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Peak to valley height

The name peak to valley height would indicate a relatively simple method of
analysis, but if interpreted in its wider sense it means that the peak and valley
would almost certainly be exceptional, and the value obtained would not give a
representative assessment of the surface.

To overcome this lack of representation, the ten point height average (Rz) id used.
This is determined by drawing a line AA parallel to the general lay of the trace, as
shown in Fig.19. The height from AA to the five highest peaks and five lowest
valleys in the trace are determined. The average highest peak and the five lowest
valleys in the track are determined. The average peak to valley height, Rz is then
given by:

Rz = (h1 + h3 + h5 + h7 + h9) – (h2 + h4 + h6 + h8 + h10) / 5 x 103 / vertical magnification

µm

Fig.19. Measurements to calculate the ten-point height average (RZ)

Root Mean Square Value (R.M.S. Value).

This measure was in use previously and now-a-days superseded by Centre Line
Average measure, as latter has the properties of being easily measured. R.M.S.
value is defined as the square root of the mean of the squares of the ordinates of
the surface measured from a mean line. Referring to Fig.20 the selected length L is
divided into n equal parts. Ordinates are erected at the points 1, 2,3,4,......n,
whose heights are (say) h1,h2,h3, h4,.......... , hn.

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 Fig.20.Graphical representation of R.M.S. value

Then

Centre Line Average Method (C.L.A. Value).

This is defined as the average height from a mean line of all ordinates of the
surface regardless of the sign.

Thus referring to Fig.20, C.L.A. = (h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 + ...... hn) / n.

But of find C.L.A. value like this will be a laborious job. Also by this method, spacing
chosen may be such that important ordinates are likely to be missed. Things can
be much simplified by using a planimeter which can find out the area of any curve.
Referring to Fig.21, let us say that somehow or other the mean line is exactly
known.

Fig.21 C.L.A value

Then C.L.A.value = (A1 +A2 +A3+ ......) / L = A/L

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One has to take care of units carefully to find the C.L.A. value in micron.

How to Determine Mean Line.

For it first the mean line is estimated by eye-judgement. Then total area above and
below the assumed mean line are measured and a correction is applied to the
assumed mean line to get the correct mean line
Error [A (above) - A (below)] / L is applied to the assumed mean line to get the
correct mean line. Thus in Fig.22,X' Y' is assumed mean line.

Fig.22 Mean Line

Then correction = [(A1+A3+A5+A1) - (A2+A4+A6+A8)] / L and this correction added to

the assumed line algebraically gives the actual mean line. The C.L.A. value can be
found out
as described previously.
"Talysurf' has got built in arrangement for integrating the areas and the average
value is directly given.

C.L.A. value does not give any idea regarding the greatest extent and the nature of
the surface irregularities. It is likely to give identical values for surfaces of vastly
different characteristics. So this is the main disadvantage of C.L.A. value. But when
the characteristics of a surface have been found out to be satisfactory and such
conditions are produced which do not allow the surface to change radically in
manufacturing, then C.L.A. value provides a workable control.

Answer the following

1. What is primary texture?
2. Differentiate between primary texture and secondary texture?
3. What is the difference between length and surface texture measurement?
4. Write short note on Profilometer?

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NTTF_DIPLOMA IN TOOL ENGINEERING & DIGITAL MANUFACTURING_SEMESTER 3_METROLOGY PAGE 103
 5. What are the methods of measuring surface finish? Explain briefly with
example.
6. What is visual inspection?
7. Explain about method of measuring surface finish.
8. Why is surface finish important in engineering application?
9. Explain the working principle of a Tomlinson's surface meter?
10.Define a) Primary Texture b) Secondary Texture c) Errors of form d) Lay
11.Write short note on Talysurf.
12.What do you mean by central line of the profile?

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NTTF_DIPLOMA IN TOOL ENGINEERING & DIGITAL MANUFACTURING_SEMESTER 3_METROLOGY PAGE 104