Name: ____________________________________ Tutorial/Tutor: ___________________________

Email: ____________________________________

ENGGEN 115
Principles of Engineering Design
Coursebook
Semester 2, 2023

Dr Mark Jeunnette Dr Enrique del Rey Castillo

Director of Engineering Design Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering

Mr Nona Taute Dr Stephen Kavermann

Department of Civil and Environmental Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering
Contents

Course Outline v

A The Engineering Design Process 1

1 Designers Mind-set 3
1.1 Engineering Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Being a skilful Problem Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Introduction to the Design Process 9

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Context - The Challenges of Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 The co-creation between user and designer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 The General Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Key Elements of the Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Final Design Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Tools for concept development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.8 Tools for rating concept designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.9 Close out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3 Presentations 47

B Spatial Visualisation 59

4 Orthographic Drawings 61
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 Orthographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3 Creating Orthographic Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4 Representing Simple Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.5 Number of Views Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

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CONTENTS

5 Isometric Drawings 79
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2 Isometric Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3 Drawing Isometric Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

C Technical Drawings 87

6 Technical Drawings 89
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.2 Sheet sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.3 Line types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.4 Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.5 Units and scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.6 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.7 Title blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.8 Holes and threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

D Solid Modelling and Drawing with CAD 119

7 Solid modelling and drawing in CAD 121

E Design Analysis 123

8 Design analysis 125

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.2 Learning bbjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.4 Structural analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.5 Mechanical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.6 Options for your design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.7 Types of structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.8 Types of mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.9 Structural analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.10 Truss analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.11 Beam analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.12 Column analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.13 Surface analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.14 Frame analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.15 Mechanical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

ii ENGGEN 115
 CONTENTS

8.16 Gear system analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

8.17 Drive system analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.18 Pulley system analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.19 Friction analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.20 Energy sources to power your design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.21 Kinetic energy analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.22 Potential energy anaysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.23 Stored energy analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
8.24 Air pressure analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Appendices 147

A Orthographic Projection Exercises 149

B Isometric Projection Exercises 167

C Understanding Detailed Drawings - Exercises 187

ENGGEN 115 iii

 ENGGEN 115: Principles of Engineering Design
Course Outline, Semester One

Course Co-ordinator: Dr Enrique del Re Castillo (Room 906.414, ext. 88121)

Email: e.delrey@auckland.ac.nz

Lecturers:

Dr Mark Jeunnette Dr Enrique del Rey Castillo

(Room 401.708, ext. 82743) (Room 906.414, ext. 88121)
Email:mark.jeunnette@auckland.ac.nz Email: e.delrey@auckland.ac.nz

Mr Nona Taute Dr Stephen Kavermann

(Room 405.1131, ext. 83978) (Room 405.965)
Email: n.taute@auckland.ac.nz Email: stephen.kavermann@auckland.ac.nz

Tutors:
Name Email Name Email
Andrew Battley abat911@aucklanduni.ac.nz Joyce Yang jyan208@aucklanduni.ac.nz
Zoe Millar zmil374@aucklanduni.ac.nz Aung Soe asoe121@aucklanduni.ac.nz

Narendra Nath nnat698@aucklanduni.ac.nz Minduli Wijayatunga mwij516@aucklanduni.ac.nz

James Jia jjia802@aucklanduni.ac.nz Imran Ali imr651@aucklanduni.ac.nz

ENGGEN 115 v
Class Schedule:

Following student feedback from previous years, and to alleviate the workload in
the second half of the semester, there are more lecture hours in the first half of the
semester. There are three 1h-lectures in weeks 1-4, two 1h-lectures in weeks 5-8, and one
1h-lecture in weeks 9-12. There is also one compulsory 2h-tutorial each week, and a
number of clinics and drop-in sessions for students to attend as they need.

Lectures:

Weeks 1-4:

Monday, 11:00 am - 12:00 pm, LibB28/109-B28

Tuesday, 11:00 am - 12:00 pm, FPAA/260-115

Friday, 11:00 am - 12:00 pm, LibB28/109-B28

Weeks 5-8:

Monday, 11:00 am - 12:00 pm, LibB28/109-B28

Tuesday, 11:00 am - 12:00 pm, FPAA/260-115

Weeks 9-12:

Friday, 11:00 am - 12:00 pm, FPAA/260-115

Tutorials:

vi ENGGEN 115
Clinics:

Held on weeks 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Attend these if you would like support, especially with
spatial visualisation, technical drawings, and CAD.

Day Time Room

Monday 4:00 pm to 5:00 pm 401.311-312
Tuesday 10:00 am to 11:00 am 405.328
Friday 2:00 pm to 3:00 pm 405.325

Course Prescription:

An introduction to the principles of design as a fundamental part of engineering

practice and a foundation for subsequent design courses. Students are also introduced to
essential drawing skills and computer aided design (CAD), and will complete group-
based design projects. Topics include design, communication, teamwork, leadership, and
health and safety. In addition, there will be introductory material on professional issues
such as ethics, sustainability, and cultural diversity.

Learning Objectives:

• To develop skills in sketching, drawing and graphic representation;

• To develop an understanding of the engineering design process;
• To adopt good professional engineering work practices and principles; and
• To develop effective communication skills

Topics/Project Areas:

• Conceptual Design: Understand how to approach an engineering design problem

from understanding stakeholders to developing conceptual design solutions.
• Drawing: Understand and apply fundamental drawing systems. Interpret and
sketch isometric drawings. Interpret orthographic drawings and views. Understand
line styles and dimensioning and analyse technical drawings.
• 3-D Solid Modelling, CAD, Design Evaluation: Understand and apply the
modelling, assembly, and rendering capability of advanced 3-D computer aided
design software. Understand and generate orthographic and isometric drawings
from a 3-D solid model.
• Design, Build and Test: Understand and define the restraints of a design problem.
Create alternative design concepts and evaluate which is best. Apply simple
structural analysis to model the problem and select member sizes. Analyse safety
risks and mitigation, evaluate and prioritise the key design feature. Construct a
physical model and test it and evaluate the failure mechanisms.

ENGGEN 115 vii

Assessments:

5 Online quizzes (1% each) 5%

Test 10%
Coursework CAD Project 10% 55%
Design Project 1 10%
Design Project 2 20%

Exam 45%

Total 100%

• To pass the course, you must get at least 50% in the exam. If your exam mark is less
than 50%, your grade will be capped at D+.
• Mark queries for all coursework must be lodged within two weeks after the grades
are released on Canvas or BEFORE the final examination day, whichever is earlier.
• Coursework may be scaled to ensure uniform marking in all tutorial streams.

Late Submission:

No late submission is allowed for the quizzes. The late submission policy for the
CAD Assignment and the Design Projects is a 2% penalty per hour, with a lower limit of
50%. No submission is allowed 48 hours after the deadline. All requests for exemptions,
late submission or other considerations must be submitted formally according to the
Faculty of Engineering policy. Students must complete the form “Application for
Exemption from on-course assessment” and append a letter and/or medical certificate,
whichever is applicable, as soon as the student encounter the problem, and not at the end
of the semester.

viii ENGGEN 115

Academic Integrity:

The University of Auckland will not tolerate cheating, or assisting others to cheat,
and views cheating in coursework as a serious academic offence. The work that a student
submits for grading must be the student's own work, reflecting his or her learning. Where
work from other sources is used, it must be properly acknowledged and referenced. This
requirement also applies to sources from the world-wide web. A student's assessed work
may be reviewed against electronic source material using computerised detection
mechanisms. Upon reasonable request, students may be required to provide an electronic
version of their work for computerised review.

You are encouraged to discuss projects and learn from each other, but where
individual work is required; your submission must be your own work. In the team project,
each person is expected to make an equal contribution. Copying is treated very seriously,
and will at the least result in your project mark being withdrawn. The Engineering
Undergraduate Handbook provides guidance on plagiarism policy.

Inclusive Learning:

Students are urged to discuss privately any impairment-related requirements face-

to-face and/or in written form with the course coordinator/lecturer and/or tutor.

Stationery Needs:

For the drawings, you will need:

• Two pencils: thick (2B) and thin (HB). Mechanical pencils can be used instead.
For drawing thick lines we recommend the 0.7mm pencil with 2B leads. For thin
lines, use 0.5mm pencil with HB leads.
• Ruler; preferably 30cm long. Avoid using flexible rulers.
• Eraser and (optional) erasing shield. The erasing shield can help you erase lines
precisely without affecting other parts of your drawing.

For the design projects, you will need:

• At least one 1J5 quad book

Minimum PC or Mac requirements:

https://tinyurl.com/ENGGEN115PCRequirements2021

ENGGEN 115 ix
Electronic Learning Resources:

Files required for the lectures, tutorials, lecture recordings, coursework and pdf
files of the coursebook will all be available on Canvas (https://canvas.auckland.ac.nz).

Hardcopy Learning Resources:

There are no prescribed text books for this course, however, we recommend the
following texts for reference and background reading:

For drawings:

[1] A. W. Boundy, Engineering Drawing. McGraw-Hill, 8th ed., 2012.

[2] C. H. Jensen, J. D. Helsel, and D. R. Short, Engineering drawing & design.

Boston: McGraw-Hill, 7th ed., 2008.

[3] C.H. Simmons, N. Phelps, D.F. Maguire, Manual of Engineering Drawing: Technical
Product Specification and Documentation to British and International Standards, Elsevier,
4th ed., 2012. (Digital copy available through the library).

[4] British Standards Institute, BS 8888:2017 Technical product documentation and specification.
(Digital copy available through the library).

For engineering design,

[1] P. R. N. Childs, Mechanical design. Oxford; Burlington, MA: Elsevier, 2nd ed.,
2004.

[2] C. L. Dym and P. Little, Engineering design: a project-based introduction.

Hoboken, N.J.: Chichester: Wiley; John Wiley [distributor], 3rd ed., 2009.

[3] G. E. Dieter and L. C. Schmidt, Engineering design. New York: McGraw-Hill, 5th
ed., 2013.

Any additional recommended texts for each topic will be mentioned in the lecture
but students may use or refer to other textbooks. A coursebook can be purchased from the
University Bookshop Ltd. (UBiq).

Part I Assistance Centre:

The Faculty employs current, high-achieving Part II and III students to provide free
academic assistance and tutoring to Part I students on a drop-in basis, covering all Part I
courses during Semester One and Two.

The Part I Assistance Mentors receive formal training from the Faculty and
maintain close contact throughout the Semester with the Course Coordinators for all Part I
courses.

x ENGGEN 115
 The Part I Assistance Mentors are located in the Leech Study Area from 2:00-
5:00PM, Monday–Friday, every teaching week during Semesters One and Two starting
from week 2.

Copyrighted materials:

Copyrighted materials without permission to use are omitted in the coursebook,

but they may be shown during the lectures for educational purposes only.

Copyright Notice:
This material is protected by copyright and has been copied by and
solely for the educational purposes of the University under licence.
You may not sell, alter or further reproduce or distribute any part
of this coursepack/material to any other person. Where provided to
you in electronic format, you may only print from it for your own
private study and research. Failure to comply with the terms of this
warning may expose you to legal action for copyright infringement
and/or disciplinary action by the University.

Major contributors: T. Faaui, H. Namik, S. Kavermann, N. Taute, E.

Hakansson, C. Toma

ENGGEN 115 xi
 Rights
Freedom of expression
Academic freedom

Responsibilities
Compliance with the law
and University
requirements

xii ENGGEN 115

 Part A

The Engineering Design Process

ENGGEN 115 1
M. Jeunnette, 2022

This margin has some

additional information,

Chapter 1 key tips, thoughts, and

most importantly –
space! For you to write
your comments
Designers Mind-set

1.1 Engineering Design Principles

Engineering design is a complex business. It is often misunderstood and
undervalued. Failures, brought about by poor design, hit the headlines.
Conversely, the benefits of good design are often taken for granted.
Engineering design is hard work. It can be frustrating as well as
fascinating. Without a doubt, good design can be intellectually
stimulating and immensely rewarding in a way which few other
activities can match.

1.2 Being a skilful Problem Solver

As noted in the early lectures, design problems are difficult because the
problems are generally ill-defined and open-ended. We will be talking
about the Design Process, but it’s not enough to understand concepts
and principles. The key outcome from this course is to develop skilful
problem solvers who can face a diverse range of problems and apply
strategic reasoning, creativity and perseverance.

Design thinking and problem solving can be thought of as a mindset

that focuses on how to look at challenges around us (Kadam, 2019).

“A mindset that can help us adapt to the process of being more mindful,
and open to the right direction towards innovation. But while we do that,
we must also know that it is no magic bullet. Methodologies and You are all
processes are important, but these are mere tools. What one needs to do technical students
is to get the right mindset to make that difference, and to really find the excelling in maths and
right direction towards the right solution.” (Kadam, 2019). science – but where do
your creative skills lie?
To help get into the right mindset, let’s look at the six Habits of Mind
which are excellent guiding principles for good Engineers.

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 1.2 Being a skilful Problem Solver M. Jeunnette, 2022

1.2.1 Habits of Mind

Habits of mind are traits or ways of thinking that affect how a person
looks at the world or reacts to a challenge. (adopted from (NAE, 2018)).

Creativity

Finding new ways to apply knowledge and experience is essential in

engineering design and is a key ingredient of innovation.

With machine learning and artificial intelligence well on its way, it will
be creativity that sets people apart from the computer algorithms.

“Imagination is more important than knowledge.

For knowledge is limited to all we now know and
understand, while imagination embraces the
entire world, and all there ever will be to know
and understand.”

-Albert Einstein

Helen Keller was Optimism

a woman of luminous
Engineers, as a general rule, believe that things can always be achieved.
intelligence, high
ambition and great Just because it hasn’t been done yet, doesn’t mean it can’t be done. Good
accomplishment who ideas don’t often come from inventing something from scratch, quite
devoted her life to often engineers will take something and develop it further.
helping others. She was
the first deaf-blind
person to earn a “No pessimist ever discovered the secret of the
Bachelor of Arts. In stars or sailed an uncharted land, or opened a new
1964 Helen was doorway for the human spirit.”
awarded the
Presidential Medal of -Helen Keller
Freedom.

4 ENGGEN 115
M. Jeunnette, 2022 1.2 Being a skilful Problem Solver

Persistence

Engineering – particularly engineering design – is an iterative process. It

is not a linear process, you will not follow the steps 1 through 5 and be
done. It is trying and learning and trying again, so will be more like
steps 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 3, 4, 5 until you have achieved the
objectives and wowed your client!

Henry Petroski is
“...every new failure – no matter how seemingly
an American professor
benign – presents a further means toward a fuller
of Civil Engineering
understanding of how to achieve a fuller success.”
specialising in failure
analysis.
-Henry Petroski
in To Forgive design: Understanding failure

Systems Thinking

Our world is a system made up of many other systems. Things are Ban Ki-moon was
connected in remarkably complex ways. To solve problems, or to truly the former Secretary –
improve conditions, engineers need to be able to recognize and consider General of the United
how all those different systems are connected. Nations. One of his first
major initiatives was
the 2007 Climate
Change Summit.
“Saving our planet, lifting people out of poverty,
advancing economic growth... these are one and
the same fight... Solutions to one problem must be
solutions for all.”

- Ban Ki-Moon

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 1.2 Being a skilful Problem Solver M. Jeunnette, 2022

Conscientiousness

Engineering has a significant ethical dimension. The technologies and

methods that engineers develop can have a profound effect on people’s
lives. That kind of power demands a high level of responsibility to
consider others and to consider the moral issues that may arise from the
Anita Borg was a
work.
computer scientist who
combined her technical
expertise and vision to
“If we want technology to serve society
help women embrace
rather than enslave it, we have to build
technology. She
systems accessible to all people - be they
founded Systers, an
male or female, young, old, disabled,
online community for
computer wizards or technophobes.”
women technologists.

- Anita Borg
Photo source ( (NYU, 2018)

Collaboration
Whilst not the Engineering successes are built through collaboration and
best student, dropping
communication. Problem solving and idea creation hugely benefit from
out of high school, Bell
diversity in thought, which often comes from having a team with a wide
had a skill for problem
range of skills and experience. Teamwork is essential. The best
solving. Despite his
huge list of engineers are willing to listen and work with others.
accomplishments as an
inventor, he saw
himself first and “Great discoveries and improvements invariably
foremost as a teacher of involve the cooperation of many minds. I may be
the deaf, which shaped given credit for having blazed the trail, but when I
the majority of his look at the subsequent developments I feel the
work. credit is due to others rather than to myself.”

- Alexander Graham Bell

6 ENGGEN 115
M. Jeunnette, 2022 1.2 Being a skilful Problem Solver

ENGGEN 115 7
M. Jeunnette, 2022

Chapter 2

The Design Process

2.1 Introduction
Design methodology is not an exact science and there are no guaranteed
methods that result in a good or optimum design (Childs, 2004).
However, there are certain steps that every design project has to go
through to ensure thoroughness. This is known as the design process.

2.1.1 Learning outcomes

In this chapter we will define the design process and discuss what is
involved in each stage of the process. Specifically, the learning outcomes
are:

 Learn how to approach a design problem

 Learn how to apply the design process

 Use tools to develop a range of design solutions

 Use appropriate tools to help select the final design

 Work effectively in a group

2.1.1.1 What is Engineering Design

Engineering design has many definitions, one such being “a systematic,
intelligent process in which designers create, evaluate and specify
designs for devices, systems or processes whose form(s) and function(s)
achieve clients’ objectives and users’ needs while satisfying a specified
set of constrains.” (Dym & Little, 2009)

Engineering Design can be described and mapped out in many ways,

but all descriptions include some common attributes.

Engineering design is a process. Important information about both the

problem and possible solutions is discovered at each step within the
process. The design process is flexible and adaptable to be applied to all
types of problems, across all disciplines of engineering.

ENGGEN 115 9
 2.2 Context - The Challenges of Engineering Design M. Jeunnette, 2022

Engineering design is purposeful. The process always begins with an

explicit objective.

Engineering design is “design under constraint.” Designers must

identify and communicate the constraints that guide the design process.
The best solution(s) will be those that have the most desired features
See Chapter 1 for and the fewest negative characteristics.
the definition of
objective and Engineering design is systematic and iterative. The evolution of the
constraint. design should follow a process that includes steps that can be repeated.

Engineering design is a social, collaborative enterprise. Design is often

done in a group, involving people with different skills and knowledge.
The process will also include collaboration with different stakeholders;
clients, end users, operators, suppliers etc.

“Scientists discover the world that exists; engineers create the

world that never was.”
- Theodore von Karman, co-founder of NASA’s Jet Propulsion
Laboratory

2.2 Context - The Challenges of Engineering Design

Our society relies on Engineering for almost everything: food, water,
clothing, housing, transport, medical care, communications,
entertainment, etc. Without engineering, our modern society and all the
things we depend on and enjoy in our daily lives at work and at play
could not exist.

We have come to depend on a whole mix of products and services.

These are only made possible through engineering in all its various
disciplines: software, materials, structures, computers, machines,
aerodynamics, thermodynamics, chemical, energy, electrical, electronic,
manufacturing, information, logistics etc. The list is endless and it
continues to grow as does the technology involved.

One of the key disciplines which bring all these things together is
design – the means of satisfying a community, a market with
engineering goods and services that satisfy stakeholders – the

10 ENGGEN 115
M. Jeunnette, 2022 2.2 Context - The Challenges of Engineering Design

customers, the investors, the supply chain, the employees, and the
community at large.

“The ability to design is both a science and an art”

(Dieter & Schmidt, 2013)

It’s the business of using good, innovative ideas to create successful

products, projects or services at the right price at the right time. Good
Can you think of
design then sits at the heart of successful engineering. Good design
something in your daily
means product or project success, and happy outcomes for all the life that strikes you as
stakeholders. Bad design inevitably leads to failures, poor technical bad design?
performance, unreliability, high costs, high risks, hazardous and unsafe
operations and environmental catastrophes - failure to deliver and meet
expectation.

Design is the CORE activity of all Engineers

You will spend most of your time here acquiring knowledge, BUT this
knowledge will be of no use to you unless you can learn how to apply it.

Engineers get paid for what they can do… not what they know.

What makes the difference between good design and poor design?

Good design relies on experience, leadership, and good people working

as a team using the design principles outlined in this section as a core
process. These principles have been developed over many years by
practitioners in all sorts of disciplines and market sectors. They apply
universally to all disciplines, all products, all projects, and all services.

If any one of the principles or any part of the design process is missed
out, ignored or, if a team decides to take a shortcut, then the risk of a
design failure increases exponentially. This applies just as much to
small projects and simple components as it does to large complex ones.
The bigger and more complex the project, the more the principles need
to be applied in a logical and systematic process. Otherwise, the many
people involved in the design become uncoordinated; the work becomes
fragmented and critical errors creep in, sometimes with catastrophic
results.

There are discipline-based variations and interpretations of design

process, but the principles remain the same throughout engineering.
Learn these principles now and they will hold you in good stead for

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your entire career regardless of which discipline you ultimately choose

and regardless of which company you intend to work for.

2.3 The co-creation between user and designer

With a traditional engineering approach, a design team’s interaction
with the end-user can be limited to the early research when defining the
problem, and the final stage when seeking feedback, while the work in
between is done completely by the engineers alone. Participatory
Design is about bringing people into, and through the design process.
Participatory design pursues user-empowerment through their
interaction with the whole design process not just the outcome.

Engineering is the creative application of science for the

benefit of humankind

Three main approaches to participatory design:

Design For – more traditional engineering approach, designers consult

with stakeholders at the beginning to define the problem and objectives,
and then again once been through the design process and want some
feedback/review.

Example -

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Design With – also termed co-design, users and stakeholders actively

part of the design team, emphasis on knowledge sharing – technical
experts but not necessarily the expert on the community, culture,
environment, user needs. Draws on all the strengths and skills in the
stakeholder team. Develop a solution that is fit-for purpose.

Example –

Design By – user generated design. The Engineers role is that of a

facilitator. How can you use your engineering skills to support the end
user to develop their own solutions?

Example –

There is no one right way to do design, each approach is applicable in

different situations. You need to review the circumstances and
community and decide which is the best approach to take.

The benefits of an interactive design process are that it accommodates The specific
changing requirements; does not leave integration of the outcomes to context which you
the end of production; identifies risk in the early stages and reduces are designing both in,
errors and misunderstandings among the team members (Wakkary, and for, is an
2003). important
consideration to be
kept in mind

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 2.4 The General Design Process M. Jeunnette, 2022

2.4 The General Design Process

Good design follows a process. There is a natural start and finish, and a
natural flow from an idea through to the delivery of goods or services.
However, good design seldom arises from a single creative idea. This
may trigger something new, but then a whole series of creative ideas are
required to bring the new idea to fruition. This means a lot of hard
work, a lot of checks, a lot of reiteration, to make sure that the design, as
it emerges, continues to meet the expectations of its stakeholders and
whether it continues to be fit for purpose.

Just like a design problem, there is no unique design process or steps to

follow. Figure 2-1 illustrates seven stages within a design process that
almost all design projects go through; what happens within each stage is
described in more detail below and summarised in Table 2-1.

The design
process does not
follow one strict
format or form, it can
be different for every
new project

Figure 2-1 A Design Process

Two more design process charts are shown in Figure 2-2 and Figure 2-3
for the design of medical devices and for software development,
respectively. If we look at all three design processes, we can see the
similarities, starting with user needs, has a clear process, constant
iteration between steps, review and communication at all stages. The
validation step in the development of medical devices is crucial to that
specific discipline as the designers require clinical evidence that your
hypothesis of your design does in fact justify the use of your device.

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M. Jeunnette, 2022 2.4 The General Design Process

It is very
important to be clear
and unambiguous
when writing a
Problem Specification

Figure 2-2 Medical Device Development Process (Bureau, 2012)

Figure 2-3 The iterative waterfall model for media design (modified
based on (Preece, Rogers, & Sharp, 2002; Royce, 1987; Somerville,
2006)

Note that the design process is not a linear process, rather it is an

iterative process. Checks at each stage need to be made to ensure the
proposed solution (or solutions) still meets the design brief. In some
cases, the design team may have to go back several steps and repeat the
process.

Figure 2-4 illustrates when, along the design timeline, the costs of the
design project are committed and incurred. Note that while not much
cost is incurred during the design stage, most of the costs are committed
at that stage. These commitments come from decisions made about the
What is a live
design (e.g material usage). So, making changes later in the design
document?
project will incur additional costs. Therefore, we need a systematic
process to follow in order to minimise these late design changes and

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2.5 Key Elements of the Design Process M. Jeunnette, 2022

ensure that the decisions made during the design phase are sound
decisions.

Figure 2-4 Costs committed during the design process (Dieter &
Schmidt, 2013)

2.5 Key Elements of the Design Process

2.5.1 Problem Statement

The problem statement is a concise description of the problem as
communicated by the client. A simple and well-stated problem
statement will enable the project team to focus their energy in the right
direction.

2.5.2 Understand
Looking at the Design Process in Figure 2-1, we can see that the first step
in the process is taking the Problem Statement as communicated by the
client and working to Understand it fully. This is your chance to explore
the context of the problem, identify all the stakeholders, and understand
all the constraints involved, whether they are technical, financial,
cultural, or social. Once you understand the problem and its context,
then you can Define it concisely in a Problem Specification (see 2.5.3).

2.5.2.1 Stakeholders
Any design project has people involved who are the customers or users
of the thing being designed, but there are often other people involved
who can and should influence the outcome of the project. Each of the
stakeholders has needs, hopes, aspirations and concerns. There can be

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many stakeholders: customers, clients, investors, suppliers, operators,

maintainers, employees, industrial partners, subcontractors, How do
environmentalists, regulators, and society at large. It is important to stakeholders affect
understand who the stakeholders are and how they will influence the the design process?
project, and the next section describes tools to help you do so.

2.5.2.2 Stakeholder analysis

Often stakeholders will hold different views about the product or the
project. The outcome may impact them personally or the communities
of interest which they represent. Sometimes their views will conflict
and, in many instances, it will be our job as the professionals in charge
to fully understand all the stakeholders (the stakeholder analysis) and to
reconcile their views so that we can write down what is required for the
specification. One way to represent a stakeholder’s role in the project is
to place them on a Stakeholder Analysis Chart, as shown in Figure 2-5.

A stakeholder
analysis chart is a
useful tool to map
out the different
stakeholders present

Figure 2-5 Stakeholder Analysis Chart

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Class Discussion
For the Case Study, Identify and place the stakeholders on the

Stakeholder analysis chart below:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
How do you
decide the level of
power/control, and
level of interest for a
particular
stakeholder?

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2.5.2.3 Needs Assessment

Another useful tool for understanding stakeholders is a Needs
Assessment. The assessment is essentially a question-led brainstorm to The needs
help you think about all the different ways a stakeholder might assessment goes
influence a project. A needs assessment may be done in person with a hand-in-hand with
stakeholder through interviews or observations, or it may be the stakeholder
implemented through surveys or as a thought experiment by the design
analysis
team.

Common questions to begin:

Who needs it?

How does the need manifest itself?

What environmental conditions will it need to function in?

What resources, if any, are needed?

What is needed and for how long?

Where is it needed?

Why can’t the need be satisfied by an existing system?

What are the constraints and limits that need to be observed? What other
questions would be
useful to ask during a
needs assessment?
Class Exercise

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 2.5 Key Elements of the Design Process M. Jeunnette, 2022

2.5.3 Define
Once the problem and constraints have been explored via the
stakeholders, the design team must distill their understanding down
into a Problem Specification which Defines the problem.
For further
The Problem Specification document captures what the key
information on the
stakeholders want or need and drives or shapes the outcome of the
product design
design project. The Problem Specification will normally contain
specification process
outcomes and functional requirements (the job it is supposed to do) as
see Rodgers, P., &
well as other key factors such as cost drivers, safety, reliability,
Milton, A.
maintenance, environmental / sustainability, performance, etc.
(2011). Product
design. Laurence Formats can vary, but Problem Specifications are generally written in
King Publishing good, clear English and are unambiguous. They should not be open to
interpretation later as this causes confusion and disagreements about
what has been designed and what was intended. Generally, a range of
numerical metrics will be provided for key parameters.

Figure 2-6 below highlights how important it is to be clear and

unambiguous in the Problem Specification such that the problem,
constraints and objectives are clearly understood by all.

Figure 2-6 Design depends on the interpretation of the problem

by those that define it ( (Dieter & Schmidt, 2013),pp.11)

The Problem Specification does not describe solutions or potential

solutions to the problem. It is a tool to describe the constraints of any
eventual solution, and to define the design space into which any
solution must fit. Once prepared, the Problem Specification is signed off

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with the clients and used as a reference point through the rest of the
design process. It may be updated if new information comes to light, but
should include the metrics by which project success is measured.

Once a specification is complete and signed off with the clients, the
designer moves on to the Ideate phase and the generation of concepts.
An example specification is given below in section 2.5.3

2.5.3.1 Template and Example Problem Specification

Template for Problem Specification (Adapted from Dieter and Linda 2013)

Note that not all of these points are needed/relevant to your projects.

Problem Specification

Product Identification

• Product name (# of models or different versions, related in-house

product families)

• Basic functions of the product

• Special features of the product

• Key performance targets (power output, efficiency, accuracy)

• Service environment (use conditions, storage, transportation, use and

predictable misuse)

• User training required

Key Project Deadlines

• Time to complete project

• Fixed project deadlines (e.g., review dates)

Physical Description

What is known (or has already been decided) about the physical requirements
for the new product?

• Design variable values that are known or fixed prior to the conceptual
design process (e.g., external dimensions)

• Constraints that determine known boundaries on some design

variables (e.g., upper limit on acceptable weight)

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Financial Requirements

What are the assumptions of the firm about the economics of the
product and its development? What are the corporate criteria on
profitability?

• Pricing policy over life cycle (target manufacturing cost, price,

estimated retail price, discounts)

• Warranty policy

• Expected financial performance or rate of return on investment

• Level of capital investment required

Life Cycle Targets

What targets should be set for the performance of the product over time? (This
will relate to the product's competition.)

What are the most up-to-date recycling policies of the corporation and how can
this product's design reflect those policies?

• Useful life and shelf life

• Cost of installation and operation (energy costs, crew size, etc.)

• Maintenance schedule and location (user-performed or service

centered)

• Reliability (mean time to failure): Identify critical parts and special

reliability targets for them

• End-of-life strategy (% and type of recyclable components,

remanufacture of the product, company take back, upgrade policy)

Market Identification

• Description of target market and its size

• Anticipated market demand (units per year)

• Competing products

• Branding strategy (trademark, logo, brand name)

What is the need for a new (or redesigned) product?

How much competition exists for the new product? What are the relationships
to existing products?

Social, Political, and Legal Requirements

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Are there government agencies, societies, or regulation boards that control the
markets in which this product is to be launched? Are there opportunities to
patent the product or some of its subsystems?

• Safety and environmental regulations. Applicable government

regulations for all intended markets.

• Standards. Pertinent product standards that may be applicable

(Underwriters Laboratories, OSHA).

• Safety and product liability. Predictable unintended uses for the

product, safety label guidelines, applicable company safety standards.

• Intellectual property. Patents related to product. Licensing strategy for

critical pieces of technology.

Manufacturing Specifications

Which parts or systems will be manufactured in-house?

• Manufacturing requirements. Processes and capacity necessary to

manufacture final product.

• Suppliers. Identify key suppliers and procurement strategy for

purchased parts.

Class Exercise

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 2.5 Key Elements of the Design Process M. Jeunnette, 2022

Problem Specification: Shot-Buddy

Product Identification Manufacturing Specifications

• Basketball return that automatically • All framing and support components

directs ball to the shooter enabling will be manufactured in house. Others
effective practice shooting will be commercially off the shelf.

• Fits all structure-mounted and free- • Suppliers: TBD

standing, standard-size hoops
Market Identification
• User installation
• The target market for this product will
Special Features be Middle School and High School age
users
• Shooter wears sensor that enables
return targeting • Initial Launch: Baltimore—DC metro
area
• Targeting works up to 3-point arc
• Initial production run 2500 units
Have all the Key Performance Targets
• Year 2-3: based on market acceptance
relevant issues been • Returns all made shots and missed expand to nationwide market in 4th year
identified and shots falling within 8-inches of the hoop
included? • Competing products:
• Returns basketball accurately and
quickly to the user at any location on - Current products can only return
the court a basketball to a very limited
range of the court
• Powered by rechargeable batteries - No products involve the sensor
technology
User Training Required: NONE
• Brand Name: Shot-Buddy
Service Environment
Financial Requirements
• Outdoor: –6 to 50°C
• Pricing policy over life cycle:
• Indoor: 10 to 30°C
- Target manufacturing cost: $250
• Up to 100% humidity - Estimated Retail Price: $500

Key Project Deadlines • Warranty Policy: 1 year complete

warranty
• Six month to finalize design
• Expected financial performance or rate
• Target advertising for holiday season of return on investment: TBD

Physical Description • Level of capital investment required:

TBD
• External Dimensions:
Life Cycle Targets
- Catch area approximately 1.8m by
1.2m. • Useful life 5 years and beyond

- Control housing approximately • Maintenance schedule: No maintenance

0.6m wide,0.6m long, and 0.25m tall required if sensors and control equipment

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M. Jeunnette, 2022 2.5 Key Elements of the Design Process

are stored properly • Reliability (mean

- Return device approximately 0.6m time to failure): 5 years
by 0.6m
• End of life strategy: Shot-Buddy will be
• Material: To be determined (TBD) recyclable with batteries requiring special
handling
• Weight Targets:
Social Political, and Legal Requirements
- Ball catching device <15 pounds
• Safety and environmental regulations
- Base component <15 pounds will be followed

• Standards: Research federal regulations

on sports equipment

• Safety and product liability: The only

safety aspect of the Shot-Buddy is the
installation process where a ladder might
be involved to hang the device from the
rim/backboard

• Intellectual property: Will investigate

patent potential

Notes

Problem Specification for__________________________________

Product Identification



Special Features


 .


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Key Performance Targets






User Training

Service Environment



Physical Constraints



Deadlines



Market Identification





Physical Description




Manufacturing Specifications
 Manufactured in
 Materials:
 Supplies:
Legal Requirements






Financial Requirements
 Retail consumer cost
 Warranty period
 Level of capital investment required:

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2.5.3.2 Example - Warman Design Challenge

The Warman Student Design and Build Competition is a competition
open to second year mechanical students across Asia Pacific. All teams Where are we in
are given the same design problem and a specification. Although a the process?
Problem Specification can set out a number of clear objectives and
constraints, it should not be restrictive such that it limits the number of
potential solutions or the creativity of the design.

2.5.4 Ideate
The Ideate and Select steps make up the conceptual design phase, in
which new ideas are generated and then one or more are selected to
carry forward. Arguably the most creative stage of development,
conceptual design is post-its slapped on whiteboards, hand sketches,
thoughts scribbled on napkins, and blue sky and back-of-envelope
thinking. These are concept ideas… not fully fleshed out designs, but
rather ideas that could be solutions once they’ve been prototyped and
analyzed and tested later on.

Ideation is informed by the user understanding and constraints

definition that come before it, and an effective Ideate step plants the
seed for the final solution. Don’t forget to document all of this great
thinking in a workbook, hardcopy or digital. In concept design lies the
very soul of innovation (Hedges, 2019).

Good design
explores as many
options as possible.
Figure 2-7 Sketches of bicycle prototype (Bicycle Design , 2018) Brainstorming can
help to generate
different ideas and
Good ideas come from lots of ideas. It is often easy to get distracted by
solutions (see section
your first idea, even if it is a good one. Good design explores as many
7.7.2).
options as possible during the Ideate step; focusing on only one or two
ideas will severely limit the design team’s ability to understand the art

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of the possible and to decide on the most effective way of solving the
multitude of design issues. It is very important not to get too attached to
one concept because it was your first idea, you have a gut feeling, or
simply because you came up with it.

Use brainstorming techniques to generate as many potential solutions as

possible and strive to avoid judging the ideas yet. The Ideate step is all
about generating lots of ideas… the judging of the ideas comes in the
next step. Some ideation techniques are described in section 2.7.2.

2.5.5 Select
During the Select step, the many ideas generated during the Ideate step
are evaluated qualitatively (and sometimes quantitatively) against the
metrics and criteria developed in the Problem Specification. A formal
process for choosing the best concept design should be used to
recommend a solution to proceed to the next stage. Tools to help with
all the techniques and steps are defined and examples given in section
2.7.

2.5.6 Prototype
The Prototype, Analyze, and Test steps together make up the Detailed
Design phase of product development. After the best concept has been
selected, the engineers must now go through a process to prove out that
What form of idea. This will involve building prototypes, conducting analyses, and/or
validation would best testing for almost every aspect of the design. Through these steps
be used for the materials are selected, manufacturing processes are chosen, and many
different examples more design decisions are made.select and size components gain
we’ve looked at? feedback from users, and verify that the design will meet the design
specifications as well as adhere to any design standards imposed by the
nature of the problem (e.g., design codes, local laws and regulations, etc)

Prototypes, in particular, are extremely valuable in making design

decisions. The best prototypes are partial or complete solutions that are
built in order to answer a specific question. This question may be

 Will this concept mechanism work in real life?

 Will users accept a new user interface and find it easy to use?
 Will the theoretical reaction your team designed work when
imperfect feedstocks are used?

Prototypes can focus on function of the product (“will this mechanism

work?”) or they can focus on aesthetics or usability (“will users accept
this new interface?”). Some prototypes answer questions immediately

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(“will this reaction run with feedstocks?”), while others need to be

shown to potential users in order to get feedback.

2.5.7 Analyze
One of the most powerful tools in an engineer’s toolbox is the set of
analyses they can use to understand a problem and predict the
behaviour of a design. Analysis can estimate loads on a structure and
dictate what size of fastener or what type of welded is necessary. It can
also inform how many servers are needed in a server farm to maintain
the desired up time for a web service. Careful analysis can determine
whether a bridge lasts for its intended lifespan or a wind turbine
outputs the desired amount of power. Engineering projects are usually
too big or too expensive to just “build it and see,” so we rely on analyses
to make sure that our designs match our specifications.

Critical in this step is determining what kinds of analyses are most

relevant to your problem and your concept. A structural analysis won’t
help most software projects, but a new crane design may require
significant analysis of software requirements to ensure the proper
computer hardware is included in the design. Head loss in a pipe would
affect how quickly a chemical reaction can start, but it isn’t useful for an
power electronics circuit. You may not have the exact technical
background in every type of analysis you need for a project, but being
able to look at a concept and identify the kind of analysis you need is a
critical skill for a good designer.

2.5.8 Test
Testing ensures the design will meet the stakeholders’ requirements as
described in the Problem Specification. This includes everything from
informal prototype testing to more formal design validation procedures.
Some examples are listed below.

a. Market testing, focus groups

b. Peer review

c. Mathematical Modelling

d. Prototyping

e. Simulation

f. Experimentation

g. Early user visibility, trials

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Especially when a big investment is required in the next stage of the

project, formal reviews are held to make sure the design meets all of the
criteria.

2.5.9 Implement
When this process begins to mature and every avenue has been
exhausted, a final design will begin to emerge. This can take the form of
drawings, design documents, specifications, CAD files or a combination
of all of these assembled together in some form of report or pack.
The build Regardless of the format, this material will contain all the information
process helps to required to build, construct, fabricate, manufacture, code, integrate, test
identify design errors and operate the product or project or service. It is a complete instruction
and highlight other set provided by the design team to those who follow on with the task of
design problems building or implementing or operating. It is comprehensive,
unambiguous and accurate. The design process is far from complete,
however, particularly for large scale projects.

2.5.9.1 Build
This is where the final design is implemented in the real world. Design
errors will be identified during build, and the design will have to be
modified by the design team to correct the errors. In some situations, it
will be necessary for the design team to oversee or check the work of
suppliers or subcontractors or manufacturers to make sure that the
implementation work is proceeding in accordance with the design
specifications. This may highlight additional design problems where
things do not fit or they do not work as intended. The design process
continues as these problems are resolved and documentation are
updated.

2.5.9.2 Final Testing

Depending on the type of project, the final design may need to be tested
to make sure that it complies with the specification and that it is fit for
purpose. The testing process is a critical task within the Final Design
stage of the design process for development of products, but doesn’t
apply to all types of design problems (i.e. structural design).

When all the parts are assembled and all of the engineering tests have
been completed successfully to show that the product works and is fit
for purpose against the original requirements specification, the final
product can be offered up for acceptance

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2.5.9.3 Acceptance
This is part of the design process where the client formally accepts the
design. They accept that the design, development and build part of the
work is complete, and they take on responsibility for the on-going
design and operations.

2.5.9.4 Operations and support

This covers the operational phase of the design. This can take the form
of:

a. Fleet of manufactured products such as vehicles or computers

delivered to consumers;

b. Single project such as a chemical plant or manufacturing

facility delivered to the operator;

c. Number of software packages delivered to clients under a

licence; and

d. Service which goes live

How would you
In all of these, case problems may arise with the design and the design incorporate these
team will be required to investigate and fix the issue to keep the show issues within your
on the road. The design pack has to be continuously upgraded design?
throughout the life of the product/project. In many ways, fixing a live
project can be more challenging and require more ingenuity than a fresh
new project. The work of the design team is never over until the product
or the project is retired and then the disposal/ decommissioning/
recycling phase has to be designed.

2.5.10 Other design issues

Throughout the design life cycle, a number of key drivers will form part
of the design process. In poor design, they are often ignored or
downgraded leading to poor performance and failure. In good design,
they are fully integrated into the design from the outset as an intrinsic
part of the product or project. Other design issues are:

a. Risk

b. Performance

c. Usability - Ergonomics - Human/machine interfaces

d. Buildability – Can it be built?

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e. Design to cost
Brainstorming is
f. Reliability
a good way to
facilitate the g. Maintainability
creativity of group
h. Safety
members and kick
start idea generation i. Sustainability

j. Security

k. Resilience

l. Decommissioning/disposal

2.6 Final Design Communication

At all stages in the design process, communication of the proposed
design is occurring.

At the final design stage, the expected communication outputs include

but are not limited to:

 Design report to the client describing the design process and

proposed design solution as well as the analysis and prototypes
built to prove the design will meet the agreed upon
specifications (i.e the PDS).
 Working drawings for manufacture and assembly.
 Presentation slides.
 Operation and maintenance documents.

Unfortunately, the importance of the final step is often underestimated.

On average, the design engineer spends only about 40% of their time
doing design, and the remaining 60% of their time discussing their
design and preparing written documentation (Dieter & Schmidt, 2013).

Preparing the written documentation takes time. To speed up that

process, it is essential to keep up-to-date records of the design by taking
notes, meeting minutes, and writing your calculations as you go.

In the next chapter, we will look at how to write technical reports and
how to present your design to the client in a presentation format.

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2.7 Tools for concept development

2.7.1 What is a concept design?

Conceptual design is the initial big picture. The idea is to come up with Where are we in
outline solutions that define the basic parameters of the project but are the process?
usually void of the details. Concept designs identify all the key
components such that they are detailed enough to be developed into
final designs for others, and to be roughly costed.

2.7.2 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a good way to start thinking about the design options.
If this is successful, there will be a number of different options with
entirely different qualities and characteristics (apples and oranges). It is
this process of exploring different options which very often leads to the
breakthrough and the best fit design. Variations on a single option may
indicate a lack of imagination, a lack of creativity, a lack of innovation,
and thought process which does not take you outside the box.

Brainstorming - the most popular group creativity tool

Brainstorming is a technique by which a group attempts to find a

solution for a specific problem by amassing all the ideas spontaneously
created by its members.

Phases of Brainstorming:

1. Brain dump phase. A phase of rapid and abundant idea

generation. Make sure to write down everything that is said

2. Idea trigger phase. The author of each idea explains their idea
to trigger additional ideas. This process can be combined with the
circular questioning technique. Again keep notes and record the ideas

3. Compilation phase. Discuss, develop and discard. Compile

final list of ideas suitable for further development

Make sure to
use a workbook to
document all design
related tasks and
actions

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2.7.3 Functional Decomposition and Synthesis

Functional analysis is a logical approach to developing concepts for a
product or device by describing the device in terms of physical
behaviour or actions, rather than components. The strategy is to
decompose a complex task or system into smaller units that are easier to
manage.

Physical decomposition means separating the product or device into its

subsidiary subassemblies and components and describing how these
parts are joined together to create the physical behaviour (Dieter &
Schmidt, 2013).

Figure 2-8 shows a partial physical decomposition of a bicycle, from

here different forms of each subassembly or part can be explored.

Figure 2-8 Physical decomposition of a bicycle with two levels of

decomposition on the wheel

Class Exercise

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2.7.3.1 Functional Decomposition Example – Apple Picker

What other
components of apple
picking could be
considered here?

This example of
functional
decomposition shows
three levels of
Figure 2-9 Functional decomposition of an apple picker device decomposition for an
apple picking device

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2.7.4 Morphological Analysis

Morphological analysis is another tool that can help in the generation of
conceptual designs. The word morphology means the study of shape
and form.
Fritz Zwicky
formalised the process
of Morphological “Simply an ordered way of looking at
analysis into a things”
technique for
developing conceptual -Fritz Zwicky
designs in the mid (Straumann, 2019)
1960’s, however
morphological methods
to investigate solutions
have been used since 1. Determine suitable problem parameters. This can be done
the 1700’s. through group brainstorming, and then refinement into
grouping until a manageable list is formed.
2. Form a grid with the list of your defined parameters along one
Fritz Zwicky was
axis, and then brainstorm all the potential solutions for those
an astrophysicist and parameters, filling them in on the grid.
aerospace engineer. He 3. Stepping through the grid, form potential combinations of each
used morphological parameter to generate different concept designs.
analysis to develop jet
propulsion. He was
also the first to use the
vital theorem to infer Class Exercise
the existence of dark
matter.

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2.7.5 Iteration
At this stage, the design team may wish to revisit the stakeholders and
the requirements to make sure they are on track and to investigate
whether there is scope to modify the original requirements. The design
process may show, for example, that the original design budget is not
actually possible. The stakeholders may then increase the budget that is
available now that they have a proper estimate or they may reduce the Important term:
scope. Iterative design

Design is not sequential. It is an iterative process. The design is

constantly developed and improved as it progresses through the
process. Going backwards is all part of the design process as it is always
necessary to check, test, validate, think again, redesign, modify and start
again. It requires creative thinking and innovative solutions at each and
every stage.

Concept designs can be developed in parallel to improve the final

design iteration occurs at all levels. Figure 2-10 illustrates the principles
of parallel combined with iterative design.

Figure 2-10 Iterative and Parallel Design

2.8 Tools for rating concept designs Trade off analysis

will produce some
indicators but
2.8.1 Trade-off analysis indicators still need
Each option can be compared to all the other options using a trade-off interpretation!
matrix of some kind. There are a number of different formats for a
trade-off analysis, but they all seek to show how well each particular
option meets the requirement. Plus Minus Interesting (PMI) can be used
for simple decisions. For more complex problems decision making can

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 2.8 Tools for rating concept designs M. Jeunnette, 2022

be assisted using techniques like the Multi-Attribute Rating Technique

(MART).

Weightings can sometimes be added where one part of the requirement

is regarded as more important than all the others e.g. safety. The trade-
off matrix will produce some scores, some indicators, but these are just
indicators. The analysis needs interpretation. At the end of day good
design will require judgement borne of experience. The chosen design
will be the one which is judged to best meet most of the requirements.
The trade-off process also reveals the strengths and weaknesses of each
option. Good design attempts to combine the strengths of different
options and to neutralise the weaknesses of others. Sometimes this can
lead to a hybrid option combining the best features of a number of
options. Sometimes this is impossible and some tough decisions have to
be made to achieve a best fit.

The trade-off matrix allows such decisions to be made with a degree of

science and a rationale, which is far better than the random decisions
which might be made too early in poor design.

2.8.2 Introduction to the Multi-Attribute Rating Technique

(MART)
MART is a method that breaks down a complex multi-dimensional
decision problem into a series of small logical steps. These steps can
contain subjective judgments, but each step is individually controllable
Although the
and easy to reconstruct because the decision problem becomes
MART process is
transparent. MART enables objective and fair comparison of
subjective, individual
alternatives. It can be used as a tool to support team decision-making. It
steps ensure
enables sensitivity analysis by changing the weightings of decision
transparency of the
criteria. This allows easy consideration of the influence of conflicting
whole process
interests.

MART: Process and Steps

1. Start with your remaining design options, and identify the

factors and criteria which should be used to evaluate each of these
options.
Important Term:
2. Rank the importance of each decision criterion with respect to
MART
the other criteria.

3. For each design option, determine the extent to which it satisfies

each of the different criteria.

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4. Determine the overall rating of each design option.

5. Select the best design option on the basis of the highest rating.

2.8.2.1 Example of MART

Example: Design of transport strategy to University

Potential solutions (i.e. design options):

a. Car

b. Motorbike

c. Public transport

d. Bicycle

MART Step 1: Identify Decision Criteria

In most design problems, there is a large range of performance factors What other
criteria would be useful
and requirements that could be used as criteria for decision making. The
to consider?
MART methodology is mostly applied with between 5 and 12 decision
criteria.

Decision criteria selected for University transport example:

a. Weekly cost

b. Safety

c. Parking

d. Convenience

e. Environment

f. Theft

MART Step 2: Ranking of the Criteria

To determine the weighting of each criterion, the different criteria are

compared in pairs. The question asked is: Which of the two is more
important? How would you
decide which criterion
Decision rule: The winner scores 2, the loser gets 0. If both are
is more important when
considered equally important, or no decision can be made, both score 1. comparing criteria?
This is done for all possible combinations of criteria in a weighting
matrix.

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If a more elaborate distinction between the criteria is required, a more

detailed scoring system can be used (e.g. 4:0 = Much more important, 3:1
= more important, 2:2 = equal, etc.)

Weighting Matrix
CRITERIA FOR COMPARISON TOTAL
Which criterion CRITERIA 1 2 3 4 5 6 WEIGHT
were of most and 1 WEEKLY COST 2 2 2 2 2 10
least importance in 2 SAFETY 0 0 1 1 0 2
3 PARKING 0 2 2 1 0 5
this example?
4 CONVENIENCE 0 1 0 1 1 3
5 ENVIRONMENT 0 1 1 1 2 5
6 THEFT 0 2 2 1 0 5

These ratings mean that weekly cost are

considered more important than safety

The individual comparisons are done quite independently. The total

weights of the different criteria are on a so-called interval scale.

MART Step 3: Valuation of Alternative Solutions

For each decision criterion, determine the degree of satisfaction or value

achieved by each of the different design options. The question asked is:
How well does the option satisfy this particular criterion?

Scores are distributed on a scale from 0 to 4:

4 Points: alternative meets criterion perfectly

3 Points: alternative meets criterion well

2 Points: alternative meets criterion satisfactorily

1 Point: alternative meets criterion poorly

0 Point: alternative is useless with respect to the criterion

More extended scales (e.g. from 0 to 10) or customised ‘utility functions’

for the various decision criteria can be used if a more detailed analysis is
required

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Valuation Matrix
PROJECT ALTERNATIVES
VALUATION PUBLIC
CRITERIA CAR MOTORBIKE TRANSPORT BICYCLE
1 WEEKLY COST 1 2 3 4
2 SAFETY 3 1 4 1
3 PARKING 1 4 4 4
4 CONVENIENCE 2 2 0 3
5 ENVIRONMENT 1 2 3 4
6 THEFT 3 2 4 1

4 means the ‘best’ outcome, 0 means the ‘worst’ performance

MART Step 4: Value Synthesis

Determination of total performance rating of each design option. First,

multiply the value factors by the weights of the different decision
criteria. Then, the total performance ratings of the alternatives are
summed up to determine each alternative’s total rating. The alternative
with the highest rating is the preferred choice.

Performance Matrix
PUBLIC
CAR MOTORBIKE TRANSPORT BICYCLE

VALUATION WEIGHTING VALUE x VALUE x VALUE x VALUE x Whilst in most

CRITERIA FACTOR VALUE WEIGHT VALUE WEIGHT VALUE WEIGHT VALUE WEIGHT
1 WEEKLY COST 10 1 10 2 20 3 30 4 40
cases the highest
2 SAFETY
3 PARKING
2
5
3
1
6
5
1
4
2
20
4
4 20
8 1
4 20
2
ranking option is the
4 CONVENIENCE 3 2 6 2 6 0 0 3 9 best performing,
5 ENVIRONMENT 5 1 5 2 10 3 15 4 20
6 THEFT 5 3 15 2 10 4 20 1 5 other lower scoring
OVERALL PERFORMANCE 47 68 93 96
options could also be
This option is a close second; and it’s still a viable choice, if you have good reasons considered if
to justify it (e.g. better safety and theft scores)
justification can be
made
This is the option that ranks highest in this analysis,
therefore this alternative should be selected.

MART is a technique that allows to take multiple criteria into

consideration for the selection of the best design option, or when
making other project decisions. It breaks down the decision making
process into small, transparent steps that can be separately performed
and that are open to examination and discussion. The Performance
Matrix provides you with first class arguments to explain your choice of
concept. If there is a criterion that has a minimum fulfilment level to be
satisfied by all alternatives (e.g. safety, cost, capacity etc.), this criterion

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2.8 Tools for rating concept designs M. Jeunnette, 2022

can be given a flag to eliminate any alternatives which do not achieve it,
irrespective of their performance at the other criteria.

Class Exercise

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Class Exercise

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2.9 Close out –

Important take away points from this chapter:

· Good design follows a process

· Design is iterative

· Communication with the client should happen at all design stages

· Conceptual design should explore many options

· Develop and maintain a comprehensive, qualitative and clear PDS that

is agreed on with the client, and reviewed with progression of the
design

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M. Jeunnette, 2022 2.9 Close out

Table 2-1 The Design Process (adapted from (Dym & Little, 2009))

Stage Inputs Processes Outputs

Problem - Problem - Clarify design - Product Design
Definition Statement objectives and Specification (PDS)
establish
metrics with
stakeholders
- Identify
constraints
- Revise the
client’s
problem
statement
Conceptual - PDS - Establish - Design function
Design design requirement
functions and - The chosen design
their
requirement
- Generate
multiple
design
concepts
- Refine and
apply metrics
to designs
- Choose a
design
Detailed Design - PDS - Model and - Proposed final design
and verification - Design analyse design
function - Refine and
requirements optimise
- The chosen - Build and test
design - Assign and fix
design details
Final Design - PDS - Document the - Report and
Communication - Proposed final design presentation to the
design process, client detailing the
analyses, and design process,
final design analysis, and the
proposed design
- Working drawings for
manufacture/assembly/
- construction

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Body Language
Chapter 3
Presentations and reports
ENGGEN 115
I am the presenter
1. To boost confidence, open chest and arms and keep your back
Principles of Engineering Design
straight
2. Smile to make your audience comfortable
3. Engage people by using positive gestures and look in the eyes

4. Bring movement to your

Dr Enrique del Rey Castillo
presentation
(with thanks to–Dr
use physical Fa’aui)
Tūmanako
space
5. Pause and breathe slowly

Key points
Slides
1. Font size that is visible to the audience (18-point font)
2. Use of font colour
3. 1.
Use Body language
of predefined PPT templates
4. Use visuals (images, graphs, charts, schematics, etc)
2. Slide clarity
5. Pause and breathe slowly
3. Tell a story
MAKE THE MOST OF THIS OPPORTUNITY

ENGGEN 115 47

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2
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Slide Structure
• This page contains too many words for a presentation
slide. It is not written in point form, making it difficult
both for your audience to read and for you to present
each point. Although there are similar number of
points on this slide as the previous slide, it looks
much more complicated. In short, your audience will
spend too much time trying to read this paragraph
instead of listening to you.

• This page contains too many words for a presentation

slide. It is not written in point form, making it difficult
both for your audience to read and for you to present
each point.

Slide Structure
Using a font colour that does not contrast with the
background colour is hard to read
Using colour for decoration is distracting and annoying.
Using a different colour for each point is unnecessary

– Using a different colour for secondary

points is also unnecessary
Trying to be creative can also be bad

48 ENGGEN 115

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Slide clarity

Flight Arrivals

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Overall
structure
Beginning - Introduction

Introduce yourself (your team)

Set the scene

Middle – key points

End - Short Conclusions

Remind people of the main points heard

Main take away points

Acknowledgments

Thank the Audience

Intro example
Good afternoon, my name is John Smith. I am the
leader of our group and I am glad to introduce my
team of Mary Clever and Frank Bright. Today we
will talk about our Concept Project that we have
been working for the past 3 weeks. Mary is going
to talk to you about some of our findings in the
study on…and Frank will discuss the significance of
our most amazing result before I finish with …
This talk will not cover …
We are sponsored by…

10

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Speaking tips

1. You are the presenter!

2. Speaking speed
3. Voice volume
4. Slide reading
5. Notes

11

Speaking tips
1. You are the presenter!
2. Speaking speed
3. Voice volume
4. Slide reading
5. Notes

12

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Example
Link

Sources of
inspiration
- TED talks, Example 1 and 2
- Presenters in media or public speakers, like this
or this or this
- Lecturers

- But the most important is your own interest and

passion on the topic

14

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Use of Word

15

Use of Word

16

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8
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Use of Word

17

Use of Word
Use captions (right click) and hyperlinks

18

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Use of Word
Use captions (right click) and hyperlinks

19

Use of Word
Figures:

20

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Use of Word
Tables:

21

Use of Word
Tables:

22

56 ENGGEN 115

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Use of Word
Headings and styles

23

Key points
1. Tell a story
2. Tell a story
3. Tell a story
4. Start with the outline/structure (course)
5. Then add figures/tables
6. Then expand the outline and describe figures and
tables
7. NOW we write the report, checking line by line:
1. Verbal tenses
2. Overuse of connectors
3. Important information at the front
4. Simple sentences at the beginning and end, complex
sentences in the middle
245. Not too long and complex sentences (max 2 commas)

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Ngā mihi nui ☺

25

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13
 Part B

Spatial Visualisation

ENGGEN 115 59
S. Kavermann, 2022

Chapter 4

Orthographic Drawings

4.1 Introduction

Engineers use drawings and sketches to communicate their ideas or give in-
structions on how to manufacture and assemble or put together the final
design. In essence, “engineering drawings” is a language that engineers use i "Engineering
to communicate their designs to other engineers, contractors, and fabricators. drawings" is a language.

Orthographic sketches and drawings are used extensively in the conceptual

design phase to sketch out different concepts as well as in the detailed design
and communication stages when producing detailed drawings for manufactur-
ing or construction.

4.1.1 Drawing Types

In general, engineering drawings can be categorised into two types: B This is not an
exhaustive list of all
drawing types.
Orthographic Used for showing the design details in a series of 2D views.
Examples include detailed drawings of parts for manufacture (e.g. Fig-
ure 4.1a), building plans, piping and electrical network diagrams, etc.

Pictorial Used to illustrate how the design will look like or provide assembly
or maintenance instructions. These could be isometric (e.g. Figure 4.1b),
oblique, or perspective drawings.

4.1.2 Learning Outcomes

In this chapter we will focus on understanding orthographic projection and

orthographic drawings. Specifically, the learning outcomes are listed below:

ä Understand the first and third angle projections.

ä Learn the different types of drawing lines and where they are used.

ä Be able to read orthographic drawings and visualise the 3D object.

ENGGEN 115 61
4.1 Introduction S. Kavermann, 2022

ä Use orthographic projection to produce orthographic drawings of simple

objects.

ä Use projection lines to transfer features between different orthographic

views.

iDetailed drawings
should contain all the
necessary information to
make that part.

(a) Detailed orthographic drawing

i Generally, the
isometric drawing is
shown on the same
drawing sheet with the
orthographic views.

(b) Isometric drawing

Figure 4.1 Examples of orthographic and isometric drawings of drawing of a wall

bracket (modified from [1]).

62 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 4.2 Orthographic Projection

4.2 Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection is a method to represent a three dimensional object

?mHow would you

using multiple two dimensional views; these views are orthogonal (i.e. perpen-
dicular) to each other, hence the name orthographic projection. If you imagine
a three-dimensional cube like a dice, it has 6 faces. We can easily draw 2D arrange these faces to
make a standard dice?
images of each face but how do we arrange these six images such that we
guarantee whomever is making it will produce it exactly as we intended?
Continuing with our analogy that engineering drawings is a language, we realise
that every language has syntax and rules to allow for clear communication
and to avoid confusion. Therefore, two projection methods have been used
by engineers world-wide to describe how the 6 orthogonal views should be
arranged to describe any three-dimensional object. These two methods are
known as first and third angle projections. In New Zealand and in this course, B We will always use
we will primarily use third angle projection. third angle projection in
this course.
Before we get into the differences between first and third angle projections, let
us discuss the meaning behind their names. Figure 4.2 shows the three projec-
tion planes (frontal, horizontal, and profile planes) where the intersection of the
frontal and profile planes creates four quadrants. When the object is placed
in the first quadrant, we get first angle projection as shown in Figure 4.3a.
With first angle projection, the object is placed between the observer and the
projection plane; i.e., the projected image is behind the object (Figure 4.3b).

Figure 4.2 Projection

planes.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3 First angle projection. ?mDo you understand

the main difference
Similarly, when the object is placed in the third quadrant, we get third angle between 1st and 3rd

projection as shown in Figure 4.4a. With third angle projection, the projection angle projection and why
are they named as such?
plane is placed between the object and the observer; i.e., the projected image
is in front of the object (Figure 4.4b).
?mWhat about 2nd and
4.2.1 Drawing with Third Angle Projection 4th angle projections?

Figure 4.6 shows the process of how the six orthographic views are arranged
using third angle projection shown in Figure 4.6(f). Consider the object/block

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4.2 Orthographic Projection S. Kavermann, 2022

(a) (b)

Figure 4.4 Third angle projection.

shown in Figure 4.6(e). The front view is labelled A, the top view is labelled
B, and so on. Now imagine the block is enclosed in a glass box as shown in
Figure 4.6(b) and we use 3rd angle projection method to project the object faces
onto the glass box panels. We now unfold the glass box panels (Figure 4.6(c))
and flatten them while keeping the front view in the centre to obtain the
arrangement shown in Figure 4.6(d).
With 3rd angle projection, we observe the following:

• The view above the front view shows the top view of the object. Similarly,
the view below the front view shows the bottom view.

• The view to the right of the front view shows the right side view. Similarly,
the view to the left of the front view shows the left side view.

• The rear view, which is rarely shown, can be put either on the right of
the right side view or to the left of the left side view.

• The symbol indicating that 3rd angle projection is being used is shown
B Make sure you know in Figure 4.5.
and use that symbol in
your drawings.

Figure 4.5 Third angle projection symbol.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 4.2 Orthographic Projection

Figure 4.6 Third angle projection method (modified from [1]).

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4.3 Creating Orthographic Drawings S. Kavermann, 2022

4.2.2 Drawing with First Angle Projection

Using a similar approach to that shown in section 4.2.1, the 1st angle projection
layout of the views is shown in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7 First angle projection views layout and symbol (modified from [1]).

With 1st angle projection, we observe the following:

• The view above the front view shows the bottom view of the object.
Similarly, the view below the front view shows the top view.

• The view to the right of the front view shows the left side view. Similarly,
the view to the left of the front view shows the right side view.

• The rear view, which is rarely shown, can be put either on the right of
the left side view or to the left of the right side view.

• The symbol indicating that 1st angle projection is being used is shown in
Figure 4.7.

B We will not be using first angle projection in this course. However, you need
to be able to recognise a drawing made using first angle projection (by looking
for the projection symbol) and interpret it accordingly.
B Note that regardless whether the engineer uses first or third angle projection,
the drawing of each orthographic view is identical. The difference is in how
these views are arranged relative to each other.

4.3 Creating Orthographic Drawings

In this section we will go through the basics of producing orthographic draw-

ings. To get started, you need the following items:

B You’ll need these for • Two pencils: thick (2B) and thin (HB). Mechanical pencils can be used
use during your tutorials. instead. For drawing thick lines we recommend the 0.7 mm pencil with
2B leads. For thin lines, use 0.5 mm pencil with HB leads.

• Ruler; preferably 30 cm long. Avoid using flexible rulers.

• Eraser and erasing shield. The erasing shield can help you erase lines
precisely without affecting other parts of your drawing.

66 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 4.3 Creating Orthographic Drawings

4.3.1 Line Types

Table 4.1 lists the four main drawing lines that you will be using in your B Make sure you know
when and where to use
drawings in this course. Please note that additional line types are used to
these diferent line types.
indicating cross section planes, breaks, cut-outs, etc. but these will covered
later in the course and are generally drawn by the computer aided design
(CAD) software. For a full list of line types, please refer to [1, page 9].

Table 4.1 Drawing line types. ?mWhat happens when

a hidden feature ovelaps
Line Type Drawing Example Usage examples with a visible edge?

Continuous To indicate the visible edges of the

thick line object.

Thin To show outlines of hidden features.

dashed line Note:

• For a complete hidden line, the

line should begin with a dash

• Dashes should meet at corners

Thin chain To indicate centre lines of circular

line features.

Continuous For fictitious lines. Used for

thin line dimensions, projection lines, threads,
and hatching.

4.3.2 Projecting Across Views

Projecting features between views (e.g. from the front view to the right side
view or top view) can be useful to quickly complete drawing the other views
without needing to measure any length. Projecting features between the front
and top or side views is done by drawing vertical or horizontal projection lines
respectively. Projecting between non-adjacent views (e.g. between the top and i The mitre line is
also known as the mirror
right side view) requires the use of a 45° mitre line. Figure 4.8 illustrates how
line or mirror plane.
features/vertices are projected across views.
When drawing by hand or in certain exercises, you will need to know how to
construct the 45° mitre line when only 2 views are given (e.g. front and right
side views only) to be able to draw the third orthogonal view. The steps below
will help you create the missing view. The example given here is for when the
front and right side views are given (as shown in Figure 4.9a) but the steps can
be applied with appropriate modifications to work in other situations.

1. Start by drawing four vertical projection lines from the views given; Fig-
ure 4.9b.

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4.3 Creating Orthographic Drawings S. Kavermann, 2022

45°
45° 45°

45° 45°

Figure 4.8 Using projection lines to project features across views.

Right
Right Right
Right
Front
Front
View
View SideSide Front
Front
View
View SideSide
Right
Right Right
Right
View
View View
View
Front
Front
View
View SideSide Front
Front
View
View SideSide
View
View View
View
(a) (b)
B B B B

B B Right
TopTop
View
View B B

Front View
45° 45° Side
TopTop
View
View Front View
A A
45° 45° View A A

A A A A

Right
Right Right
Right
Front
Front
View
View SideSide Front
Front
View
BView SideSide
Right
Right Right
Right
View
View View
View
Front
Front
View
View SideSide Front
Front
View
View SideSide
View
View Top
ViewView
View
45°

(c) A (d) A

Figure 4.9 Drawing the missing view using projection lines.

Right
68 Front View Side ENGGEN 115
Front View
View
S. Kavermann, 2022 4.4 Representing Simple Geometries

2. Decide on an appropriate distance from the top view to start the missing
view and draw a horizontal projection line to intersect all four lines
drawn in step 1; Figure 4.9c.

3. Draw a 45° line from where the line you drew in step 2 intersects the first
projection line from the right side view, point A in Figure 4.9c. The line

?mCan you come up

should extend until it intersects the second projection line of the right
side view, point B.
with your own steps for
4. From point B, draw a horizontal projection line to intersect the leftmost when only the front and
vertical projection line from the front view; Figure 4.9d. The resulting top views are given?
What about when only
rectangular outline shows you the extent of the top view.
the top and right side
views are given?
5. Use additional projection lines to project features across views as dis-
cussed earlier to finish drawing the missing view.

4.3.3 Steps Involved in Creating Orthographic Drawings

The list below outlines the steps required to create an orthographic drawing
given a 3D sketch of an object with all the dimensions known.

1. Correctly size and place the views on the drawing sheet by drawing their
rectangular outlines. Always start by placing the front view.

2. Draw the visible outlines of the object in all views. For complex geomet-
ries such as curves and oblique surfaces, draw them only in the view(s)
that are easiest to draw them in

3. Use projection lines to transfer missing features/vertices from one view

to the other.

4. Complete drawing the orthographic views by including overall dimen-

sions of the object (width, depth, and height) and erasing construction
lines that interfere within the views.

4.4 Representing Simple Geometries

4.4.1 Orthogonal, Inclined, and Oblique Surfaces

Figure 4.10 shows an object with orthogonal, inclined, and oblique surfaces. A
brief description of each type of surface and how they are drawn follows.
Orthogonal surfaces (surfaces labelled A in the figure) are parallel to one of the
i Prinicpal views are
projection planes. Therefore, they are drawn to scale in one of the principal
those that are parallel to
views and appear as a line in the other views. the projection planes.

Inclined surfaces (surfaces labelled B in the figure) are surfaces that slope in These are mainly the
front, top, and one of the
one direction only. A such, they appear distorted or foreshortened in two of
side views (left or right).
the views and appear as a line (to scale) in the third view. For example, surface

ENGGEN 115 69
4.4 Representing Simple Geometries S. Kavermann, 2022

A B

Front

(a) Isometric view

Top View

A B

C C
A B
Front View Right Side View

(b) Orthographic views

Figure 4.10 Object with orthogonal, inclined, and oblique surfaces.

B is foreshortened in the top and right side views but appears as a line in the
front view.
i If you want to draw Oblique surfaces (surfaces labelled C in the figure) are surfaces that slope in
an oblique surface to
two directions. Therefore, they are not parallel or perpendicular to any of
scale, an auxiliary view
parallel to the oblique the projection/viewing planes and will appear distorted in the three principal
surface can be used views. In Figure 4.10, surface C is an oblique surface and all the orthogonal
(outside the scope of this views show a distorted projection of that surface.
course).

4.4.2 Circular Features

A circular feature parallel to one of the projection planes will only appear as a
circle in one of the principal views and as two parallel lines in the other two
views. The distance between the parallel lines is the diameter of the circle; see
Figure 4.11.
Note that when drawing any circular features except for rounds and fillets,
B Rounds and fillets centre lines must be drawn to indicate the centre of the circle and extend
definition slightly beyond the circular feature as shown in Figure 4.11b. A round or a

70 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 4.4 Representing Simple Geometries

(a) Isometric view

B Don’t forget to draw

centre lines for all
circular features except
rounds and fillets.

Round Round

Fillet

Fillet

(b) Orthographic views

Figure 4.11 Object with circular features.

fillet is a small circular feature where the circular angle is less than 180º and
its radius is smaller than 10% of the maximum length of the object.
Normally, a compass is used to draw a perfect circle. However, we can use the
box method outlined below to draw circles without needing a compass. The
steps involved are:

1. Draw a square representing the external envelope of the circle; Fig-

i Use thin contruction
ure 4.12a. lines for steps 1 - 3.

2. Draw the diagonals and mark the midpoint of each side of the square;
Figure 4.12b.

3. From the centre of the circle, measure the length of the diagonal lines
and mark the point that corresponds to ~70% of the length from the
centre; Figure 4.12c.

4. Join the dots using a freehand arcs and then erase the construction lines
using an erasing shield.

Note that the same approach can be used to draw ellipses (Figure 4.13).

ENGGEN 115 71
4.5 Number of Views Required S. Kavermann, 2022

(a) (b)

B Make sure you know

how to use this method
to draw circles without
using a compass.

(c) (d)

Figure 4.12 Drawing circles and ovals.

Figure 4.13 Drawing ellipses.

4.5 Number of Views Required

The number of views in a drawing should be sufficient to fully represent the

part clearly and without redundancy. The front view is always required and any
additional views, if required, must be adjacent to an existing view. Figure 4.14
shows three objects requiring one, two, or three views to fully describe their
i The φ symbol shape. Note that the symbol φ denotes a diameter and is usually accompanied
denotes diameter. by a number (i.e. a dimension). Some drawings may require additional views

?mWhat are detailed,

such as detailed, sectioned, or auxiliary views.

sectioned, and auxiliary

views?

Figure 4.14 Different number of orthogonal views required to fully represent some
objects [1].

72 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 4.5 Number of Views Required

b Worked Example 4.1

Draw the front, top, and right side views of the object shown using third angle projection.

Front

ENGGEN 115 73
4.5 Number of Views Required S. Kavermann, 2022

b Worked Example 4.2

Draw the front and right side views of the object shown using third angle projection.

Front

74 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 4.5 Number of Views Required

b Worked Example 4.3

For each of the given the isometric views below, draw the top, front and right side views. All rounds
and fillets have a radius of 0.5 unit lengths.

Front
Front

Front
Front

ENGGEN 115 75
4.5 Number of Views Required S. Kavermann, 2022

b Worked Example 4.4

Draw the front and right side views of the object shown. All rounds and fillets are 5 mm.

Front

76 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 4.5 Number of Views Required

b Worked Example 4.5

For some problems you will be given two views and asked to complete the third view. You may or may
not be given a pictorial view of the object. Construction of the third view will require use of projection
lines and or mitre lines. For the two views given below complete the top/plan view. Label the views
and draw the third angle orthographic symbol. Note the two views given do not fully describe the
object so there may be more than one solution. In practice you would have a sketch of the object you
are drawing. Omitted here to ensure that you use correct construction techniques.

Projection line

Projection line

ENGGEN 115 77
S. Kavermann, 2022

Chapter 5

Isometric Drawings

5.1 Introduction

As discussed in Chapter 4, the two main types of drawings used in engineering

are orthographic and pictorial. Pictorial drawings are often used to help visual-
ise the design, give clear assembly instructions, help sell the product/solution
to potential investors, etc. For example, Figure 5.1 shows some assembly in-
structions for building a VEX robot of a specific design. The figure utilises an

?mWhat do oblique
exploded view to show the order in which parts are assembled.
There are three types of pictorial drawings: axonometric, oblique, and per-
and perspective drawings
spective. Within axonometric drawings, there are three main projection modes:
look like?
isometric, dimetric, and trimetric. All these drawing types aim to serve the
main purpose of pictorial drawings discussed earlier. In this course we will
only focus on isometric projection and creating isometric drawings as it is the
most commonly used projection method for pictorial drawings in engineering
applications.
Pictorial sketches and drawings are used extensively in the conceptual design
phase to sketch out different concepts as well as in the detailed design and
communication stages when producing detailed drawings for manufacturing
and assembly instructions.

5.1.1 Learning Outcomes

In this chapter we will focus on isometric drawings. Specifically the learning

outcomes are listed below:

ä Understand what isometric projection is and why it is used.

ä Be able to read orthographic drawings and construct an isometric view

of the object with and without the aid of an isometric grid.

ä Use the box construction method to draw circular features on an isomet-

ric drawing.

ENGGEN 115 79
S. Kavermann, 2022

ENGGEN 115
EXPLODED ISOMETRIC ASSEMBLED ISOMETRIC
PARTS LIST
ITEM QTY PART NUMBER
1 1 Wheel-Base Skeleton with Gears
2 1 Wheel-Base Outer Rail 1
3 1 Wheel-Base Outer Rail 2
4 2 Wheel, 4 inch, Omnidirectional
5 2 Wheel, 4 inch, Standard
2 10 9 1 3 6 4 8 7 5
6 4 Spacer, 8mm
7 4 Shaft Collar, empty
8 4 Set Screw, 1/16 inch
9 4 Bolt, 3/8 inch
10 4 Nut, Nylock
Designed by Checked by Approved by Date Date
A4, 1 : 4
Luke Cen 31/01/2018
The University of Auckland
Department of Mechanical Engineering
5.1 Introduction

Edition Sheet
3rd ANGLE PROJECTION VEX Robot Chassis Assembly 1/1
1
Figure 5.1 Sample assembly drawing using isometric drawings (not to scale).

80
S. Kavermann, 2022 5.2 Isometric Projection

5.2 Isometric Projection

The word isometric means equal length. Therefore, an isometric projection is

where a cube’s sides all have equal lengths along the three axes of projection;
Figure 5.2a. To achieve this projection, consider the cube shown in Figure 5.2a.
Starting with an orthogonal view with a camera looking down the z-axis onto
the x-y plane, if we rotate our viewing direction 45° around the y-axis in a
counter-clockwise direction and then rotate the camera 35.26° above the x-z
plane as shown in Figure 5.2b we obtain the isometric view in Figure 5.2a.
Note that the isometric axes are at 30°, 90°, and 150°. B

y y

g
win
Vie ction
i r e
d

x
35.26°
45°

z x
z

(a) Isometric view (b) Viewing direction

Figure 5.2 Isometric projection.

With a true isometric projection, the length of the cube sides along the isomet- ?mWhat is the
difference between an
ric axes would be foreshortened due to rotation and projection, however, the
isomteric projection and
cube’s proportions are maintained. In this course, we will not worry about this an isometric drawing?
foreshortening and draw the lengths as they are specified in the orthographic
drawings along the isometric axes; this results in a drawing that is 22.5% larger
than it should be. This is called an isometric drawing [1, 2]. The possible view
arrangements of isometric drawings are shown in Figure 5.3.

Top Top

OR
Fro id e Le
tS ft Sid nt
nt
Rig
h
e Fro

30.0° 30.0° 30.0° 30.0°

Figure 5.3 Isometric view orientations.

Note that an isometric view is not a realistic view in the sense that our eyes can
never see such a view due to the perspective effect. However, isometric views
are very useful in engineering drawings and have the following properties:

• Lengths along the three isometric axes are drawn to scale.

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5.3 Drawing Isometric Views S. Kavermann, 2022

B Do not measure • Lengths that are not parallel to the three isometric axes are distorted.
lengths or distances that
are NOT parallel to an • Orthogonal surfaces align with the isometric axes.
isometric axis.
• Inclined and oblique surfaces are not parallel to any of the isometric axes
and therefore their lengths and angles are distorted.

• Circular features appear as ellipses. The box construction method dis-

cussed in section 4.4.2 can be used.

• Hidden and centre lines are not shown on an isometric view.

• Generally, dimensions are not shown on an isometric view.

5.3 Drawing Isometric Views

There are multiple techniques that can be used to produce isometric drawings
by hand. We will discuss three techniques that can be used exclusively or
together on different parts of the object.

5.3.1 Subtractive Geometry

In this technique, we start by drawing a solid rectangular block and then re-
move/subtract areas according to the orthographic views. The steps to this
technique are given below. We will use the orthographic views in Figure 5.4a
as an example to draw the isometric view of that object.

1. Determine the object’s width, depth, and height from the given views.

2. Sketch a thin outline box where the object would fit inside it, Figure 5.4b.

B Remember, you can 3. Sketch the outlines of big or blocky features of the part, Figure 5.4c.
only measure lengths You can subdivide the object into smaller rectangular blocks to help with
along the isometric axes
drawing these features (e.g. outline boxes for drawing circular features).
or grid lines.

4. Add the fine details of the object (e.g. circular features), Figure 5.4d.

5. Thicken/darken the visible edges of the shape and erase all construction
and hidden lines to produce the final isometric view shown in Figure 5.4e.

5.3.2 Finding Vertices

This technique involves finding the corners/vertices of the shape and mapping
them to the isometric grid (as dot). The intermediate results would be a series
of dots that can be joined to create the outline of the shape. We recommend
defining one corner as the origin and count the change in position (x, y, and
z) for all other vertices.

82 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 5.3 Drawing Isometric Views

(a)

(b) (c)

(d) (e)

Figure 5.4 Drawing isometric views.

5.3.3 Projecting Faces

This technique involves drawing the rectangular outline of the shape and
lightly sketching the provided orthographic views on the corresponding faces.
Then, project the features inwards and look for meaningful intersections. This
method is best suited for simple shapes.

ENGGEN 115 83
5.3 Drawing Isometric Views S. Kavermann, 2022

b Worked Example 5.1

Given the orthographic views below, construct the isometric view of the object. Note the location of
point A.

A Front

84 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 5.3 Drawing Isometric Views

b Worked Example 5.2

Given the orthographic views below, construct the isometric view of the object. Note the location of
point A.

A Front

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5.3 Drawing Isometric Views S. Kavermann, 2022

References for Chapters 4 – 5

[1] A. W. Boundy, Engineering Drawing. McGraw-Hill, 8th ed., 2012.

[2] C. H. Jensen, J. D. Helsel, and D. R. Short, Engineering drawing & design.

Boston: McGraw-Hill, 7th ed., 2008.

86 ENGGEN 115
 Part C

Technical Drawings

ENGGEN 115 87
S. Kavermann, 2022

Chapter 6

Technical Drawings
Where are we in
6.1 Introduction
the design process?
Technical drawings are used in engineering applications to formally
communicate designs. They can be used at various stages of the design
process, and for many different purposes. As with any other form of
communication, a common language is important, and this comes in the
form of symbols, layouts, conventions and standards, some of which we
will introduce in this course.

Ultimately, what is important is clear and easy to understand drawings

that communicate the required details of a design.

6.1.1 Learning outcomes

In this chapter we will introduce technical drawings and describe some
of their applications. We’ll then work our way from the ground up
though commonly required drawing elements, building the skills to
both interpret and create technical drawings. The learning outcomes are:

Understand how technical drawings are used in engineering.

Learn to read and generate technical drawings.

Understand the need for clarity and know methods to

accomplish this in a technical drawing.

6.1.2 Learning checklist

Main goal of a drawing: Understand that the main goal of a
drawing is to clearly communicate a design.

Standards: Know that there are drawings standards, and which

is generally followed in New Zealand.
This list provides
Sheet sizes: Understand the A-series sheet size system (you don’t
a more detailed
have to know the exact sizes). summary of what we
Line types: Identify common line types. will cover, please tick it
off as we go!

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 6.1 Introduction S. Kavermann, 2022

Views: Identify and name common views on a drawing.

Understand what views are needed.

Scales and units: Understand how scales work. Understand the

need for including units on drawings. Know the conversion
factor between inches and millimetres (it is 25.4!).
Note that there
will be a lot of overlap Dimensions: Know how to read dimensions. Know how to add
with the content of dimensions. Know common symbols and annotations.
Chapters 4 and 5.
Title blocks: Know what information that typically goes in the
title block, and what it means.

Holes: Identify countersunk holes, through holes, and

counterbore holes, and their symbols and annotations.
Understand that certain types of screws/bolts and other fasteners
will only fit in certain types of holes.

Threads: Understand the metric thread system, and common

symbols and annotations. Be able to identify threads on a
drawing.

“Communication works for those who work at it.”

- John Powell, composer

6.1.3 What, why and who?

So WHAT is a technical drawing? There are a range of definitions, but
what we are learning in this course applies to any drawing, diagram or
plan used in engineering applications to formally communicate the
detail of a design.

Technical drawings may also be called:

“Detailed drawing” / “Detail drawing”

“Engineering drawing”

“Production drawing”

“Quality drawing”

“Product specification” …

There are many different styles and applications of technical drawings,

but all have the common requirement of being clear and as easy to
understand as practical! When appropriate they should follow relevant
standards and conventions that have been established to aid clear
communication.

90 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 6.1 Introduction

WHY are technical drawings needed? Basically, whenever details of a

design need to be formally communicated and/or recorded, and a
drawing is the most suitable format. Some engineering designs (e.g.
software, or very simple geometry) do not require drawings for effective
communication. For these, written or numerical descriptions are
sufficient.

What are some situations in which a technical drawing would be

needed? Add to the list below:
Have a look at
some manufactured
Class Exercise - Why are technical drawing required? items you have with
you right now (phone,
● For manufacturing components laptop, shoe, pen?).

● For construction projects All of these would have

several technical
● drawings associated
● with them, in some case
hundreds of drawings!
● Which item of yours
might have the most?
●

Space for additional notes:

ENGGEN 115 91
6.1 Introduction S. Kavermann, 2022

One common application of engineering drawings is specifying

components (e.g. electric motors, structural beams, processors,
hydraulic components) for selection and use in other designs. These
drawings are often simplified and should have a focus on being easy to
understand. Let’s have a go at interpreting a specification drawing:

Class Exercise - Use the drawing to answer the questions

Ø 42 mm 14 to 31 Watts Part number 82800502

Figure 6-1 Electric motor specification drawing (Crouzet, https://nz.rs-

online.com/web/p/dc-motors/2361694/)

1. What is the diameter of the motor?

2. What is dimension L?

3. What is the diameter of the shaft?

4. What is the total length of the motor?

5. Is the drawing in 1st or 3rd angle?

6. How would you mount this motor?

7. Could the complete motor be manufactured using just

this drawing?

92 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 6.1 Introduction

We’ve now seen plenty of examples where technical drawings are

needed, but do all designs have technical drawings? No, as mentioned
earlier, technical drawings are not always necessary of appropriate.
Some examples:

designs better communicated by other means: instructions,

software code, charts

conceptual designs

simple designs that can be communicated in writing

designs to be made by the designer

Now, when a technical drawing is required, WHO decides what should

be included? Most of the content on a drawing is controlled by us, the
engineers creating the drawings. However, we need to follow the
guidelines of the organisations we work for, and in some cases, the
national and international drawing standards that apply to our particular
design or industry.

Standards organisations, such as the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO), the American National Standards Institute The subject matter
(ANSI) and the British Standards Institution (BSI) publish extensive of standards ranges from
guidelines in documents referred to simply as “Standards”. These help how a company should
manage its overall quality
to standardise a wide range of engineering practices and designs.
systems (ISO 9001),
New Zealand has a standards organisation: Standards New Zealand through to how an
(SNZ, website: www.standards.govt.nz), which is a business unit within electrical medical devices
the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE). SNZ should be designed for
publishes drawing standards, but only for architectural and structural safety (IEC 60601), all the
way down to specifics like
engineering, not for general engineering drawings. For other
the geometry of a medical
applications SNZ simply coordinates which standards, from other
oxygen hose connector
standards organisations, should be followed. (CGA V-5).
For technical drawings specifically, there was previously a New
Zealand standard, but this was replaced with one from the British
Standards Institution.

ENGGEN 115 93
 6.1 Introduction S. Kavermann, 2022

6.1.4 BS 8888:2020 “Technical product documentation and

specification”
BS 8888 specifies guidelines for nearly all things related to technical
drawings. The latest edition is 197 pages long, and costs $771.23. Most
NZ engineering organisations only follow it in part, or in some case not
at all. If in doubt however, following the standard helps to enable clear
communication. As a professional engineer one is likely to encounter
many different standards over their career, and it is important to assess
which standards could apply to a certain design task.

In this course we shall mainly refer to BS 8888, but you do not need to
obtain a copy or read more than what is provided in this coursebook. If
you are interested however, the full standard is available at the
university library.

We will sometimes refer to the ANSI drawing standard (ANSI Y14

series), as this is another widely used drawing standard, and it’s good to
be aware of some different conventions.

6.1.5 Use of CAD for Technical Drawings

Traditionally, technical drawings have always been 2D. However, 3D
Computer Aided Design (CAD) software is gradually changing the way
that technical drawings are created and used. Currently there are five
main ways in which CAD can be used to communicate a design. These
will be explained in the context of manufacturing drawings:
3. is most widely
1. 2D drawing as authority
used in industry.
2D drawing provides full definition of the component.
2. is decreasing in There is no 3D model.
popularity and 1. 2. 2D drawing as authority + 3D model
essentially only applies 2D drawing provides full definition of the component.
to legacy designs. 3D model has been created, and perhaps used to generate the 2D
4. & 5. are growing in drawing, but it is not shared or referenced.
popularity. 3. 2D drawing + 3D model together as authority
2D drawing provides partial definition of the component.
3D model provides partial definition, and as such is shared.
4. 3D model as authority + 2D drawing
2D drawing is automatically generated from model and not
shared.
3D model provides full definition of the component.
5. 3D model as authority
There is no 2D drawing.
3D model provides full definition of the component.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.2 Sheet sizes

6.2 Sheet sizes

Now let’s begin our journey to creating clear and easy to understand
technical drawings. To begin, we need something to draw on.

Internationally the most common paper size system is the ISO A series,
and this is what BS 8888 specifies. This system is derived from the size
A0 is used in some
A0, which has an area of 1 m2 and a width to height ratio of 1 ∶ √2. The
exceptional cases, but it is
next size, A1, is then half of A0, and so on. In this course we will only
physically awkward to
use the A3 size, but the following can be used for technical drawings:
work with such a large
A1 – very large technical drawings, e.g site plans (594x841 mm) drawing.

A2 – large drawings, e.g. complex mechanical assemblies (420x594 mm)

A3 is the most
A3 – most common for technical drawings, e.g. electrical schematics and common as it is the
mechanical components (297x420 mm) largest size that can be
printed on regular office
A4 – most common paper size worldwide, used only for simple printers.
technical drawings, e.g. screws/washers (210x297 mm)
Why do you think
A5, and even A4 are not
commonly used for
technical drawings?

Figure 6-2 A series paper sizes

(User: Bromskloss, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1369452)

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 6.3 Line types S. Kavermann, 2022

6.3 Line types

We have something to draw on, now how should we draw? In Chapters
4 & 5 we introduced some of the primary line types, but there are
several more that can be included in technical drawings, as in Table 6-1.
As when reading a map, it is important to understand what each line
type indicates. Modern CAD software create these line types
automatically, and there are settings to choose which drawing standard
to follow. However, the engineer needs to choose which lines to show,
and some need to be created semi-manually (e.g. centrelines).

Table 6-1 Standard line types (BS 8888 Table 6)

Line types 01.1,

01.2, 02.1 and 04.1 have
been introduced in
Chapters 4 & 5.

This course will

NOT cover line types
02.2 and 05.1.

Class Exercise - How many of the line types in Figure 6-3

can you find in this drawing? Tick them in the table above.

Figure 6-3 Example drawing with various line types (Stephen

Kavermann 2016)

96 ENGGEN 115
S. Kavermann, 2022 6.4 Views

6.4 Views
We know what lines to use, but now what representations of our design
should we include, as viewed from what orientation, and how should
they be placed on the page?

The preceding chapters introduced orthographic and isometric views of

3D physical objects, and with good reason, as these are the primary
views used in technical drawings. Other physical views and
simplifications or schematics of designs can be included, but in this
There is no one
course we will only use orthographic and isometric. BS 8888 allows the
“correct” way to select
use of both 1st and 3rd angle projection for laying out orthographic views,
which orthographic view
but 3rd angle is more common. Isometric views can be placed on the
is the top, front, right side
drawing in any suitable location. All views should have a buffer of etc., but they must be
blank space surrounding them, and should be roughly centred, such arranged (projected)
that there is no large blank space on one side of the drawing. correctly relative to the
other views.

Class Exercise - Label the views in Figure 6-4

Figure 6-4 Example drawing with various orthographic views

(Stephen Kavermann 2022)

As for which views need to be included, this is for the drawing’s author
to decide, and depends on what information needs to be communicated.
A tip would be to start with a front, top, side and isometric view, and
then remove any of those and/or add more views as needed.

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 6.4 Views S. Kavermann, 2022

6.4.1 Section views

Orthographic and isometric views work well for outer geometry, but
what if we want to show inside the design?

Hidden lines are useful for simple geometry, but quickly become messy
and difficult to understand, for example in Figure 6-5. For a better view
of internal geometry we can use a “Section” view, which cuts away a
section of the geometry. As shown in the example in Figure 6-3, section
view should:

• always have a labelled cutting plane indicated on a

neighbouring view (with the correct line type)
• always have an associated label under the view itself
• be located in the correct orthographic projection when possible

Figure 6-5 Example drawing with cluttered hidden lines (Eva

Håkansson 2018)

6.4.2 Detail views

Now what if the detail in one of our views is too small to see clearly?

One solution would be to use larger views and a larger paper size for
the whole drawing, but a more efficient method is to magnify only the
required section, in a “Detail” view. A detail view in most cases has a
“Scale” is
larger scale (greater magnification) than the other drawing views, and
covered in upcoming
this is indicated in the view title. Figure 6-6 shows an example of a detail
section 6.5.2.
view, “B”, which has a scale five times greater than the section view that
is its ‘parent’ view.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.4 Views

You’ll notice the

names of drawing views
are descriptive of what
they show:

Section = internal view

where a section of the part
has been removed

Detail = magnified view

to show certain detail
Figure 6-6 Example of a detail view, labelled “DETAIL B”
Exploded = components
(Stephen Kavermann 2022). exploded apart for better
visibility

6.4.3 Exploded views

When communicating the components that make up an assembly, and
how they fit together, an exploded view is commonly used. An early
example of this is shown in the example in Figure 6-7. Assembly
drawings should include a means to identify the required components,
such as the numbers and arrows in Figure 6-8. Exploded assembly
views additionally often have explode trace lines to aid understanding
Leonardo da Vinci
of how the components fit together. is acknowledged as the
first prolific creator of
what we would today call
technical drawings. Apart
from designing many
machines and structures,
he created systematic
drawings for the study of
anatomy.

Figure 6-7 Exploded view of a reciprocating motion machine by

Leonado da Vinci (1452–1519)
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3446761)

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6.4 Views S. Kavermann, 2022

Figure 6-8 Example of an exploded view

(Bayonet Knife, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bayonet-
Knife_M6-exploded_view.svg )

Class Exercise - Answer the following questions based on

the technical drawings in Figure 6-9 and Figure 6-10.

1. What is the total length of the FOM camera footplate?

____________

2. What is the total width of the footplate? ___________

3. How many sectioned views are there? ___________

4. What’s the sheet size for the two drawings? _______

5. Should the foot plate be manufactured based on the

drawing dimensions or the CAD data? _____________

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101
6.4 Views

Figure 6-9 Caterham F1, FOM camera dummy (https://twitter.com/kevts/status/652937342861352960?lang=en)

102
6.4 Views

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S. Kavermann, 2022

Figure 6-10: Caterham F1, FOM camera footplate (https://twitter.com/kevts/status/654708345652187136 )

S. Kavermann, 2022 6.5 Units and scales

6.5 Units and scales

The most important information on many engineering drawings is the
dimensions! A dimension indicates the size or position a certain feature
should be, and this is often crucial to a design working as expected.

A design simply can’t be made if the manufacturer doesn’t know what

size it should be, and a won’t work if it doesn’t fit where needed. Units
and scales are both important prerequisites for getting dimensions right.

6.5.1 Units
The official unit of
Units of measurement, commonly referred to as simply “units” are
measure for angles in the
amounts of a physical quantity that have been defined as a standard for
metric system is radians.
measuring that type of quantity. Units that feature on technical However, metric
drawings are primarily length, angle and mass. In New Zealand and countries have retained
much of the world the metric system is used (metres, kilograms). the imperial “degree” in
Technical drawings often use mm (millimetre) as the base unit, but may many contexts, including
also use m (metre), µm (micrometre), or even km (kilometre). In this CAD and technical
course we will use mm for all drawings. drawings. This can lead to
calculation mistakes, as
Units should be clearly specified when creating a technical drawing, for every junior engineer
example as in Figure 6-11, and care needs to be taken to use the correct knows, but it is more
units when reading. practical to deal with
fractions of 360◦ than 2π
radians.
Class Exercise -
A toy brick you have designed is
31.8 mm long. You have sent the
drawing to have this brick Beware of countries
manufactured in the USA, but that use the imperial
system (inches, pounds),
forgot to specify the units. The
because the conversion
manufacturer assumes your drawing is following the standard where
factor is 1 in = 25.4 mm.
the factory is located. You get a shock when you get the invoice. Why?
This can lead to big
consequences if mistakes
How long have they made the brick? are made!

The brick measures __________ mm long.

This is roughly the size of a ___________________

[use common household item as a comparison]

What does it weigh?

The expected mass was 2.5 g, but the mass is now ____________ kg

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Dimension

Units

Scale

Figure 6-11 Excerpt of technical drawing with units and scale specified
(Stephen Kavermann 2022)

A million dollar mistake!

The US$ 125 million “Mars Climate Orbiter” crashed into the surface of
Mars on 23 Sep 1999 because of a mix-up of units! The official
investigation stated:
“The Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO) Mishap Investigation Board has
determined that the root cause for the loss of the MCO spacecraft was
the failure to use metric units in the coding of a ground software file,
Don’t be the
“Small Forces,” used in trajectory models.
engineer that runs the
Mars orbiter into the Specifically, thruster performance data in English units instead of metric
ground! Use the correct units was used in the software application code titled SM_FORCES
units! (small forces). A file called Angular Momentum Desaturation (AMD)
contained the output data from the SM_FORCES software.

The data in the AMD file was required to be in metric units per existing
software interface documentation, and the trajectory modelers assumed
the data was provided in metric units per the requirements.”

Source: NASA (November 10, 1999) Mars Climate Orbiter Mishap

Investigation Board Phase I Report

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.5 Units and scales

6.5.2 Scales
What can we do if the design we want to draw is larger than the paper
size, or much too small to see clearly if printed in actual size?

Use a “scale” to reduce or increase the size of the drawing with respect
to the actual design. In the past scales were very important, as
dimensions were often measured straight off the 2D drawing with a
ruler, then multiplied by the appropriate scale. Today 3D CAD models Commonly used
can be used for this purpose, but it is still convenient in some cases to be scales are 50:1, 20:1, 10:1,
able to measure off the drawing. The convention for specifying scales on 5:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:5, 1:10.
technical drawings is “Size on drawing : Actual designed size”, so:
Decimal scales, e.g. 2.5:1,
1:1 – “one to one” – drawing is the same size as design and numbers not easily
divisible, e.g. 3:1, 7:1, are
1:2 – “one to two” – drawing is half the size of design discouraged.
__:__ – “__________” – drawing is 1/5th the size of design

__:__ – “__________” – drawing is twice the size of design

Class Exercise - Use the technical drawing of this car to

answer the following question about scale:

Figure 6-12 Scaled technical of an automobile

(https://pixabay.com/vectors/car-vehicle-draw-automobile-motor-34762/)

If the printed drawing of the car measures 400 mm long, what is the
drawing scale likely to be? __:__

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 6.6 Dimensions S. Kavermann, 2022

6.6 Dimensions
As mentioned at the start of section 6.5, dimensions are the most
important information on many engineering drawings. They are also an
aspect of drawings that can be easy to get wrong. For these reasons, it is
important that dimensions are easy to read and logically placed.

6.6.1 BS 8888 dimension guidelines

BS 8888 provides guidelines about the layout of dimensions, to help
achieve clear communication. Several of these are presented in Figure
6-13 through to Figure 6-18.

In earlier days of
manual hand-drawing,
there were tight controls
over how each of these
lines were drawn. Now
CAD software does most
of the work for us.

Figure 6-13 Terminology for dimensioning elements

(BS 8888:2017, p. 36)

Figure 6-14 Commonly used dimension symbols

(BS 8888:2017, p. 41-42)

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.6 Dimensions

There is no one
correct answer for how to
place a certain dimension,
but these guidelines help
us to place them in an
easy-to-understand
manner.

Figure 6-15 General positioning of dimensions

(BS 8888:2017, p. 34)

Figure 6-16 Positioning of internal and external dimensions

(BS 8888:2017, p. 34-35)

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6.6 Dimensions S. Kavermann, 2022

Figure 6-17 Positioning of dimensions of different components

(BS 8888:2017, p. 35)

Figure 6-18 Positioning of dimensions for holes

(Source: BS 8888:2017, p. 37)

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.6 Dimensions

6.6.2 General dimension guidelines

The recommendations of BS 8888 are helpful, but they are not
comprehensive. As a result, there is a lot of room for the engineer’s
judgement in how to achieve easy to read and logically placed
dimensions. Regardless of the specific scenario, the following should be
adhered to:

• Present dimensions in a way that avoids conflicting

interpretation.
• Include all dimensions needed for the purpose of the drawing, Think about how
and no more. the reader of the drawing,
who has never seen your
• Group dimensions in a logical manner:
design before, will be able
o follow the guidelines of BS 8888.
to understand the
o use the intent of the design as a guide.
dimensions. In some cases
• Present dimensions in a tidy manner: text notes are included to
o keep the spacing between dimension lines uniform where explain a difficult
possible. dimension.
o avoid placing dimensions inside the contour of the part.
o dimension text should not cross any other lines or text.

6.6.3 Reference dimensions

Reference dimensions are included in a technical drawing to
communicate a dimension that may be useful to know, but is not
important to the design, and does not need to be controlled. To indicate
a reference dimension, it can be placed in parentheses, as in Figure 6-19,
or “REF” or “REFERENCE” added to the dimension. There is a general
rule that each dimension should only be specified once, to avoid
conflicting interpretation. So, if a dimension is specified twice for
improved communication, one instance of the dimension needs to be a
reference dimension.

Figure 6-19 Excerpt of a technical drawing showing a reference

dimension (Stephen Kavermann 2022).

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 6.7 Title blocks S. Kavermann, 2022

6.7 Title blocks

Units, scale, projection… and we should probably include the author’s
name and the date, so where should we put all this information in an
easy to access format? Answer: in a “title block”. The format and
information presented in a title block varies depending on industry and
organisation, but at a minimum title, author, date, units, scale, revision,
and sheet size are conventional.

Title blocks ensure

that important drawing
information is not
neglected.

Figure 6-20 Online catalouge and technical drawing of a motor,

showing magnified title block
(https://nz.rs-online.com/web/p/stepper-motors/8787755/)

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.8 Holes and threads

Class Exercise - Answer the following questions based on

the title block in Figure 6-20.

1. Is 1st or 3rd angle projection used? __________

2. What units are used? __________

3. Who created the drawing? __________

4. How many revisions have there been since the original

design? __________

5. What year was the last revision made? __________

By this point we have covered all the basic essential ingredients needed
Engineers in most
for a good technical drawing. However, there are many more specific
industries have created
technical drawing topics that also have their own symbols, conventions
their own language for
and guidelines. It would be impractical to cover all of these in this
technical communication,
course, but we will introduce one common topic which has wide and we must learn those
application in the mechanical, structural, process and even electrical afresh when we begin
fields of engineering design: holes and threads. working in an industry.

6.8 Holes and threads

Why is it important to communicate information about holes and
threads well on a technical drawing? If you’ve ever tried to assemble
poor quality furniture, you’ll know. For an assembly with bolted
connections to work, all holes need to be in the correct place, with the
correct size and the correct threads.

Holes are either unthreaded, in which case they simply locate a bolt or
shaft, or threaded, in which case a bolt can be fastened in the hole. A
threaded hole has a spiral cut into its walls, which matches a
corresponding bolt/screw thread. The tool used to cut a thread (example
shown in Figure 6-21) is a “tap”, so threaded holes are often called
“tapped” holes.

Figure 6-21 Tap with handle for manually creating a thread

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tap_and_T-wrench.jpg)

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 6.8 Holes and threads S. Kavermann, 2022

B
Hole specifications,
including thread type, are
often indicated in the top
view, using a “hole
callout” arrow, as
shown in Figure 6-22 B.

Figure 6-22 Unthreaded and threaded holes

A - as displayed in a 3D CAD model
B - 2D technical drawing representation and
C - drilled and tapped in a curved metal bar
(https://threadingtoolsguide.com/en/blog/drilling-in-metal-in-3-steps/)

6.8.1 Metric thread system

There are several different standard thread systems which control the
geometry of the internal thread (holes) and the external thread
(bolts/screws/shafts) to be compatible with each other. The metric thread
system is widely used and simple to understand. It is based on the
nominal (meaning approximate target value) diameter and pitch, as
shown in Figure 6-23. For example a thread with an outer diameter of
8 mm and a pitch of 1.25 mm is denoted as M8 x 1.25.
If a fine thread There are two series of metric threads, coarse (which is the standard
version of M8 is required,
default) and fine, which has a smaller pitch, and needs to be specified if
then M8 x 1 and M8 x 0.75
needed in a design. M8 x 1.25 is a coarse thread, so can be simply
are possible, but need to
referred to as M8.
be specified clearly.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.8 Holes and threads

Figure 6-23 Diameter and pitch of a thread, used to specify size

Class Exercise - Specify the thread for this bolt.

_______ x ______

If pitch is not specified, for example the only information we have is that
the thread is M10, and we wan to find the pitch, then we will have to
look up a thread chart, like the excerpt in Table 6-2.

Table 6-2 Metric standard thread pitch

Nominal Pitch Tapping So for an M10 standard thread,

thread (mm) drill size the pitch would be 1.5 mm. When
diameter (mm) considering a bolt/screw, the You do not need to

(mm) nominal diameter is measured to memorise any of the sizes

the outer tips of the thread. In a of metric threads for this
hole, it is not possible to measure course, but you should
3 0.5 2.5
know the correct ways to
the corresponding outer grooves,
4 0.7 3.3 specify a thread. In
and the inner tips of the thread
practise charts are always
5 0.8 4.2 grooves measure smaller than the
easily accessible, but
6 1.0 5.0 nominal diameter. For this reason experienced engineers do
the size of the “tapping drill” often memorise common
8 1.25 6.8
used to drill a hole before adding thread parameters they
10 1.5 8.5 a thread needs to be smaller than need to know.
12 1.75 10.2 nominal size. In the case of M10
14 2.0 12 thread, the hole should be drilled
to 8.5 mm prior to tapping.

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6.8.2 Thread representation on drawings

In CAD models If we want to indicate that a hole in or drawing should have a thread,
thread is normally just a how do we do so? Drawing the actual thread detail would require a
simplified representation,
section view and add a lot of complexity to the drawing, so simplified
essentially a decal. In
thread representations have been developed to avoid this! Thread
some cases however, for
representations as specified in BS 8888 are shown in Figure 6-24 and
example when 3D
printing is required, the Figure 6-25. Solid lines are used to show the physical position of
thread can be physically protruding threads, and thin lines for the recessed threads.
added to the model with a
helical “Coil” feature.

You may also see

the ASNI style of thread
CAD model Top Side Top Side
representation, which is
similar but involve Hidden
dashed lines for the Figure 6-24 Internal thread representations (BS 8888:2017)
obscured position:

ANSI – Top Internal

CAD model Top Side Top Side

Hidden

Figure 6-25 External thread representations (BS 8888:2017)

ANSI – Side Internal

6.8.3 Centrelines and centremarks
As mentioned earlier, the centre position of a hole is often very
important for its function, and the same applied to its orientation
(angle). These can be indicated on a drawing with centrelines and
centremarks, as shown in Figure 6-26
If the position of a
hole is important,
centrelines and
centremarks should be
used. If unimportant, or if
there are a large number
of repeated holes, they are
not required to be
included on a drawing.
Figure 6-26 Example Centrelines (left) and Centremarks (right)

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.8 Holes and threads

6.8.4 Different types of holes and threads

There are many variables involved in creating a hole, and each of these
has a means of simple specification on a technical drawing. Some of the
main types are shown in Figure 6-27 and Figure 6-28.

Threaded
“Square hole”
Through hole Blind hole (through) hole
sounds like a paradox, but
these are specified for
some designs. They are
very expensive to cut.
Square holes do not have
a centreline or
centremark, as these are
reserved for circular
features.

Figure 6-27 Top, section and hidden views of basic holes

(BS 8888:2017)

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 6.8 Holes and threads S. Kavermann, 2022

Counterbore hole Countersunk hole Spotface

Figure 6-28 Top, section and hidden views of modified holes

(BS 8888:2017)

6.8.5 Pitch circle diameter

When multiple holes are spaced at the same diameter around a central
axis (often another hole), the diameter that the centres of these hole are
located on is called a pitch
If multiple
circle diameter (PCD). The
instances of the same hole
detail of the PCD, which at
are needed, only one
needs to be specified on
minimum includes the
the drawing and a diameter is normally
number indicating how specified at the end of the
many holes of this type is hole callout, as shown in
included at the beginning Figure 6-29.
of the hole callout, for
example “4 x …”

Figure 6-29 PCD example

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S. Kavermann, 2022 6.8 Holes and threads

Class Exercise - Match the holes to their specification and

hardware:

Figure 6-30 Practice problem for hole specification

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 Part D

Solid Modelling and Drawing with CAD

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S. Kavermann, 2022

Chapter 7

Solid modelling and drawing in CAD

All material related to this section will be posted on Canvas.

This section requires the use of the CAD (Computer Aided Design) software Autodesk
Inventor Professional 2022. The software is available in computer labs in building
405. You should also install it on your own computer, or access it via FlexIT platform.
Further instructions are available on Canvas.

Learning objectives:

• Understand how CAD is an important tool in the engineering design process.

• Learn fundamental principles of creating reliable CAD models.

• Learn basic skills in Inventor, including the creation of parts, assemblies, and
drawings.

• Use CAD as a tool in the creation of a themed design.

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S.
7.1Kavermann, 2022
CAD Best practice S. Kavermann, 2022

CAD best practice - Quick reference guide

What makes a good CAD model?
- correct geometry
- easy to edit

To achieve this we need to: Tools to enable this:

- plan from the beginning - layout sketches
- capture design intent - key dimensions & parameters
- document design intent - feature naming, sequencing & grouping
- anticipate future changes - annotations

[Space for notes]

_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________

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 Part E

Design Analysis

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N. Taute, 2022

Chapter 8

Design Analysis

Chapter 8

8.1 Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn how to undertake the necessary analyses
to complete your design project. The contents of this chapter are brief
and are written in paragraph form for you to reflect on before each
corresponding lecture. The lecture content expands upon the content in
this chapter and provides complimentary PowerPoint slides. For each
lesson in this chapter, there are two example problems, one for us to
solve during the lecture and one for you to solve in your own time.

The goal for this chapter is to introduce you to a variety of the types of
structures and mechanisms commonly used around the world and
therefore, to introduce you to the many types of analyses required to be
conducted on those structures and mechanisms. Once familiar with all
these structures and mechanisms, and the analyses required for each of
them, the potential of your design will be diversified.

8.2 Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you will learn to:

• Lean how to analyse the demands on a structure and a

mechanism
• Lean how to select appropriate materials for a design
• Lean how to fine tune and improve a design
• Lean how to plan a construction
• Lean how to work effectively in a group

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8.3 Analysis
So… What is analysis in engineering? Analysis is a broad term that
means looking into something closely and breaking it into elements that
can be better understood. In engineering, analysis commonly involves
applying physics and mathematics to design problems. However,
For example, in engineering design can involve analysis that goes far beyond physics
ENGGEN 121 you will and maths, for example: people flow through an exit, security of a
learn to analyse the mobile app, engagement of students in a university course.
internal forces and
motion of structures “Analysis (noun): detailed examination of the elements or
and mechanisms structure of something.”
subject to external
- John Powell, composer
forces.
Analysis is a key part of engineering design, and in this course, you will
learn about several basic analysis methods – just enough to satisfy the
requirements of your design project. As you progress through your
engineering degree, you will go on to learn about specific types of
analysis, relevant to your specialisation, at a much deeper level.

Analysis can vary significantly in complexity, from scribbling on the

back of scrap paper, to doing detailed hand calculations in a workbook,
to using a spreadsheet or computational software like MATLAB,
through to finally using dedicated analysis software.

Regardless of the level of analysis, the inputs and assumptions made for
an analysis are vital to its usefulness. Taking care to get the inputs
correct is especially true when the analysis is automated (where inputs
“Garbage In,
are punched into a computer program and the results of the analysis are
Garbage Out” is a great
phrase to remember
spat out in a matter of seconds), because any mistakes will be less
when conducting an
obvious. In this course, the intention is that you gain an understanding
analysis. Its success will of not just methods of analysis, but also how to evaluate and apply the
be heavily determined results of those analyses. Therefore, you will learn a range of Structural
by the assumptions, and Mechanical analysis methods, and then apply and evaluate the use
estimations and of these in your design project.
measurements used as
inputs! 8.4 Structural analysis
So then… What is structural analysis? Structural analysis is the term
used when you are determining the internal demands acting within a
static structure, or in other words, a structure that is not moving, such as
a building. When conducting static analyses, you must assume that all
demands acting within the structure, and that all forces acting on the
structure, are in equilibrium.

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8.5 Mechanical analysis

And what is mechanical analysis? Mechanical analysis is the term used
when you are determining the internal demands acting within a
mechanism, or in other words, an assembly with moving parts, such as
a crane or an elevator. For example, when conducting a mechanical
analysis, you may be determining the speed of something, the torque
provided by something, or the force required to make something move.

8.6 Options for your design

Your design might contain both a structure and a mechanism, in which
part of your design will stay still while another part of it moves. This
means that you need to consider doing both structural and mechanical
analyses.

Now that you have an idea of what analysis means, we will explore the
many types of analyses required for a variety of structures and
mechanisms that you can choose from when creating your design. We’ll
start in the next section by introducing you to a variety of structures and
mechanisms. Then in the following sections, we’ll look at how to
conduct the appropriate analyses for each structure and mechanism.

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8.7 Types of structures N. Taute, 2022

8.7 Types of structures

The most basic structures, and those which you may like to incorporate
into your design project, include, but are not limited to:

Trusses:

Beams:

Columns:

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N. Taute, 2022 8.8 Types of mechanisms

Surfaces:

Frames:

8.8 Types of mechanisms

Some common and basic mechanisms, and those which you may like to
incorporate into your design project, include, but are not limited to:

Gear systems:

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8.8 Types of mechanisms N. Taute, 2022

Drive systems:

Pulley systems:

Friction sliders:

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N. Taute, 2022 8.9 Structural analysis

8.9 Structural analysis

We now begin our exploration of the types of structural analyses,
starting with truss analysis.

8.10 Truss analysis

Trusses are made up of rigid members joined together by pin joints to
form a series of interconnected triangles. Examples of trusses can be
found in bikes, transmission towers, and cranes.

A truss works by transferring loads from where they are applied,

through its members as either tension or compression forces, until those
forces converge at the supports at the base of the truss. Members of a
truss only experience tension or compression forces, rather than
additionally experiencing shear and moment forces. This is convenient
because it makes analysing a truss much simpler. However, for this to
hold true, two conditions must be satisfied. Firstly, all joints in the truss
must be pin joints, and secondly, loads must only be applied onto joints,
rather than onto members.

Analysing a truss involves determining the magnitude of the forces on

all members of the truss and determining whether those forces are
tension or compression forces. However, before attempting to analyse a
truss, you must first confirm that the truss is stable and statically
determinate.

There are two types of truss stability, both of which must be satisfied:

1. External stability is satisfied if the truss’s supports provide

enough reactions to constrain the truss from rotating or moving
upward or sideward because of the applied loads.
2. Internal stability is satisfied if the truss’s members form stable
interconnected shapes.

There are two types of static determinacy, both of which must be

satisfied:

1. External determinacy is satisfied if there is a maximum of three

reactions provided by the truss’s supports. This condition is
required because there are only the following three equations
available to use when calculating the reactions.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0
2. Internal determinacy is satisfied if at each joint, when conducting
method of joints (MOJ), there are only two members with
unknown forces. This condition is required because, when

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8.10 Truss analysis N. Taute, 2022

conducting MOJ, only the following two equations are available

to use when calculating member forces.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

We can check if a truss is stable and statically determinate using the

following logic:

• If m is the # of members, j is the # of joints, and r is the # of

support reactions (which should always be 3), then:
• If m is equal to 2j-r, then the truss is stable and statically
determinate,
• If m is less than 2j-r, then the truss is unstable, and
• If m is greater than 2j-r, then the truss is statically indeterminate.

Once stability and static determinacy are both confirmed, we can begin
analysing the truss using method of joints. MOJ makes use of the fact
that at each joint there is equilibrium in the two orthogonal directions,
meaning that ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, and ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0.

The steps to completing method of joints are as follows (note: these

steps are demonstrated in depth in class using an example truss
problem):

1. Determine all the angles of the truss’s members by using simple

trigonometry.
2. Draw a free-body diagram and calculate the reactions.
3. Start applying method of joints at one of the support joints,
seeing as at those joints, there is likely to be two or less members
with unknown forces.

Example problem 1:

Use method of joints to analyse the forces in the truss shown below.
Indicate whether members are in tension or compression.

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N. Taute, 2022 8.11 Beam analysis

Example problem 2:

Use method of joints to analyse the forces in the truss shown below if
the load P were 100kN. Indicate whether members are in tension or
compression.

8.11 Beam analysis

When a beam is loaded, internal forces are generated within it to
maintain equilibrium. These internal forces are shear forces and normal
forces. Shear forces act vertically, and normal forces act along the axis of
the beam. The first part of analysing a beam is determining the shear
force acting at any point along the beam by drawing a shear force
diagram that shows how the shear force changes along the length of the
beam. The second part of analysing a beam is determining the bending
moment acting at any point along the beam. This is done by drawing a
bending moment diagram that shows how the bending moment
changes along the length of the beam. Bending moments are generated
by the normal forces when the beam is loaded such that it wants to
bend. For example, if a beam is loaded such that it wants to sag, then the
normal forces will be in compression at the top of the beam, while in
tension at the bottom of the beam. These compression and tension
normal forces then create a moment acting about the axis of the beam,
which we call a bending moment.

Beams are loaded and supported in many ways, some of which are
more difficult to analyse than others. The easiest beam to analyse is one
that is supported by the simple combination of a pinned support and a
roller support and loaded only by point loads. The more difficult beams
to analyse are those that are loaded with distributed loads or

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8.11 Beam analysis N. Taute, 2022

concentrated moments, or those that incorporate a fixed support.

Examples problems that incorporate all these will be solved in class.

Steps to analysing a beam (note: these steps are demonstrated in depth

in class):

1. Draw a free body diagram (FBD) of the beam and the applied
loads, including the reaction forces from the supports.
2. Use the three equilibrium equations to calculate the reactions
forces from the supports.
3. Get your grid ready to draw your shear force diagram and your
bending moment diagram.
4. Draw your shear force diagram.
5. Draw your bending moment diagram.

Example problem 1:

Analyse the beam shown below:

Example problem 2:

Analyse the beam shown below:

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N. Taute, 2022 8.12 Column analysis

8.12 Column analysis

Depending on the structure in which a column is situated, the column
can experience tension, compression, shear, and bending moment forces
either individually or in a combination. Analysing the magnitude of
these forces is done by looking at the structure above the column,
determining the weight of that structure and the manner in which it
applies loads to the column.

Steps to analysing a column (note: these steps are demonstrated in

depth in class):

1. Calculate the loads from the structure above

2. Determine where and in which direction the loads act
3. Draw a free body diagram and use the three equilibrium
equations below to solve the forces in the column

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0

Example problem 1:

Example problem 2:

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8.13 Surface analysis N. Taute, 2022

8.13 Surface analysis

Surfaces are great at supporting shear forces. Some surfaces are called
shear walls – these are used to provide lateral stiffness in a building.
Other surfaces are called gusset plates – these are used to provide the
moment resistance in a joint between two structural members.
Analysing the forces inside a surface is done by determining the shear
forces acting inside it, which have been generated by externally applied
loads. While surface analysis can get complicated, in this course, we will
only look at the very basics of it.

Example problem 1:

Calculate the shear force acting inside the surface.

Example problem 2:

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N. Taute, 2022 8.14 Frame analysis

8.14 Frame analysis

Frames are literally the backbone of what many structural engineers
design, where most buildings today are designed with a frame hidden
beneath the cladding. There are many frame configurations with many
different shapes and sizes, where different frames might serve different
purposes, such as: lateral bracing for lateral stiffness against wind;
gravity load support to hold up a roof or upper-level floors; or
deflection allowance to let a building bend and sway safely during an
earthquake.

A frame is essentially a series of beams and columns that are connected

to each other to form a large and stable system that holds up a building.
Depending on their configuration, frames may be very complex and
difficult to analyse, or they may be very simple to analyse. In this
course, we will only look at simple examples.

Example problem 1:

Example problem 2:

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8.15 Mechanical analysis N. Taute, 2022

8.15 Mechanical analysis

We now move on to our exploration of the types of mechanical analyses,
starting with gear system analysis.

8.16 Gear system analysis

Gears usually exist in a group, where their teeth interlock with the teeth
of adjacent gears. When one gear is spun by an external force, any gears
with which its teeth interlock will also spin. However, if the adjacent
gears are of a different diameter, they will spin at a different rate. These
differences in spinning speed are known as the gear ratio. Additionally,
when adjacent gears differ in diameter, there will be a change in torque
between the centres of the gears. This change in torque is known as a
mechanical advantage (or disadvantage), and is inversely proportional
to the difference in speed at which the gears spin.

When analysing a system of gears, we are determining the speed,

torque, and power at the centre of either the input gear (the drive gear)
or the output gear (the driven gear). We analyse a system of gears by
using the following relationships:

# 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡 )

𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝐺𝑅) =
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑡𝑖𝑛 )
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑁𝑖𝑛 )
𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝐺𝑅) =
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝐼
𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝐺𝑅) =
𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑖𝑛 )
2𝜋 × 𝑁 (𝑟𝑝𝑚) × 𝜏 (𝑁𝑚)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) =
60
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜇) =
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝐴 = (𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝐼 × 𝜇

While at first these relationships might look complicated, they are in fact
very simple and intuitive. The best way to learn about them is to apply
them. So… let’s now look at some examples.

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N. Taute, 2022 8.17 Drive system analysis

Example problem 1:

Example problem 2:

8.17 Drive system analysis

Belt drives and chain drives work using the same principle as gears. The
key differences are that the sprockets (which are coupled together by a
belt or chain) can be separated by a distance as desired, and they spin in
the same direction. While gears are usually intended to achieve a
mechanical advantage, where available torque is increased, belt and
chain drives are often used to gain a velocity advantage, where the
output disk spins faster than the input disk. The same equations as gear
drives apply, especially chains and toothed belts which have teeth on
the sprocket. For belts without teeth, gear ratio is based on diameter:
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 (𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝐺𝑅) =
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 (𝐷𝑖𝑛 )

ENGGEN 115 139

8.18 Pulley system analysis N. Taute, 2022

Example problem 1:

Example problem 2:

8.18 Pulley system analysis

Pulleys are mechanisms that transfer and distribute tension forces
between cables. Much like gears and drives, pulleys are useful for
achieving a mechanical advantage from one end of a pulley system to
the other end. Additionally, pulley systems can achieve movement
advantages, which is where if something on one end of the system is
moved by 300mm, something on the other end would move either more
or less than 300mm depending on the design. When analysing a pulley
system, we are determining the tension forces acting inside each cable
within the system and determining how far the output cable is pulled
with every unit of distance that the input cable is pulled. An additional
function of a pulley, which is also essential to understand in analysing a
pulley system, is that a pulley changes the direction of a cable without
changing the tension acting inside the cable.

140 ENGGEN 115

N. Taute, 2022 8.19 Friction analysis

Example problem 1:

Example problem 2:

8.19 Friction analysis

Friction is what keeps things from sliding around. Friction exists
between all objects that are in contact with each other. There is friction
between wood and sandpaper, between your books and the desk, and
although very little, between the ice and your skates. By analysing the
friction between an object and a sloped surface, we can determine what
the maximum slope of that surface can be before the object begins to
slide down. The friction between two surfaces depends on the force

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8.19 Friction analysis N. Taute, 2022

pressing the surfaces together and the type of material out of which the
surfaces are made.

The equation used to calculate the friction force is shown below:

𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜇 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

Example problem 1:

Example problem 2:

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N. Taute, 2022 8.20 Energy sources to power your design

8.20 Energy sources to power your design

Here, we talk about the various types of energy sources that you might
like to utilise in your design project to make your design move. I’m sure
you can think of many on your own – solar, hydro, wind, electricity –
but in this course, we will focus on the simpler sources such as air
pressure, gravity, and spring energy. Incidentally, these simple energy
sources are also very simple to analyse for the exact amount of energy
that they will provide to your design.

8.21 Kinetic energy analysis

Kinetic energy is a form of energy that an object has by reason of its
motion. If work, which transfers energy, is done on an object by
applying a net force to it, the object speeds up and thereby gains kinetic
energy. Kinetic energy is a property of a moving object and depends not
only on its motion but also on its mass. The kind of motion may be
translation (or motion along a path from one place to another), or
rotation about an axis.

Translational kinetic energy of a body is equal to:

1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑖 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽) = × 𝑚 × 𝑣2
2
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑚
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( )
𝑠

8.22 Potential energy analysis

When an object is in equilibrium, but one the forces keeping it in such
equilibrium can be removed, that object is said to have potential energy,
where the object has the potential to move if it were released from
whatever was holding it in place.

For example, the heavy ball of a demolition machine is storing potential

energy when it is held at an elevated position, ready to drop and swing
towards a building. As soon as the ball is released, it will drop due to
gravity. Similarly, an arrow of a bow stores potential energy when it is
drawn back. As soon as the arrow is released from one’s grasp, it will be
pushed forward by the elastic force of the string.

The simplest form of potential energy is that which is created due to

gravity. The equation used to calculate this energy is shown below:

𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽) = 𝑚 × 9.81 × ℎ

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8.23 Stored energy analysis N. Taute, 2022

ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝑚)

𝑚2
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 9.81 ( )
𝑠
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)

8.23 Stored energy analysis

Stored energy is when an elastic material is deformed beyond its natural
shape. As it deforms, the material wants more and more to return to its
natural shape. Internal forces are generated inside the material as it
deforms, and these forces increase as the deformation increases. These
forces are directed in a way that, when the material is released, the
forces snap the material back to its original shape.

The material, or object rather, that is most commonly subject to storing

energy, is a spring od coil of some sort. When an object is pressed
against a spring, the spring loads up with stored energy, ready to snap
back and push the object away. You may gather that the object in this
matter when it is pressed against the spring, has its own energy in the
form of potential energy.

The stored energy of a spring depends on its stiffness and how much it
is pressed from its original shape. The equation to calculate stored
energy is:
1
𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽) = 𝑘 × 𝑥 2
2
𝑁
𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ( ) , 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟
𝑚
𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (m)

8.24 Air pressure analysis

Whenever there is a difference in air pressure on either side of a surface,
that surface will move in the direction which has the least air pressure.
If we are able to create the condition where this air pressure differential
exists, we can create energy, or in other words, we can make something
move.

A blown-up balloon has higher air pressure inside it than there is in its
surroundings, thus, if a hole is created in the balloon, the balloon will fly
in the direction opposite to the hole. In another example, if we squeezed
a syringe till it had nothing inside it, sealed off the opening, then
expanded it again, we would create a situation where the syringe had
less air pressure inside it than there would be outside of it. In this

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N. Taute, 2022 8.24 Air pressure analysis

situation, the syringe would want to re-contract due to the atmospheric

air pressure squeezing it from the outside.

In class, we will use the syringe example to calculate the force at which
the atmospheric air pressure pushes on the syringe from the outside.

ENGGEN 115 145

 Appendices

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

Appendix A

Orthographic Projection Exercises

All the exercises in this appendix use third angle projection. Note the name of the views and their
locations in the example below. Also pay attention to the different line types and thicknesses used; see
section 4.3.1 for more details.

Front

Top view

Front view Right side view

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A1. Given the isometric view, draw the top, front and right side views. This shape is made from only
assembling individual cubes together.

Front

A2. Given the isometric view, draw the top, front and right side views. This shape is made from only
assembling individual cubes together.

Front

Front

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

A3. Draw the plan, front and right side view of the object shown in the isometric image.

Front

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A4. Draw the plan, front and right side view of the object shown in the isometric image. Note the
hole feature passes all the way through the object.

Front

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

A5. Choose an appropriate scale and draw three orthographic views of the object. Note the hole
feature passes all the way through the object.

Front

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A6. Use projection lines to draw the top view.

A7. Use projection lines to draw the right side view.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

A8. Given the isometric view, draw the top, front and right side views. This shape is made from only
assembling individual cubes together.

Front

Front

A9. Given the isometric view, draw the top, front and right side views. This shape is made from only
assembling individual cubes together.

Front

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A10. For each shape shown below, circle the odd one out.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

A11. Select the pictorial view(s) that represent the part(s) shown by the orthographic drawing.

Answer: 4,6,10

3 4
2

5 7
6

8
9 10

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A12. For each of the eight shapes numbered 1 to 8, complete the table below by selecting the corres-
ponding isometric view from the 12 sets below labelled A through L.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4

Orthographic shapes:

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E G D L F B A C
Possible isometric representations:

A B C D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E G D L F B A C

A B C D

E F G H

E F G H

I J K L

I J K L

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

A13. Draw the plan, front and right side view of the object shown in the isometric image.

Front

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A14. Produce an orthographic drawing for the object shown in the isometric image.

Front

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

A15. Use projection lines to complete the top view.

A16. Use projection lines to complete the front view.

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A17. Complete the front view of this object.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

A18. Choose an appropriate scale and draw three orthographic views of the object. Note the hole
features pass all the way through the object. All dimensions are in mm. The side of each square in the
grid is 10 mm. Make sure there is enough room on the square grid to fit the views.

Front

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A19. Choose an appropriate scale and draw three orthographic views of the object. Note the hole
feature passes all the way through the object.

Front

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises

A20. The isometric drawing of a modified cube is shown below. Complete the associated orthographic
drawings. The hole feature passes all the way through the object. DIFFICULT PROBLEM.

A21. The isometric drawing of a modified cube is shown below. Complete the associated orthographic
drawings. The hole feature passes all the way through the object. DIFFICULT PROBLEM.

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Appendix A: Orthographic Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

A22. Shown below are the orthographic views of four objects, but in each case some of the lines are
missing. Add the missing lines (there is no need to place the lines accurately, but use a ruler to make
them straight). DIFFICULT PROBLEMS.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises

Appendix B

Isometric Projection Exercises

In this appendix, you will be interpreting orthographic views and drawing the associated isometric view
of several objects. Refer to Chapter 5 for more details. All the exercises in this appendix use third angle
projection. Sometimes, a point (e.g. point A below) is given to help you place the isometric view to fit
the grid provided.

Top view

A
A Front view Right side view

Front

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Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

B1. Given the three orthographic views of the object shown below, draw the isometric view. This
shape is made from only assembling individual cubes together.

B2. Given the three orthographic views of the object shown below, draw the isometric view. This
shape is made from only assembling individual cubes together.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises

B3. Draw the isometric view and then draw the missing orthographic view for the object shown below.
Note the location of point A.

A A

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Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

B4. Draw the isometric view and then draw the missing orthographic view for the object shown below.
Note the location of point A.

A A

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises

B5. Sketch the isometric view for the object shown below.

B6. Sketch the isometric view for the object shown below.

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 Appendix B. Isometric Projection Exercises

Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

B1. Visualisation Problem. Which two of these bent metal strips are impossible to
create. Please circle identifier.
B7. Circle the two metal strips that are impossible to create.

172 ENGGEN 115

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises

B8. For each of the eight shapes labelled A to H, complete the table below by selecting the corres-
ponding orthographic drawing from the 12 sets below numbered 1 through 12.

A B C D E F G H

A B C D

Isometric shapes:

A B C D

E F G H

E F G H

A B C D E F G H
10 11 5 6 1 12 7 2
Possible orthographic drawings:

1 2 3 4
A B C D E F G H
10 11 5 6 1 12 7 2

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

9 10 11 12

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Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

B9. Given the three orthographic views of the object shown below, draw the isometric view. This
shape is made from only assembling individual cubes together.

B10. Given the three orthographic views of the object shown below, draw the isometric view. This
shape is made from only assembling individual cubes together.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises

B11. Draw the isometric view for the object shown below.

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Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises S. Kavermann, 2022

B12. Draw the isometric view for the object shown below.

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B13. Sketch the isometric view for the object shown below.

B14. Sketch the isometric view for the object shown below. Multiple solutions are possible from these
two orthographic views.

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B15. Complete the table below by matching the orthographic drawings to their isometrics views.

Orthographic
Orthogonal
Drawing
Drawing 11 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
5
Isometric
Isometric
Drawing
Drawing D B C D C
(A, B, C, D or E)

1. A B C D E

2. A B C D E

3.
A B C D E

4.
A B C D E

5. A B D E
C

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B16. Draw the isometric view for the object shown below.

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B17. Sketch the isometric view for the object shown below.

B18. Sketch the isometric view for the object shown below.

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B19. Draw the isometric view for the object shown below.

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B20. Draw the isometric view for the object shown below.

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B21. Draw the isometric view for the object shown below.

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B22. Sketch the isometric view for the object shown below. DIFFICULT PROBLEM.

B23. Sketch the isometric view for the object shown below. DIFFICULT PROBLEM.

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S. Kavermann, 2022 Appendix B: Isometric Projection Exercises

B24. Given the three orthographic views of the object shown below, draw the isometric view.

B25. Given the three orthographic views of the object shown below, draw the isometric view.

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 Appendix C: Understanding Detailed Drawings - Exercises
C1. Bracket - Drawing interpretation
Note: Answers often require reviewing multiple views.

+
45 14 22.225 - .025
.000

45.0 DRILL 6.8 TAP M8 (I)

4 HOLES EQUISPACED 42 PCD
31

(C)
108 (E) 42
14 21 2 HOLES 11
R10
(H) (G)
(J) (F)
(A)
(D)

25

14
(B)
16

All dimensions in mm.

Fillets and rounds R5 unless
otherwise specified. R15
3rd angle projection. 14 M16 x 1.5
Drawing is not to scale.
Excercises
Question: Answer: Question: Answer:
1. What is dimension (A)? 10. What is dimension (F)?
2. What is dimension (B)? 11. What is dimension (G)?
3. What is dimension (C)? 12. What is dimension (H)
4. What is dimension (D)? 13. What does PCD at (I) stand for?
5. What is dimension (E)? 14. What is the PCD?
6. How many holes are
15. What is the radius of fillet (J)?
there?
16. What do you think the small
7. How many of the holes numbers next to the 22.225 dimension
are threaded? mean? (We have not covered this, try
to figure it out yourself.)
8. What are the thread 17. Does the drawing follow the ANSI
sizes? or BS 8888:2017 standard?
9. What size do you need 18. Approx. what scale is the
to drill the hole to tap it for drawing? Is this a recommended
thread size M8? scale?

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 72
C2. Cover plate - Drawing interpretation

188
6 HOLES 6 , DRILL THRU 48 Note: Answers often require reviewing multiple views.
16
CSK AT 90 TO 10 (F) A 175
4 +.03
ON 160 PCD (H) 144.96 - .00
(G)
6x R7.5 30 30 135 SECTION A-A
R23 22
149 82 M12
1
15 R3
R6

35
30
R8

22
B B
5 TYP
R25

35
42
(D)

62
45

89
(B)

107
35 35
38
(A) 9
1.2
2 HOLES
R10 95 8 THRU
(E) +.06 S'FACE 20
10 DRILL THRU 32.00 - .00
REAM 11 22 4x M6 THRU
35 5 (C) 5 18
8
A 80
5 5 6
Appendix C: Understanding Detailed Drawings - Exercises

53
66
5 draw

1 x 45
SECTION B-B

All dimensions in mm. Fillets and rounds R5 unless otherwise specified. 3rd angle projection. Drawing is not to scale. (I)
Excercises
Question: Answer: Question: Answer:
1. What is the diameter of (A)? 8. What is the radius (E)?
2. What is dimension (B)? 9. Is surface (F) in front or behind surface (G)? What is the distance between them?
3. What is dimension (C)? 10. What is the Pitch Circle Diameter at (H)? Are the holes evenly spaced?
4. How many holes are there? 11. What does CSK and S'FACE mean?
5. How many of the holes are threaded? 12. The part is designed to be cast. Why do you think S'FACE is specified?
6. What are the thread sizes? 13. What is the wall thickness (I)? (Hint, look for TYP)
7. What is the angle (D)? 14. What does REAM mean? (We haven't covered it, look it up yourself)

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