DESIGN OF LLC RESONANT DC-DC CONVERTER

BASED EV CHARGER
A Project report submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

by

A. SAIPRASANNA (20331A0201)

G. BOLO SANKAR (20331A0227)

J. SAI DINESH (20331A0237)

E. SAI (21335A0208)

Under the esteemed guidance of

Dr. K S RAVI KUMAR

Associate Professor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

M.V.G.R College of Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

MAHARAJ VIJAYARAM GAJAPATHI RAJ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Approved by AICTE-New Delhi & affiliated to JNTU Kakinada Reaccredited by NBA and ‘A’ grade by NAAC)
VIZIANAGARAM

2020-2024
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

MAHARAJ VIJAYARAM GAJAPATHI RAJ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada)

VIZIANAGARAM

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafide record of project work entitled “DESIGN OF LLC
RESONANT DC-DC CONVERTER BASED EV CHARGER” being submitted by A.SAI
PRASANNA (20331A0201), G. BOLO SANKAR (20331A0227), J. SAI DINESH
(20331A0237), E. SAI (21335A0208) in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of
“Bachelor of Technology” in Electrical Engineering, M.V.GR College of Engineering, from
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University during the academic year 2020-2024.

Project Supervisor Head of the Department External Examiner

Dr. K S Ravi Kumar Dr. R. Gowrisankara Rao

Associate Professor Professor & H.O.D

Department of EEE Department of EEE

M.V.G.R College of Engineering M.V.G.R College of Engineering

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my privilege to work under the esteemed guidance of Dr. K S Ravi Kumar, Asst.
Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, MVGR College of
Engineering, as project supervisor. I would like to express my deep sense of indebtedness and
whole hearted thanks to my beloved project supervisor for his valuable suggestions, support
and guidance in carrying out this project work.

We wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. R. Gowrisankara Rao, Professor & Head of
the Department, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, MVGR College of Engineering, for
his inspiration and above all the moral support and the constant encouragement in carrying out
this project work.

We wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Ramakrishnan Ramesh, Principal,

MVGR College of Engineering for providing me with all the facilities to carry out this project
work.

Last but not the least, we wish to convey my sincere thanks to all those who have
directly and indirectly contributed for the successful completion of this work.

Project students:

A. SAIPRASANNA (20331A0201)
G. BOLO SANKAR (20331A0227)
J. SAI DINESH (20331A0237)
E. SAI (21335A0208)
 ABSTRACT

Present day EV Chargers are having some problems like instability in DC voltage at DC bus,
and low gain DC-DC Converter topologies, unable to meet the demand of high-power loads.
The objectives of the project are, firstly, to regulate the DC link voltage, secondly, to obtain
high voltage gain by using improved DC-DC Converter and thirdly, to obtain bidirectional
power flow to manage the energy in DC microgrid. In this project, the focus shall be on using
isolated DC to DC converter to achieve the above objectives.

The combustion of fossil fuels, a non-renewable and finite resource, has caused increasing air
pollution, ozone damage, acid rain and global warming. Electric vehicles (EVs) are eco-
friendly with the attractive properties of lower greenhouse emissions, lower fuel usage and
reduced air pollution. Battery and charger is one of the vital elements to analyse and develop
for EVs. This research focuses battery charger with the emphasis on the design and analysis
of the DC-DC converter.

Firstly, an LLC resonant topology is selected as the initial design candidate of the DC-DC
resonant converter owing to the preferred soft-switching features. And with the help of LLC
Resonant Converter, The Design of LLC Converter Based EV Charger is designed. The
characteristics have been analysed and validated by extensive simulations and experimental
tests.
Program Outcomes:

a. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
b. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
c. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
d. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
e. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
f. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
g. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
h. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
i. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
j. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
k. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
 member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
l. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

Program Specific Outcomes:

1. PSO1: An ability to design & develop models as well as analyse & assess the
performance of different types of generation, transmission, distribution and protection
mechanisms in core engineering.

2. PSO2: An ability to devise control strategies and provide optimal solutions for
industrial and societal electrical energy requirements

Outcomes of the PROGRAM OUTCOMES

project PS PS
a b c d e f g h I J K L
O1 O2
Ability to understand
concept of Resonant H L L H L L L L L L H H L H
DC-DC Converters
Ability to design an
LLC Resonant DC-DC
H H H L H H L L H H H H L H
Converter based on the
requirement.
Ability to understand
the knowledge of
simulate the real time H L L L H L L L H H L H L H
application using
MATLAB.
 CONTENTS
Acknowledgement……………….………………………………....................iii

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………. iv

Program outcomes………………………………………………………………v

Chapter 1........................................................................................................................................

Introduction....................................................................................................................................

1.1 History of DC-DC Converters.............................................................................................

1.2 How Popular Are They and Why.........................................................................................

1.3 Reasons DC-DC Converters Are Popular Now-A-Days.....................................................

1.4 Objectives of the project......................................................................................................

Chapter 2........................................................................................................................................

Literature Review..........................................................................................................................

Chapter 3........................................................................................................................................

DC-DC Converters........................................................................................................................

3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................

3.1.1 Need for DC-DC Converters.............................................................................................

3.2 Classification of DC-DC Converters...................................................................................

3.3 Non-Isolated and Isolated....................................................................................................

Chapter 4........................................................................................................................................

Resonant Converters..................................................................................................................

4.1 Introduction to Resonant Converter......................................................................................

4.1.1 Block Digram of Resonant Converters.............................................................................

4.2 Need of LLC Converters......................................................................................................

4.3 Types of Resonant Converters.............................................................................................

4.4 Construction and Operation of LLC Converters.................................................................

 4.5 Design of LLC Converters...................................................................................................

4.6 Advantages of LLC Converters Over Others .......................................................................

Chapter 5........................................................................................................................................

Electric Vehicle Charger................................................................................................................

5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................

5.2 Types of EV Chargers..........................................................................................................

5.3 Design of a LLC DC-DC Conerter Based On Board EV Charger ......................................

Chapter 6........................................................................................................................................

Simulations and Results.................................................................................................................

6.1 Simulation and Results of LLC Converter............................................................................

6.2 Simulation and Results of LLC Converter Based On Board EV Charger............................

Conclusion..................................................................................................................................

Future Scope ..............................................................................................................................

Chapter 7........................................................................................................................................

References...................................................................................................................................

Annexure.....................................................................................................................................

List of Figures
Fig.1.1 DC-DC Converter in EV Charger…………………………………………….…..12

Fig. 3.2.1 Classification of DC-DC Converters…………………………………………...31

Fig 3.2.1(a) Linear DC-DC Converter…………………………………………………….31

Fig 3.2.1(b) Switching DC-DC Converter…………………………………………….......32

Fig. 3.2.2 Push Pull …………….…………………………………………………………33

Fig. 3.2.3 full bridge converter ….…………………………………………………..…….34

Fig. 3.2.4 - Half Bridge Converter …………………………………………………….…..35

Fig. 3.2.5 - Forward Converter …...………………………………………………...….….36

Fig. 3.2.6 - Fly Back Converter…...…………………….…………………………..….….37

Fig. 3.2.7 Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC)….………...………..….….37

Fig. 3.2.8 - Cuk Converter…………………………………………………………..….….38

Fig. 3.2.9 - Buck Converter…….…………………………………………………..……...39

Fig. 3.2.10 - Boost Converter…...…………………………………………………....……40

Fig. 3.2.11 - Buck - Boost Converter…………………………………………..……….....41

Fig. 3.2.12 Cuk Converter…..…………………………………………………..……..…. 41

Fig. 4.1 Resonant Converter………………………………………………………...….….46

Fig. 4.1.1 Block diagram of Resonant Converter…………………………………………..47

Fig. 4.2.1 Series Resonant Converter………………………………………………………50

Fig. 4.2.2 Parallel Resonant Converter…………………………………………………..…51

Fig. 4.3 LLC Resonant Converter………………………………………………………….52

Fig. 4.4.3 LLC Frequency response of Resonant Converter.…………………………...….52

Fig. 4.4.3.1Power delivery operation mode…….………………………………………….52

Fig. 4.4.3.2 Free wheeling operation mode…..…………………………………………….52

Fig. 4.4 Flow chart of Resonant Converter Design………………………………………...54

Fig. 4.4.1 Q Curve …………………………………………………………………………55

Fig. 4.4.2 m curves………………………………………………………………………....56

Fig. 4.4.3 Fx min Curve………………………………………………………………….…58

Fig 4.4.4 Kmax Curve……………………………………………………………………....58

Fig. 4.4.5 Q Curve. ………………………………………………………………………...60

Fig.4.4.6 m Curves for different m values generated in MATLAB…………………...……61

Fig. 5.1 EV Charger. …………………………………………………………………….…64

Fig.5.1.1 Level 1 EV Charger. ………………………………………………………….….65

Fig.5.1.2 Level 2 EV Charger……………………………………………………………....66

Fig.5.1.3 DC Fast EV Charger. ………………………………………………………….…66

Fig. 5.1.4 Wireless EV Charger…………………………………………………………..…67

Fig.5.1.5 Smart EV Charger……………………………………………………………..….68

Fig. 5.1.6 Portable EV Charger……………………………………………………………..68

Fig. 5.3 Resonant EV Charger. ………………………………………………………….…69

Fig. 5.3.1 PFC circuit………... ………………………………………………………….…69

List of Tables

Table. 3.2.1 Comparison of Various isolated DC-DC converters.......................................44

Table. 3.2.2 Comparison of Various non-isolated DC-DC converters................................45

Table 4.3.1 Operation of LLC Converter…………………….…………………...……….61

Table 4.1.1 Design parameters…………………………………………………………….61

Table 6.1.1 Simulation Design Parameters………………………………………………..70

 CHAPTER- 1

INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
This chapter introduces electric vehicles, automotive batteries, their chargers and
design requirements. The motivations to carry out the research is described followed by the
main contributions of the doctoral research work and the outline of the thesis. 1.1 Electric
Vehicles The world energy consumption due to the transport sector is expected to show
dramatic growth of around 44% from 2008 to 2035. This consumption is responsible for the
largest share (63%) of the total increase in petroleum and other fossil fuels usage from 2010
to 2040. The combustion of fossil fuels, a non-renewable and finite resource, has caused
increasing air pollution, ozone damage, acid rain and global warming. Therefore, new
technologies for alternative vehicles are of great interest to researchers, industry,
governments and general public nowadays.

Electric vehicles (EVs) use electric motors for propulsion and are directly powered
from an energy store rather than indirectly via internal combustion engines (ICEs). Compared
with the traditional fossil fuel-powered vehicles, EVs are more eco-friendly with the
attractive properties of lower greenhouse emissions, lower fuel usage and reduced air
pollution. There is thus a growing interest in EVs globally.

Besides the potential to solve environmental deterioration and fossil fuel crisis, another
benefit of EVs is that they can be used as energy storage units in the vehicle-to grid (V2G)
application when they are plugged in to their charging sockets, as well as the conventional
grid-to-vehicle (G2V) charging. The main idea of V2G technology is to use vehicles as the
energy storage units and provide power to the grid for supporting the grid during voltage sags
and frequency dips. This support may become crucial when a large percentage of grid power
is generated from renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar and wave/tide, which have a
large degree of fluctuation.

1.1 History of DC-DC Converter

A DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit or electromechanical device that

converts a source of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another. It is a type
of electric power converter. Power levels range from very low (small batteries) to very high
(high-voltage power transmission)

Before the development of power semiconductors, one way to convert the voltage of a DC
supply to a higher voltage, for low-power applications, was to convert it to AC by using

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 12

a vibrator, then by a step-up transformer, and finally a rectifier. Where higher power was
needed, a motor-generator unit was often used, in which an electric motor drove a generator
that produced the desired voltage. (The motor and generator could be separate devices, or
they could be combined into a single "dynamotor" unit with no external power shaft.) These
relatively inefficient and expensive designs were used only when there was no alternative, as
to power a car radio (which then used thermionic valves (tubes) that require much higher
voltages than available from a 6 or 12 V car battery). The introduction of power
semiconductors and integrated circuits made it economically viable by use of techniques
described below. For example, first is converting the DC power supply to high-frequency AC
as an input of a transformer - it is small, light, and cheap due to the high frequency — that
changes the voltage which gets rectified back to DC. Although by 1976 transistor car radio
receivers did not require high voltages, some amateur radio operators continued to use
vibrator supplies and dynamotors for mobile transceivers requiring high voltages although
transistorized power supplies were available.

While it was possible to derive a lower voltage from a higher with a linear regulator or even a
resistor, these methods dissipated the excess as heat; energy-efficient conversion became
possible only with solid-state switch-mode circuits

The DC-DC converter is an electromechanical device or circuitry used to convert a DC

voltage from one level to another based on circuit requirements. Belonging to the electric
power converter family, the DC-DC converter can be operated for small voltage applications
like batteries, or high voltage applications like HV power transmission.
When there were no semiconductors, a common technique for converting DC voltage into
higher voltage for low-power projects was to transform it into AC voltage by means of
vibrator circuits. Then, a step-up transformer was used to increase the output voltage level,
followed by a rectifier circuit for performing the DC conversion. A combination of motor and
generator was employed for applications where high power was required. The motor operates
the generator, providing the required load voltage. These techniques were expensive and less
efficient but used since no alternative method existed at that time.

The invention of power semiconductors and ICs led to different less expensive solutions,
such as DC power supply, where high-frequency AC is input to a transformer. This device is
less expensive and easy to handle. It varies the voltage that again converts into DC through
rectifiers.
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An electric vehicle (car) is equipped with a large, high-voltage lithium-ion battery and with a
low-voltage lead battery used in engine vehicles as well. Both batteries need to be charged.
The lithium-ion battery is charged at a charging station, and the lead battery is charged with
power from the lithium-ion battery. When the battery is charged, a DC/DC converter converts
high-voltage DC power into low-voltage DC power. This article will discuss the functions
and system configuration of the DC/DC converter, and will introduce electronic components
making up the converter as well.

Every component constituting an EV operates on electricity. The motor that causes the
vehicle to travel (travel motor) operates on power from the large, high-voltage lithium-ion
battery, while numerous other components (the ECU, cameras, lights, etc.) operate on power
from the low-voltage lead battery. The lead battery becomes low on power to feed when left
unchanged. It needs to be charged with power from the lithium-ion battery. Now, high-
voltage DC power from the lithium-ion battery needs to be converted into low-voltage DC
power with which the lead battery is charged, and the DC/DC converter makes this
conversion. Low-voltage DC power resulting from the conversion allows various components
in the EV to operate with proper voltage supplies.

Fig.1 DC-DC Converter in EV Charger.

High-voltage applications and low-voltage applications

• High-voltage applications

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 The travel motor needs high voltage to operate with. Because the motor has a large
power capacity, trying to run the motor with low voltage supply creates a large current flow
in the motor, which increases in-circuit loss, thus leading to lower conversion efficiency.
Improving the conversion efficiency requires a high voltage supply (400 V or higher) to the
motor, which keeps the current flow therein small.

• Low-voltage applications

Low voltage is supplied to components not related to the travel motor, such as various
pieces of equipment in the vehicle interior and head lights. Even a device that runs on high
voltage has an internal control circuit that runs on low voltage. For these reasons, the DC/DC
converter that converts high-voltage DC power into low-voltage DC power is essential to the
vehicle.

Why is a 12 V battery used for low-voltage components?

Cars in the early days of the automobile history carried engines that had to be
manually started. Thereafter, the starter system was developed. In those days, each car carried
a lead battery to kick start the starter. Currently, a passenger car carries a 12 V battery
composed of six lead battery cells (each of which generates a voltage of about 2.1 V).
However, a truck with a large starter usually carries a 24 V battery (composed of two 12 V
batteries).

Trends in the market and demand for the converter

As the number of EVs on the market increases, the number of DC/DC converters
incorporated in EVs will also increase. Facing an increase in power-operated pieces of
equipment, the DC/DC converter has to be ready to deal with high-power applications. In
addition, the DC/DC converter itself has to be capable of higher power output while
remaining compact in size. To meet these requirements, electronic components making up the
DC/DC converter need to have the following important properties: high voltage (high
withstand voltage), large current, low loss, high resistance to heat, small size, and high
precision.

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1.2 How Popular are DC-DC Converters and why

DC-to-DC converters are used in portable electronic devices such as cellular

phones and laptop computers, which are supplied with power from batteries primarily. Such
electronic devices often contain several sub-circuits, each with its own voltage level
requirement different from that supplied by the battery or an external supply (sometimes
higher or lower than the supply voltage). Additionally, the battery voltage declines as its
stored energy is drained. Switched DC to DC converters offer a method to increase voltage
from a partially lowered battery voltage thereby saving space instead of using multiple
batteries to accomplish the same thing.

Most DC-to-DC converter circuits also regulate the output voltage. Some exceptions include
high-efficiency LED Power Sources, which are a kind of DC - DC converter that regulates
the current through the LEDs, and simple charge pumps which double or triple the output
voltage.

DC-to-DC converters which are designed to maximize the energy harvest for Photovoltaic
systems and for wind turbines are called power optimizers.

Transformers used for voltage conversion at mains frequencies of 50–60 Hz must be large
and heavy for powers exceeding a few watts. This makes them expensive, and they are
subject to energy losses in their windings and due to eddy currents in their cores. DC-to-DC
techniques that use transformers or inductors work at much higher frequencies, requiring only
much smaller, lighter, and cheaper wound components. Consequently, these techniques are
used even where a mains transformer could be used; for example, for domestic electronic
appliances it is preferable to rectify mains voltage to DC, use switch-mode techniques to
convert it to high-frequency AC at the desired voltage, then, usually, rectify to DC. The entire
complex circuit is cheaper and more efficient than a simple mains transformer circuit of the
same output. DC-to-DC converters are widely used for DC microgrid applications, in the
context of different voltage levels.
When deciding what DC-to-DC converter to use in a device, electronics designers have to
take into account a variety of factors, with the most important ones being the following:
• Input voltage: different converters are designed to withstand different input voltages up
to a certain threshold.

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• Output voltage: this characteristic determines what voltage range a converter can
provide, so you have to pick one depending on what voltage the sub-circuits in your
device require.
• Output current and output voltage define the electrical power a converter can provide.
• Efficiency is crucial for portable devices that must work as long as possible.
• Temperature. In some cases, efficiency is insignificant, but the energy that wasn’t
converted into electricity turns into heat. And that can be another problem, especially if
you deal with small devices.
• Size: the size is especially important for portable devices, as you need to mount a lot of
components on a small PCB.
• Stable supply: when designing a new electronic product or system, we recommend using
relatively new DC-DC converters (and other components) and make sure the
manufacturer won’t stop producing them in the nearest future.
Using DC-to-DC converters often causes companion problems.
First of all, some DC-DC converters can generate electromagnetic noise affecting
sensitive sub-circuits. One can neutralize this effect by using additional capacitors and filter
circuits, as well as placing converters away from sensitive sub-circuits.
In high-power devices and medical equipment, safety becomes another issue, as high voltages
can be fatal if the input-to-output insulation suffers a breakdown or fault. To meet safety
standards (IEC 60950-1, IEC 60335-1, IEC 60601-1, and their national analogy), one has to
use protection against electric shock. The IEC 60950-1 standard distinguishes five electrical
insulation grades:
 Functional
 Basic
 Supplementary
 Double
 Reinforced
What protection level one has to use depends on the electrical insulation used in the AC-DC
power supply and whether or not the DC-DC converter’s input and/or output circuits connect
to protective Earth.
And finally, as I mentioned above, overheating is another common problem electronics
designers have to solve. In some cases, you can avoid this issue by using a switching

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converter that doesn’t generate as much heat as a linear converter. However, sometimes it’s
not possible.
Most heat that DC-DC converters generate comes from transformers. As a rule, converters
use planar transformers that are regarded safe unless their temperature exceeds a certain
threshold. Regulation standards recommend using class B and F thermal insulation systems
for transformers that can work safely at up to +130 °C and +155 °C, respectively.
Additionally, one can use other methods of heat dissipation. First of all, we recommend using
transistors with a lower static drain-to-source on-resistance, as they lose less energy, so less
energy is converted into heat. Second, leaving more space around the converter will expand
the cooling area, while adding more vias to the PCB will increase the cool-down rate.
Each energy source might require a specific DC-DC converter to be integrated into the high
voltage (HV) DC link of the powertrain. For bidirectional electric sources like SCs and
batteries, bidirectional DC-DC converters are essential to absorb the regenerative braking
energy, which maximizes the overall efficiency of the system. However, these bidirectional
sources also have different requirements for the connected DC-DC converters. For example,
due to the fast charging and discharging capability of SCs, a fast-dynamic controlled
converter is required to avoid incompatible operations. A DC-DC converter with a small
number of passive components is preferable when the energy source is an SC, to lessen
transition intervals between the charging mode and the discharging mode, which is generally
around a few microseconds. In the case of batteries, fast dynamic control is not necessary
because a charging profile roughly lasts from 30 min to a few hours, although it is essential to
reduce the ripples from the input current to prolong the lifespan of the batteries. Despite
having different characteristics, there are some common characteristics in the DC-DC
converter topologies. These characteristics are a DC-DC converter with high voltage gain and
having the capability of delivering power over a wide range of voltage. Moreover, the output
voltage of batteries and SCs are unregulated and low; therefore, an HV DC-DC converter is
required to increase the low unregulated electric source voltage to a highly regulated level by
transitorily storing the source energy.

This energy is stored either in electric field storage elements (capacitors) or in magnetic field
storage elements (single inductor/multiport inductor/coupled inductor/interleaved inductor)
using active switching components (IGBTs/ MOSFETs) and diodes. An argument could be
made for using a transformer to step-up the output AC voltage level instead of using a DC-
DC converter. However, the advantages of using the DC-DC converter is that it is
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 18
lightweight, compact in size, low-priced, highly efficient and reliable. Moreover, an HV
battery can be used instead of an HV DC-DC converter with a complex battery management
system (BMS). Hence, an HV DC-DC converter will reduce the number of series of battery
cells and the complexity of the BMS. Achieving a high DC link voltage is required to
enhance the inverter performances.

Moreover, an HV DC-DC converter can afford higher DC link voltage than HV battery,
which also increases the efficiency of the power electronics components and the EM.
According to the requirements of a dedicated drivetrain, the output of the DC-DC converter
can be regulated spontaneously during a rush driving period, which adds another degree of
freedom (DoF) in the system. Despite all the benefits listed, an HV DC-DC converter has
several drawbacks: very flat voltage gain with moderate gate pulse switching, inefficiency to
attain high power density, low efficiency due to hard-switching technique, hard to design
robust high bandwidth control loop due to presence of Right Half Plane Zero (RHPZ) in the
transfer function and losses generating from the HV DC-DC converter unit itself.

To overcome these impediments of conventional DC-DC converters, researchers are

exploring emerging WBGSs (i.e., silicon carbide, gallium nitride), modelling new converter
topologies and designing novel control concepts for high-voltage gain and high-power
application to ensure high power density and high efficiency while attaining desire reliability.
Different viable topologies of the DC-DC converter can be opted for BEV and PHEV
powertrains. However, a small-sized, reliable, parameterized, lightweight, controllable,
scalable, and efficient DC-DC converter has a higher demand in automotive industries. Some
of these characteristics can be attained by using the interleaving technique of boost converter.

Full-bridge boost converters can also be selected for BEVs and PHEVs if galvanic isolation is
required between the source and the load. To overcome the hard switching characteristics of
the DC-DC converter, Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS) and Zero-Current Switching (ZCS)
source converters are employed in BEVs and PHEVs. This paper illustrates multiphase,
multiport or multidevice boost converter topologies which connect multiple electric sources
using the parallel connection of switching converters with interleaved control technique.
Isolated and non-isolated multi-phase interleaved converters are selected for vehicular
applications due to their capability of improving the performance of the electric sources and
demand for low ripples with tight tolerance.

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These converter topologies can minimize input current ripples and output voltage ripples
without increasing the passive components’ size (inductor and capacitor size), attain high
bandwidth control, improve the overall efficiency, integrated thermal distribution, and
reliability of the system. However, these topologies have sensitivity and stability problems
due to the duty cycle at load changes, and scalability problems as multiple numbers of
components are used. Each topology has its own benefits and drawbacks and should be
selected based on the requirements, overall cost, device size, efficiency, and reliability.

1.3 Reasons DC-DC Converters Are Popular Now-A-Days

A DC-DC charger is an electronic device used to convert the electrical energy from a
DC power source into DC power suitable for charging devices. Here are several advantages
of DC-to-DC converters:

Voltage Adaptability: DC to DC converters can convert the input voltage from a power
source into an output voltage suitable for specific devices. This makes them well-suited for
converting electrical energy between devices with different voltage requirements. For
example, they can convert the 12V DC power from a car battery into 5V DC power suitable
for charging a mobile phone

Current Regulation: DC to DC battery converters can also regulate the output current to
meet the charging requirements of devices. This allows them to provide the appropriate
charging current for different devices, ensuring charging safety and effectiveness.

Energy Conversion Efficiency: DC converters typically have high energy conversion

efficiency. They can convert input electrical energy into output electrical energy with high
efficiency, reducing energy waste and loss. This helps improve energy utilization in devices
and prolong battery life.

Versatility: DC charger can adapt to different input and output voltage requirements, making
them versatile in various applications. They can be used for charging devices, electronic
equipment, communication devices, automotive electronics, and more.

The advantages of DC/DC converter are

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 High efficiency
 Current loss is small and heat generation is small.
 Wide range of power configurations is available.

Especially compared to linear type voltage regulator, the efficiency is very high and the
DC/DC converter is optimum for application in which battery's operating time needs to be
extended.
In addition, the efficiency is high and the loss is small, so the heat generation caused by IC is
small and measures against heat generation can be simplified or reduced.
Unlike the linear type voltage regulator that can just step-down the voltage, the power supply
such as step-up, inverting, step-up and down etc. other than step-down can be created.

There are several disadvantages associated with AC-DC power supplies, including:

1 Efficiency: AC-DC power supplies can be less efficient than other types of power
supplies, due to losses in the conversion process, particularly in low-quality units.
2 Cost: AC-DC power supplies can be more expensive than other types of power
supplies, especially for high-power applications, due to the need for components
such as transformers, rectifiers, and regulators.
3 Complexity: AC-DC power supplies can be more complex than other types of
power supplies, requiring multiple stages of conversion and regulation, which can
lead to reliability issues.
4 Heat Generation: The conversion process in an AC-DC power supply generates
heat, which can affect the performance and longevity of the device.Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI): AC-DC power supplies can generate electromagnetic
interference (EMI) that can affect the performance of nearby electronic devices.
5 Size and Weight: AC-DC power supplies can be larger and heavier than other types
of power supplies, which can be a disadvantage in portable or space-constrained
applications.

Advantages of DC Supply
1. Suffers from less energy wasted during power distribution and transmission

Because DC power doesn’t have a frequency, it suffers from less line losses than AC power
when compared at the same voltage. I covered this more extensively above.
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‍2. Many DC devices are intrinsically more efficient than AC devices

As the world prioritizes greener technology, many devices are becoming more efficient. For
example, a DC water pump could be two times more efficient than an AC model with the
same wattage. Additionally, LED lights are our most efficient source of lighting, and they
also require DC power.

‍3. DC power is required for modern, digital devices

Without DC power, or the rectifiers that make it possible to convert AC to DC power, we

would not be able to use our modern devices, such as smartphones or laptops.

‍4. Safer to touch (less likely to cause heart fibrillation)

As covered above, DC power is safer to touch when compared to AC power at the same
wattage. This is because AC power is more likely to cause significant harm, such as heart
fibrillation, when compared to DC power at the same wattage. With that said, you should
avoid coming in contact with any electrical circuits unless you know what you’re doing.
Later in this article, I'll cover a new technology called Fault Managed Power (FMP) that
makes DC power completely safe to touch.

‍5. Easier to store (for solar power batteries etc.)

Batteries store energy in the form of chemical potential. That chemical potential can only be
released as DC power. The implications of energy storage are endless, from enabling
electrical generators for remote cottages, to clean backup generators for a hospital.

‍6. Plays a major role in renewable energy generation

Part of the reason DC power supports the push for renewable energy generation is because it's
easier to store. Furthermore, solar panels produce DC power and, although there’s a long way
to go for energy storage technology, much DC power can be stored in batteries to prolong the
usage of the energy generated by solar panels. This means that, if there’s cloud cover for a
while (for example) power can still be distributed to the home or building from the backup
battery.

1.4 Objectives of the project

1. Improve the Voltage Regulation of DC-DC Converters.
2. Improve Voltage Gain of DC-DC Converters.
3. Simplify the Design of DC-DC Converters.
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4. Enhance energy independence and resilience in charging infrastructure.
5. Promote renewable energy adoption.
6. Provide sustainable transportation infrastructure.
7. Facilitate convenient and accessible EV charging.
8. Demonstrate the feasibility of solar technology integration

CHAPTER- 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1 DC-DC CONVERTERS

The paper [1] says that, the High step-up DC-DC converters have been widely used in the
renewable energy systems. It has been attaining popularity due to their increasing practices
and extensive application in photovoltaic, fuel cell, uninterrupted power supply and electric
vehicles. A review is presented to demonstrate the various isolated and non-isolated DC-DC
converter topologies, different isolated flyback topologies and recent trades. This paper
presents various isolated and non-isolated DC-DC converters integrating PV system were
discussed. Each converter is capable of providing desired power. The various converters can
be selected based on their cost, output power requirements, and various industrial
applications.

The paper [2] says that, this paper compares a non-isolated DC/DC converter (interleaved
Buck/Boost) and an isolated converter (Dual Active Bridge) in a bidirectional charging
application for Electric Vehicles. this paper compared two DC/DC converter structures for
use in bidirectional chargers for EVs. The first configuration is a non-isolated four-phase
interleaved Buck/Boost converter and the second is an isolated Dual Active Bridge. The
simulation criteria relies on the value of the passive elements, such as the DC Bus capacitor,
and the input and output filters, the voltage and current ratings of the switches, the efficiency,
the control complexity and the overall size. While the Buck/Boost seems to have several
advantages over the filters’ size and the simplicity of the control, the DAB stands out when it
comes to efficiency, flexibility of the control and modulation and ratings of the switches.

The paper [3] says that, this paper presents design and simple method of modelling DC-DC
converter using MATLAB/Simulink. The non-linear parameters such as equivalent series
resistance of the inductor and capacitor and the threshold voltage of MOSFET switches are
considered in the model. Similarly, the non-linear effects such as S/H, quantization, delay,
and saturation are considered in the closed loop controller design and simulation. In this
paper, the MATLAB/Simulink environment is used for design and simulation of closed loop
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Buck converter. The different subsystem models including the PID controller are designed
and simulated. These models are then used to evaluate the closed-loop behaviour of the
converter.

The paper [4] says that, this paper deals with the question about the most efficient and less
energy consumptive type of low voltage DC-DC converter. Different types of DC-DC
converters (Synchronous buck-boost, cuk, Zeta, Sepic etc.) are analysed in terms of low
voltage implementation. The comparison of energy consumption of different types of
converters is given. Different examples of such converter implementation are examined. The
obtained results show, that buck and boost converters are more efficient, than cuk, Zeta and
SEPIC converters, if all converters have the same nominal values of passive components,
transistors and diodes, and if they operate with the same frequency.

The paper [5] says that, DC microgrids are popular due to the integration of renewable energy
sources such as solar photovoltaics and fuel cells. Owing to the low output voltage of these
dc power generators, highly efficient high gain dc– dc converters are in need to connect the
dc microgrid. In this paper, a non-isolated high gain dc–dc converter is proposed without
using the voltage multiplier cell and/or hybrid switched-capacitor technique. The proposed
topology utilizes two non-isolated inductors that are connected in series/parallel during
discharging/charging mode. In this paper, a non-isolated high gain dc–dc converter was
presented to achieve high voltage gain. For any converter that uses single duty ratio D, the
extreme duty ratio operation is not reliable. In the proposed converter, the inclusion of switch
S3 and the operation of three switches with two different duty ratios are the main advantages.
Theoretical and experimental analysis was done for the voltage gain, efficiency, voltage
stress on the switches and diodes for the proposed converter.

The paper [6] says that, A new class of high-voltage-gain DC-DC converters for high
efficiency and transformer-less DC-DC applications where large voltage step-up ratios are
required, is presented in this paper. The converter is derived from the hybrid integration of a
switched-capacitor converter and a boost converter. It features high step-up voltage
conversion ratio with a moderate duty cycle; non-pulsating input current; low voltage stress
on all of the switches; easy implementation of control and driving circuits; scalability for high
current high-power applications; and low cost due to reduced components via combination of
a two-stage converter into a single-stage converter. This paper presents a new class of high
frequency DC-DC converter for high efficiency transformer-less DC-DC application where
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large voltage step-down ratios are required. The proposed converter can be widely used as an
interface for renewable energy systems in DC micro-grids. The proposed converter also
shows great potential in high voltage gain, high current and high-power applications.
Therefore, the proposed hybrid converter can be applied to a broad range of power
conversion utilizations.

The paper [7] says that, Nowadays, many fields like renewable energy systems,
transportation, industrial, medical and others involves the usage of high voltage gain dc-dc
converters. This paper proposes a new version of non-isolated dc-dc converter (one switch)
along with a high voltage transfer gain. Inspiration from quadratic boost converter and gain
cell concept, a high gain dc-dc converter is proposed. This converter achieves minimized
input current stress due to continuous source current. Notably, the new converter has the
potential of achieving a voltage gain of nearly 10 without using extreme duty ratio. This
paper a new version of non-isolated dc-dc converter suitable for high voltage gain application
was proposed. This topology is derived based on quadratic boost converter and gain cell
concept. The proposed converter has benefits such as continuous input current, single switch
and higher voltage gain. Thus, from circuit performance analysis and simulation it is inferred
that the propounded converter outperformances the existing high gain dc-dc converter
topologies.

RESONANT CONVERTERS

The paper [8] says that, Electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)
are gaining popularity because they are more environmentally friendly, less noisy and more
efficient. These vehicles have batteries can be charged by on-board battery chargers that can
be conductive or inductive. In conductive chargers, the charger is physically connected to the
grid by a connector. With the inductive chargers, energy can be transferred wirelessly over a
large air-gap through inductive coupling, eliminating the physical connection between the
charger and the grid. EVs and PHEVs have battery packs that can be charged by the battery
chargers. These battery chargers convert the ac power from the grid to the dc power, and
charge the batteries inside these vehicles. In vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications, these battery
chargers are bidirectional, capable of transferring power back to the grid. The focus of this
dissertation was to design and implement a resonant-type DC-DC converter that manages the
energy flow between the dc bus and the high-voltage battery in EVs and PHEVs.

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The paper [9] says that, LLC resonant converter is utilized for 3.3 kW on-board charger
(OBC), where high efficiency and wide output voltage are required. In this paper, the
resonant frequency and the magnetizing inductor of the converter are firstly optimized based
on the required efficiency. Then the resonant inductor and the resonant capacitor are designed
considering the required maximum output voltage. The energy equations and the KCL and
KVL equations about the converter are established by time domain method to find out the
information about peak resonant current, peak magnetizing current and minimum switching
frequency. converter`s voltage gain, peak resonant current and peak magnetizing current.
Based on the above information obtained by the proposed design method, which cannot be
obtained by FHA method, the converter`s magnetic components are accurately designed and
work safely in the full output voltage range.

The paper [10] says that, Inductor Inductor Capacitor (LLC) resonant converter has gained
attention of researchers and engineers these days because of its advantages such as low
switching losses due to ZVS turn on, possibility of high frequency operation, high power
density over other existing resonant converters. Here in this paper the LLC resonant converter
of constant output voltage is designed using first harmonic approximation and the prototype
of the converter is also developed. In this paper full bridge LLC resonant converter is
discussed and its design procedure also presented. Prototype of designed LLC resonant
converter is realized. But due to the difficulties in adjusting the value of resonant inductor we
did not use the principle of integrated magnetics. Various tests are conducted. From the test
results various characteristics of LLC resonant converter were studied. It is observed that at
low input voltages both efficiency and operating frequencies decrease.

The paper [11] says that, a resonant LLC converter has several desired features such as high
efficiency, low EMI and high-power density, the design of a resonant converter is an
involved task, and requires more effort for optimization compared to PWM converters. This
document aims to simplify this task, and make it easier to optimally design the resonant tank.

The paper [12] says that, this thesis presents a detailed design and control methodology of
asymmetric CLLC resonant converters suitable for high voltage gain bidirectional EV
charging applications. A broad shift to 800 V EV systems is expected by 2025, thereby
accelerating the need for 400 to 800V DC-DC converters for charging and discharging of the
EVs at residential outlets. However, most of the reported CLLC converters are of symmetric
or nearly symmetric structure with unity capacitance and transformer turns ratio, and hence
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are suitable for voltage gain close to unity. Unlike the existing CLLC design methods, the
proposed methodology tunes the transformer turns ratio besides the resonant tank parameters
to attain the desired voltage gain. The effect of the design parameters on the performance of
the proposed CLLC converter is investigated and it is found that higher efficiency needs
moderate turns ratio, moderate quality factor, and higher capacitance ratio. It is also found
that symmetric CLLC structure with unity capacitance ratio fails to attain the required high
voltage gain.

The paper [13] says that, the LLC series resonant converter has emerged as a solution to
applications requiring power conversion with isolation, reduced volume and high efficiency,
such as PV systems and EV chargers. However, the LLC resonant converter is limited in
power, so it requires a multi-phase configuration in order to provide higher currents. This
configuration connects the outputs of two or more LLC converters in parallel, increasing the
output current but introducing imbalance and circulating currents due to the mismatch and
tolerance values of components in each resonant tank. This paper proposed a simple
decoupled control scheme for multi-phase LLC resonant converters using independent PI
controllers to share the output currents evenly and to eliminate the circuiting current. The
control scheme of each LLC converter uses the same output current reference, has identical
PI controllers and implements pulse-frequency modulation (PFM) to obtain current sharing
and eliminate circulating current, providing very low steady-state error and satisfactory
transient performance, even under severe mismatch of the resonant tank parameters as well as
disturbances on the load.

The paper [14] says that, the trend in DC/DC converters development is toward higher
frequency, power density and efficiency. The traditional hard-switched converter is limited in
switching frequency and power density. The phase-shift full-bridge PWM Zero-voltage-
switching (ZVS) converter has been used widely because of its ZVS working condition. But
it has a problem due to the reverse recovery of the diodes, which reduces its efficiency.
Nowadays, the LLC resonant converter is a popular research field to consider for increasing
converter efficiency. Nowadays, LLC resonant converters are utilized in many kinds of
occasions, such as a Data-centre, photovoltaic devices and also most commonly seen
household appliances like LED TV sets and microwave-ovens. With more controlling
methods proposed and applied, along with more periphery techniques utilized to optimize the
resonant converter, the LLC resonant converter would be a crucial kind of power electronics

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technique that contribute to the human society. In this thesis, the LLC resonant converter has
been discussed in several aspects. Firstly, its DC characteristics were presented and its
operation was described. Then the small signal model was presented through the method of
extended describing functions.

The paper [15] says that, LLC resonant converters have been widely used in many different
industrial applications. Analysis and design methodologies have great effect on the converter
performance. Accordingly, a complete step by step optimal design methodology based on
time domain analysis has been proposed for LLC resonant converter in this paper. In this
paper, a compete step by step optimal design methodology is proposed for the LLC resonant
converter. The converter is designed based on the worst operation condition, by taking the
converter operation mode, voltage stress for resonant capacitor, ZVS operation for primary
switches, and resonant inductor RMS current into considerations, the suitable design area is
reduced. Then, all possible design candidates in this area are listed and compared based on
the power loss model, and the optimized design candidate can be found.

EV CHARGERS

The paper [16] says that, in order to promote clean and green environment and to reduce
carbon emission, the Government of India aspires for a nation with 100 percent electric
vehicle mobility by the year 2030. For such a large number of electric vehicles to be running
on Indian roads, there is a critical need for fast charging stations and infrastructure. This
paper presents different fast charging schemes along with different power converter
topologies for electric vehicles. Simulation results of different topologies of power converter
are presented and compared. To charge battery of electric vehicle, the safety and charging
time of battery must be considered. n this paper, four different topologies are discussed and
compared based on their MATLAB simulations. Topology 1 is the easiest in implementation
and also the most robust topology but the battery current ripple is more and also the power
factor is low. In topology 2, better control is achieved and the power factor is also high but it
is costlier due to the high-power rating components like high frequency transformers and
diodes. In topology 3, twelve pulse diode bridge is replaced by six pulse SCR bridge and full
bridge DC-DC converter remains same.

The paper [17] says that, this paper presents an electric vehicle battery charger based on a
new LLC converter with two transformers in parallel. This topology achieves zero-voltage

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switching (ZVS) for main switches in entire load range and zero-current switching (ZCS) for
output rectifier diodes under certain conditions. Moreover, the resonant tank consists of two
transformers in parallel to avoid high magnetizing current. The proposed charger features a
narrow frequency variation range and high efficiencies under various load conditions.

The paper [18] says that, the combustion of fossil fuels, a non-renewable and finite resource,
has caused increasing air pollution, ozone damage, acid rain and global warming. Electric
vehicles (EVs) are eco-friendly with the attractive properties of lower greenhouse emissions,
lower fuel usage and reduced air pollution. Battery and charger is one of the vital elements to
analyse and develop for EVs. This research focuses on the bidirectional on-board battery
charger with the emphasis on the design and analysis of the DC-DC converter. A typical on-
board EV battery charging system includes a front-end AC-DC converter for active power
factor correction (PFC) and a DC-DC converter to regulate the output voltage and current [9]
[61]. In the DC-DC stage, full-bridge DC-DC converters that employ isolated transformer
and active power switches are often used as the interface between the front-end converter and
the EV battery, to provide galvanic isolation, charging/discharging control and flexibility of
installation on the EVs.

The paper [19] says that, having a network of fast charging stations seems necessary in order
to make EVs more attractive and to achieve larger uptake of them. Here, charging station
topology plays a crucial role in enabling future growth and providing fast charging with best
quality of service, lowest cost and minimum grid impact. This paper presents a topological
survey of charging stations available in the literature. Various charging station topologies are
presented, compared and evaluated based on grid support, power density, modularity and
other factors. When it comes to fast charging stations, the charging power may be in MW
range. In this paper, first, the desired features of a fast-charging station are listed and then
several charging station topologies proposed in literature are introduced and their suitability
for using as a fast-charging station is discussed. Table I lists these features for all topologies
discussed.

The paper [20] says that, EVs have gained significant attention due to their independence
from fossil fuels, as well as their ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In this paper, a
bidirectional CLLC resonant converter for EV charger applications is proposed, in which the
voltage stresses of its power switches are reduced to half of its input voltage while it can
transfer high power values. A detailed analysis of the converter operating principle and
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characteristics are provided in this paper. It is imperative to enhance the overall functionality
of power converters in order to minimize the total loss. One major area is battery chargers,
with rapid growth in electric vehicle utilization. Hence, a CLLC resonant converter is
presented in this paper.

The paper [21] says that, Electric vehicle (EV) adoption continues to rise, yet EV sales still
represent a small portion of vehicle sales in most countries. An expansion of the DC fast
charging (DCFC) network is likely to accelerate this revolution towards sustainable
transportation, giving drivers more flexible options for charging on longer trips. However,
DCFC presents a large load on the grid which can lead to costly grid reinforcements and high
monthly operating costs – adding energy storage to the DCFC station can help mitigate these
challenges. This paper performs a comprehensive review of DCFC stations with energy
storage, including motivation, architectures, power electronic converters, and a detailed
simulation analysis for various charging scenarios. This paper provides a comprehensive
review of DCFC stations with energy storage, including a discussion of motivation, three
energy storage options (battery, flywheel, and hydrogen), system architectures, and power
electronic converters suitable for each option. Furthermore, each option is modelled in
Simulink to quantify efficiency, volume, and cost for a small, medium, and large DCFC
station.

The paper [22] says that, in this study, high efficiency design of an on-board Electrical
Vehicle (EV) battery charger is presented. The presented charger has two stages, where the
first stage is conventional front-end boost converter, and the second stage is LLC resonant
converter. The basic principles of both stages are discussed, and the detailed design
procedures are presented in terms of wide range output voltage regulation, wide range load
condition, high efficiency, and high power density. This work presents a design procedure for
an on-board EV battery charger using LLCresonant converter. In the proposed design
procedure, operation region optimization of LLC resonant converter, high efficiency, wide
range output voltage regulation, and load condition which required li-ion battery charge
applications, are took into consideration. SiC power semiconductors are adapted to the first
stage and the second stage due to their high voltage and high frequency operation capability.

The paper [23] says that, this paper presents a power factor corrected (PFC) boost converter
based half bridge LLC resonant converter (LLC) for electric vehicle battery charging
application. The proposed converter utilizes a boost converter as a front-end converter
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operating in continuous inductor conduction mode (CICM) to achieve unity power factor at
AC mains, and LLC to facilitate the EV battery charging. The boost converter is operated in
pulse width modulation (PWM) at fixed frequency, whereas LLC converter uses pulse
frequency modulation (PFM) technique to maintain power delivered to the battery. A 2kW
rating prototype of the proposed converter is designed and implemented. The performance of
proposed converter is presented under various load and line conditions An improved power
quality EVBC using PFC boost converter as a front-end converter, followed by an isolated
HBLLC converter has been designed, analysed and developed.

Conclusions from Literature Review:

1 Design of DC-DC Converters are Complex.

2 DC-DC Converters are having less voltage gain and low efficiency.
3 Resonant Converters are an Important Converter Topology, however they are difficult to
design.

Problem formulation:

Present day DC microgrids are having some problems like instability in DC voltage at DC
bus, and low gain DC-DC Converter topologies, unable to meet the demand of high-power
loads. Apart from that, Voltage gain and Efficiency is a big problem with DC-DC Converters.

Objectives of the thesis: The objective is to overcome problems mentioned above by

designing an improved DC- DC Converter with

1 Better Voltage gain

2 Better Efficiency
3 Improve Voltage Regulation for an EV Charger .

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 CHAPTER- 3

DC-DC CONVERTERS

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3.1 Introduction
A DC-DC converter is an electronic circuit or device that converts direct current (DC)
electrical energy from one voltage level to another. These converters are commonly used in
various electronic devices, power supplies, and renewable energy systems where the input
and output voltages need to be different.

DC-DC converters are electronic devices or circuits designed to efficiently convert one
voltage level of direct current (DC) to another. They play a fundamental role in modern
electronics, allowing for the efficient transfer and regulation of electrical power in a wide
range of applications. These converters are essential in various industries, including
telecommunications, automotive, aerospace, renewable energy systems, and consumer
electronics. They enable devices to operate with different voltage requirements, improve
energy efficiency, and facilitate power distribution over long distances.

DC-DC converters come in various configurations and topologies, each tailored to

specific voltage conversion needs. Common types include buck converters (step-down), boost
converters (step-up), buck-boost converters, flyback converters, and forward converters,
among others.

Key features of DC-DC converters include high efficiency, compact size, low noise,
and precise voltage regulation. They are often integrated into power supplies, battery
chargers, voltage regulators, and other electronic systems to ensure stable and reliable
operation.

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 Overall, DC-DC converters are indispensable components in modern electronics,
enabling the efficient conversion and management of electrical power to meet the diverse
needs of electronic devices and systems.

3.1.1 Need for DC-DC Converters

DC-DC converters continue to be crucial in today's technological world for several
reasons:

Energy Efficiency: With a growing emphasis on energy conservation and sustainability, DC-
DC converters play a critical role in improving the efficiency of power conversion. By
converting DC voltages with minimal losses, they help reduce overall energy consumption in
electronic devices and systems.

Renewable Energy Integration: The proliferation of renewable energy sources such as solar
and wind power requires efficient DC-DC converters to manage voltage levels and integrate
these intermittent energy sources into the grid. DC-DC converters facilitate the conversion
and transmission of power from renewable sources to ensure stability and reliability in the
power grid.

Battery-Powered Devices: With the increasing prevalence of portable electronics, electric

vehicles (EVs), and renewable energy storage systems, the demand for DC-DC converters to
manage battery power efficiently is on the rise. These converters help optimize power usage,
extend battery life, and ensure reliable operation of battery-powered devices.

Miniaturization and Integration: The trend towards smaller and more compact electronic
devices drives the need for miniaturized DC-DC converters. Integrated circuits and advanced
packaging techniques enable the development of highly efficient and compact converters
suitable for mobile devices, wearables, IoT devices, and other space-constrained applications.

Voltage Regulation and Power Management: In modern electronic systems, stable and
well-regulated power is essential for proper operation. DC-DC converters provide precise
voltage regulation and power management capabilities, ensuring that sensitive components
receive the appropriate voltage levels for optimal performance and reliability.

Telecommunications and Data Centres: Telecommunication networks and data centres rely
on DC-DC converters for efficient power distribution, voltage conversion, and backup power

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systems. These converters enable the reliable operation of networking equipment, servers,
and other critical infrastructure components.

Electric Vehicles and Transportation: The transition towards electric vehicles and
electrified transportation systems necessitates advanced DC-DC converters for power
management, battery charging, and drivetrain control. These converters help optimize the
efficiency and performance of electric propulsion systems in vehicles, trains, and other
transportation applications.

Overall, the increasing demand for energy-efficient, reliable, and compact power solutions
across various industries underscores the continued importance of DC-DC converters in
today's technology-driven world. Their versatility and adaptability make them indispensable
components in a wide range of electronic devices and systems

3.2 Classification of DC-DC Converters

3.2.1 Linear mode:

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 Fig 3.2.1(a) Linear DC-DC Converter.

DC-DC converters can be broadly classified based on their switching mechanism into
two main categories: linear converters and switching converters. Linear converters operate by
dissipating excess energy as heat, while switching converters transfer energy to the load more
efficiently by rapidly switching semiconductor devices. Let's focus on the classification of
DC-DC converters based on linear switching:

3.2.1.1 Linear Regulator (Series Regulator):

Linear regulators are simple devices that regulate output voltage by dissipating excess
power as heat. They consist of a pass transistor (usually a BJT or MOSFET) in series with the
load and a feedback loop that controls the transistor to maintain a constant output voltage.

Types of linear regulators include:

Series Voltage Regulator: Also known as a linear series regulator, it adjusts the output
voltage by varying the resistance in series with the load.

Shunt Voltage Regulator: This type of linear regulator regulates voltage by shunting excess
current to ground.

3.2.1.2 Parallel Regulator:

These converters are used in conjunction with switching converters to provide

additional voltage regulation or filtering after the main switching conversion stage. They
operate similarly to linear regulators but are positioned after the main switching converter
stage.

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They can help improve the output voltage regulation, reduce output ripple, and provide
additional filtering.

Linear switching converters are relatively simple in design and are often used in applications
where efficiency is not the primary concern or where low noise and simplicity are more
important factors. However, they are less efficient compared to switching converters and are
typically used in low-power applications where the power dissipation is manageable.

3.2.2 Hard Switching mode:

Fig 3.2.1(b) Switching DC-DC Converter.

DC-DC converters based on hard switching mode refer to converters that operate with
traditional switching techniques where the switches (transistors or semiconductor devices)
experience significant voltage and current stress during both turn-on and turn-off transitions.
These converters are widely used and can be categorized into several types based on their
specific switching configurations and circuit topologies:

3.2.2.1. Isolated:

Isolated DC-DC converters are electronic devices used to convert a DC (direct current)
voltage from one level to another while providing electrical isolation between the input and
output circuits. They are commonly employed in various applications where voltage
conversion and isolation are necessary, such as in power supplies for industrial equipment,
telecommunications systems, medical devices, and renewable energy systems.

3.2.2.1.1 Multi Switch:

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Multi-switch DC-DC isolated converters can be classified based on their topology, which
determines their switching mechanism and overall operation. Some common classifications
include:

3.2.2.1.1.1.1 Push-Pull Converter:

Fig. 3.2.2 Push Pull [2]

Push-pull converters use a transformer and two switches operating in push-pull fashion to
transfer energy from the input to the output. This topology is capable of handling higher
power levels and is commonly used in medium to high power applications.

Advantages:

 To drive MOSFETs push pull does not necessitate an isolated power supply
 Peak current sensing is required so that the core does not drift into saturation.

Disadvantages:

 Push pull uses two switches which are not widely used in flux walking phenomena.
 Central tap transformer is used is one of the main disadvantages.

3.2.2.1.1.2 Full-Bridge Converter:

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 Fig. 3.2.3 full bridge converter [3].

Full-bridge converters employ a bridge configuration with four switches to control the energy
transfer between the input and output. They are suitable for high-power applications and offer
excellent efficiency and control.

Advantages:

 The full bridge (FB) converter is used in the application of a high voltage
requirement.
 It offers slightly more voltage ripple than the half-bridge converter.

Disadvantages:

 FB has an efficiency of 95 % and the half-bridge (HB) an efficiency of 99 % and

therefore it is slightly more efficient than the full-bridge.

3.2.2.1.1.3 Half-Bridge Converter:

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 Figure 3.2.4 - Half Bridge Converter [4]

Half-bridge converters use a similar configuration to full-bridge converters but with only two
switches. While they can handle lower power levels compared to full-bridge converters, they
are more cost-effective and simpler to implement.

These classifications are based on the topology of the converter, which dictates its switching
mechanism and performance characteristics. The choice of topology depends on factors such
as input/output voltage levels, power requirements, efficiency targets, and cost
considerations.

Advantages:

 Magnetic cores are small.

 No gap of the magnetic path.

Disadvantages:

 They are functioning at 1/2 the supply potential where the switching transistors are
operational two times the collector current as in comparison with the basic push-pull
scheme.
 It is not suitable for current mode control.

3.2.2.1.2 One Switch:

Various one-switch isolated DC-DC converters can be classified based on their

specific design variations and operational characteristics. Here are some common types:

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3.2.2.1.2.1 Forward Converter:

Figure 3.2.5 - Forward Converter [ 5 ]

While forward converters typically use two switches, they can be modified to operate with a
single switch by employing a clamping diode. This configuration is sometimes referred to as
a "single-switch forward converter." It operates similarly to a forward converter but with
simplified control and fewer components.

Advantages:

 The transformer provides isolation, enhancing the safety of the system.

 The transformer’s turn ratio allows for flexible voltage regulation.

Disadvantages:

 They require more complex control mechanisms to handle switching and to ensure
consistent performance.
 The high switching frequency can lead to higher power loss and may necessitate
additional cooling systems.

3.2.2.1.2.2 Flyback Converter:

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 Fig. 3.2.6 - Fly Back Converter [ 6 ].

The flyback converter is a well-known example of a one-switch isolated DC-DC converter. It

utilizes a transformer to store energy during the switch-on time and transfers it to the output
during the switch-off time. Flyback converters are widely used in low to medium power
applications due to their simplicity and versatility.

3.2.2.1.2.3 Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC):

Fig. 3.2.7 Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC) [1]

Although not strictly a one-switch converter in the traditional sense, the SEPIC converter can
be considered as such due to its single active switch. It provides both step-up and step-down
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voltage conversion with isolation. The SEPIC converter is useful in applications where the
input voltage can vary widely, such as automotive and battery-powered systems.

Advantages:

 Short-circuit resistance and a non-inverted output. The

Disadvantages:

 More complex and thus more susceptible design.

3.2.2.1.2.4 Cuk Converter:

Fig. 3.2.8 - Cuk Converter [ 7 ]

The Cuk converter is another single-switch topology that provides both step-up and step-
down conversion with isolation. It features a unique LC network that allows bidirectional
energy flow, making it suitable for applications requiring voltage inversion.

3.2.2.1.2.5 Single-Switch LLC Resonant Converter: The LLC resonant converter typically
utilizes two switches, but variants exist that operate with a single switch. This converter
offers high efficiency and operates at high frequencies, making it suitable for medium to
high-power applications such as server power supplies and electric vehicle chargers.

These variations of one-switch isolated DC-DC converters offer different advantages and are
suitable for various applications depending on factors such as power levels, efficiency
requirements, and voltage regulation needs. The choice of converter type depends on the
specific requirements of the application and the desired performance characteristics.

Advantages:

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  LLC resonant converters offer high efficiency. The soft switching characteristics of
the LLC topology reduce switching losses which contribute to improvement in overall
efficiency.
 LLC converters are designed to operate efficiently over a wide range of load
conditions. This makes them suitable for applications with varying power demands..

Disadvantages:

 The control algorithm for LLC resonant converters can be more complex compared to
some simpler converter topologies.
 The components used in LLC converters, including the LLC transformer, can be more
expensive compared to those used in simpler converter topologies.

Table. 3.2.1 Comparison of Various isolated DC-DC converters

Topology VH/VL Inductor Capacitor Switche Characteristics Applications

s s s

Fly back ND 0 2 2 Basic isolated Uninterrupted

topology and power supply
1-D discontinuity of Iin

Low power
Cuk ND 2 4 2 Continuous Iin/Io ;
Eliminated ripples application
1-D of Iin/Io by and
coupled inductor
photovoltaic
systems

Push-Pull ND 1 1 4 Continuous output Medium

current and power (2𝜑𝜑)
number of winding
more than two

Forward ND 1 1 3 Continuous L0, Low and

limited duty medium
cycle low power power
application application

DAB Dynamic 0(V- 2 8 The most popular High power

with fed) isolated applications
control bidirectional and
scheme topology suitable automotive

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 for high power systems
applications

Dual-Half Dynamic 0(V- 6 4 Less number of Battery

with fed) switches and management ,
Bridge control suitable for lower automotive
scheme power and fuel cell
application than systems
DAB

3.2.2.2 Non-Isolated:

Hard-switching non-isolated DC-DC converters refer to a class of converters where

the switching devices (typically MOSFETs or IGBTs) operate in a non-resonant manner.
They are characterized by abrupt transitions in current and voltage during switching. Here are
some common types:

3.2.2.2.1 Buck Converter:

Fig. 3.2.9 - Buck Converter [ 8 ]

The buck converter is one of the most common hard-switching non-isolated DC-DC
converters. It steps down the input voltage to a lower output voltage. During operation, the
MOSFET switch is turned on and off to control the energy transfer to the output. Buck
converters are widely used in applications where the output voltage is lower than the input
voltage, such as voltage regulators in electronic devices.

Advantages:

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  Buck converter offers most efficient solution with smallest external components.
 It performs step-up or step-down of voltage using minimum components.
 It offers lower operating duty cycle

Disadvantages:

 Input current and charging current of output capacitor is discontinuous as it results in

large filter size and more EMI issues.
 Output is inverted which results in complex sensing and feedback circuit. As sensed
voltage is negative, inverting op-amp is needed for feedback and closed loop control.

3.2.2.2.2 Boost Converter:

Fig. 3.2.10 - Boost Converter [ 9 ]

The boost converter increases the input voltage to a higher output voltage. Similar to the buck
converter, it operates with a single switch (typically a MOSFET) that is turned on and off to
control the energy flow. Boost converters are commonly used in applications such as LED
drivers and power factor correction circuits.

Advantages:

 Increased output voltage: The boost converter can efficiently step up the input voltage
to a higher output voltage, which is beneficial in many electronic applications.
 Simple topology: The boost converter has a relatively simple circuit topology, making
it cost-effective and easy to implement.

Disadvantages:

 Voltage stress: The boost converter imposes higher voltage stress on its components,
which can impact the selection of components and their reliability.

3.2.2.2.3 Buck-Boost Converter:

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 Fig. 3.2.11 - Buck - Boost Converter [ 10 ]

The buck-boost converter is capable of both stepping up and stepping down the input voltage
to produce a desired output voltage. It is useful in applications where the output voltage may
be either higher or lower than the input voltage, such as battery-powered systems.

Advantages:

 It offers high efficiency across wide input and output voltage ranges.
 It is less expensive compared to most of the converters.

Disadvantages:

 It offers high efficiency across wide input and output voltage ranges.
 It is less expensive compared to most of the converters.

3.2.2.2.4 Cuk Converter:

Fig. 3.2.12 Cuk Converter.

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The Cuk converter is a type of non-isolated DC-DC converter that provides voltage inversion
(step-up or step-down) without the need for a transformer. It features two inductors, a
capacitor, and a switch, which allow for bidirectional energy transfer. Cuk converters are
commonly used in applications where voltage inversion is required, such as in solar power
systems and portable electronic devices.

3.2.2.2.5 Forward Converter: The forward converter is a topology commonly used in

isolated DC-DC converters but can also be implemented in non-isolated configurations. It
features a transformer that provides isolation between the input and output circuits. Forward
converters are suitable for medium to high-power applications, such as in industrial power
supplies and telecommunications equipment.

These are just a few examples of hard-switching non-isolated DC-DC converters. Each type
has its own advantages and is suitable for different applications based on factors such as
input/output voltage levels, power requirements, efficiency, and cost considerations.

3.2.3 Soft Switching:

Soft-switching DC-DC converters utilize techniques to reduce the switching losses

associated with hard-switching converters, resulting in improved efficiency and reduced
electromagnetic interference (EMI). Here are some common types of soft-switching DC-DC
converters:

3.2.3.1 Resonant Converters:

3.2.3.1.1 Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) Converters: ZVS converters, such as the LLC
resonant converter, ensure that the switching devices turn on or off when the voltage across
them is close to zero, reducing switching losses. The LLC resonant converter operates at a
resonant frequency, allowing the switches to operate with minimal losses.

3.2.3.1.2 Zero Current Switching (ZCS) Converters: ZCS converters, like the quasi-
resonant converter, ensure that the switching devices turn on or off when the current through
them is close to zero. This technique minimizes switching losses and enhances converter
efficiency.

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Table. 3.2.2 Comparison of Various non-isolated DC-DC converters

Topology VH/ Inductor Capacitor Switche Characteristics Applications

VL s s s

Basic 1 1 2 2 Low number of Photovoltai

buck and 1−D elements; c system
boost Discontinuity of and
input current uninterrupt
ed power
supply

Buck- −D 2 2 2 Negative output Electric vehicle

boost 1−D voltage, capable
to step-up/Step-
down the voltage

Cuk −D 2 3 4 Continuous input and Battery storage

1−D output currents system

Sepic/zeta D 2 3 2 Positive output Distributed

1−D voltage and power system

reduced current
ripple using an
auxiliary circuit

Casded 1 1 2 4 Higher voltage Electric vehicle

1−D gain and lower and Smart grid

current stress

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3.3 Isolated and Non-Isolated DC-DC Converters
Isolated and non-isolated DC-DC converters are two broad categories of converters
used to convert one DC voltage to another. They differ primarily in whether they provide
electrical isolation between the input and output circuits.

3.3.1 Isolated DC-DC Converters:

Isolated DC-DC converters provide electrical isolation between the input and output
circuits through the use of transformers, opto-isolators, or capacitive coupling. This isolation
helps prevent ground loops, reduces noise, and enhances safety in many applications. Here's
how they work:

Transformer Isolation: Isolated converters use transformers to transfer energy from the
input to the output while maintaining electrical isolation. The transformer couples energy
between windings magnetically without a direct electrical connection.

Applications: Isolated DC-DC converters are commonly used in applications where

electrical isolation is essential, such as in medical devices, telecommunications equipment,
industrial controls, and power supplies for sensitive electronics.

Advantages:

i) Enhanced safety: Isolation helps prevent electric shocks and protects equipment from
voltage spikes.

ii) Noise reduction: Isolation reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI) and improves
signal integrity.

iii) Flexibility: Isolated converters can provide step-up, step-down, or even step-up/step-
down conversion with isolation.

3.3.2 Non-Isolated DC-DC Converters:

Non-isolated DC-DC converters do not provide electrical isolation between the input
and output circuits. Instead, they directly convert the input voltage to the desired output
voltage level. Here's how they work:

Direct Conversion: Non-isolated converters typically step up or step down the input voltage
using various switching techniques without the need for a transformer.

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Applications: Non-isolated converters are commonly used in applications where isolation is
not required, such as in automotive electronics, consumer electronics, LED drivers, and low-
power devices.

Advantages:

i) Compact size: Non-isolated converters are often smaller and lighter than their isolated
counterparts since they do not require a transformer.

ii) Cost-effective: The absence of a transformer can reduce manufacturing costs.

iii) Higher efficiency: Non-isolated converters may achieve higher efficiency due to fewer
components and simpler circuitry.

Choosing Between Isolated and Non-Isolated Converters:

The choice between isolated and non-isolated DC-DC converters depends on the specific
requirements of the application. If electrical isolation is necessary for safety or functional
reasons, an isolated converter is preferred. Conversely, if isolation is not needed and compact
size or cost is a priority, a non-isolated converter may be suitable.

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 CHAPTER 4

RESONANT CONVERTERS

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4.1 Introduction

Fig. 4.1 Resonant Converter.

A DC-DC resonant converter is a type of power converter used to efficiently regulate

the voltage level of direct current (DC) power. It operates based on the principle of resonance
between the inductive and capacitive elements within the circuit.

Resonant DC-DC converters are a class of power electronic converters that utilize resonant
components such as inductors and capacitors to achieve efficient voltage conversion from a
direct current (DC) input to a DC output. These converters operate based on the principle of
resonance, where energy is stored and exchanged between the inductive and capacitive
elements of the circuit at specific frequencies.

The Operating Principle of Resonant DC-DC converters operate by periodically

storing energy in an inductor and capacitor combination and then transferring this stored
energy to the load. Unlike traditional DC-DC converters, which operate in hard-switching
modes (where switches transition abruptly between on and off states), resonant converters
aim to minimize switching losses by ensuring that switches turn on or off when voltage or
current across them is minimal.

At the core of a resonant DC-DC converter is a resonant tank circuit comprising an

inductor (L) and a capacitor (C). This tank circuit forms a resonant LC circuit that oscillates
at a specific resonant frequency determined by the values of L and C. Energy is stored in the
inductor's magnetic field and the capacitor's electric field during different phases of the
switching cycle.

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 One of the key advantages of resonant DC-DC converters is their ability to achieve
soft-switching operation. Soft-switching techniques such as zero-voltage switching (ZVS)
and zero-current switching (ZCS) are employed to minimize switching losses, improve
efficiency, and reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI).

4.1.1 Block Diagram of Resonant Converter

Fig. 4.1.1 Block diagram of Resonant Converter.

The block diagram of a resonant DC-DC converter typically includes several key
components and stages that collectively enable efficient voltage conversion from a DC input
to a DC output. Here's an explanation of the main blocks typically found in such a diagram:

1. Input Stage: This stage represents the DC input source, which could be a battery, rectified
AC mains, or another DC power source. The input stage may include filtering components
such as capacitors or inductors to reduce input voltage ripple and improve the quality of the
input power.

2. Switching Element: The switching element (typically one or more transistors) controls the
flow of current through the resonant tank circuit. This switching action determines the timing
of energy transfer between the inductor and capacitor and regulates the output voltage of the
converter.

3. Resonant Tank Circuit: At the core of the resonant DC-DC converter is the resonant tank
circuit, consisting of an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C). This tank circuit forms the energy
storage and transfer mechanism of the converter, allowing energy to be alternately stored in
the inductor's magnetic field and the capacitor's electric field. This resonant tank circuit
operates at a specific resonant frequency determined by the values of L and C.

4. Output Stage: The output stage represents the DC output load connected to the converter.
It may include filtering components such as output capacitors to smooth out any remaining
voltage ripple and provide a clean DC output voltage to the load.
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4.2 Need of Resonant Converter
Resonant converters are used in power electronics for various applications due to
several specific needs they address. Here are some key needs and advantages that resonate
converters fulfil:

1. Efficiency: Resonant converters can achieve high efficiency due to their ability to
minimize switching losses. Soft-switching techniques employed in resonant converters, such
as zero-voltage switching (ZVS) and zero-current switching (ZCS), reduce power dissipation
during switching transitions, leading to improved overall efficiency.

2. Reduced Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Resonant converters inherently produce

lower levels of electromagnetic interference compared to traditional hard-switching
converters. Soft-switching techniques help in reducing high-frequency harmonics, leading to
cleaner output waveforms and reduced EMI emissions, which is critical in sensitive
applications and environments.

3. High Power Density: The efficiency improvements and reduced component stresses
achieved in resonant converters allow for higher power density designs. This is particularly
beneficial in applications where space constraints are significant, such as in mobile devices,
electric vehicles, and aerospace applications.

4. Improved Reliability: Resonant converters often operate with reduced stress on

components such as switches and diodes due to soft-switching techniques. Lower stress
levels can contribute to improved reliability and longer lifetimes of power electronic systems.

5. Wide Operating Range: Resonant converters can operate over a wide range of input and
output voltages while maintaining efficiency and performance. This flexibility makes them
suitable for various applications where input voltage levels may vary or where wide output
voltage regulation is required.

6. Better Load Regulation: Resonant converters typically exhibit better load regulation
compared to traditional converters. The resonant nature of the circuit allows for smoother
energy transfer to the load, resulting in improved transient response and reduced output
voltage variations with changing load conditions.

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7. Compatibility with Renewable Energy Sources: Resonant converters are well-suited for
interfacing with renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power systems. Their high
efficiency and ability to operate over a wide range of input voltages make them suitable for
efficiently harvesting and converting energy from variable renewable sources.

8. Noise Reduction: Resonant converters can produce less audible noise compared to hard-
switching converters due to their smoother operation and reduced high-frequency switching
components. This can be advantageous in applications where noise levels need to be
minimized, such as in audio equipment or medical devices.

Overall, resonant converters fulfil the need for high efficiency, low EMI, compact designs,
improved reliability, wide operating range, and better load regulation in various power
conversion applications, making them a preferred choice in many modern power electronic
systems.

4.3 Types of Resonant Converter

Types of Resonant Converters: There are various types of resonant converters, including:

 Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) converters.

 Zero Current Switching (ZCS) converters.
 LLC (Inductor-Inductor-Capacitor) resonant converters.
 Series Resonant Converters (SRC).
 Parallel Resonant Converters (PRC).
 Half-Bridge and Full-Bridge Resonant Converters.

Certainly! Here's an explanation of each type of resonant converter:

4.3.1 Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) Converters:

 ZVS converters are designed to turn on the switching devices (typically transistors)
when the voltage across them is zero. This minimizes switching losses and allows for
higher efficiency.
 During operation, ZVS converters ensure that the switches turn on when the voltage
across them naturally reaches zero, typically achieved by using resonant tank circuits.

4.3.2 Zero Current Switching (ZCS) Converters:

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  ZCS converters are designed to turn off the switching devices when the current through
them is zero. Similar to ZVS converters, this minimizes switching losses and improves
efficiency.
 ZCS converters typically employ resonant tank circuits to ensure that the switches turn
off when the current through them naturally reaches zero.

4.3.3 LLC Resonant Converter:

 The LLC resonant converter combines characteristics of both inductor-capacitor-

inductor (LC) and inductor-capacitor (L-C) resonant converters.
 It typically consists of three energy storage elements: one inductor and two capacitors
(hence the name LLC).
 The LLC converter operates in both the voltage and current resonant modes, allowing
for high efficiency over a wide load range.
 It is commonly used in high-power applications such as server power supplies,
telecommunications, and renewable energy systems.

4.3.4 Series Resonant Converter (SRC):

Fig. 4.2.1 Series Resonant Converter.

 The series resonant converter operates with the load in series with the resonant tank
circuit.
 It typically consists of a resonant inductor and capacitor in series with the load.
 SRCs are known for their ability to achieve soft-switching and high efficiency,
especially in medium to high power applications.

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  They are commonly used in applications such as power factor correction (PFC), high-
frequency ballasts, and induction heating.

4.3.5 Parallel Resonant Converter (PRC):

Fig. 4.2.2 Parallel Resonant Converter.

 The parallel resonant converter operates with the load connected in parallel with the
resonant tank circuit.
 It typically consists of a resonant inductor and capacitor in parallel with the load.
 PRCs are known for their ability to achieve soft-switching and high efficiency,
particularly in low to medium power applications.
 They are commonly used in applications such as low-power offline power supplies,
battery chargers, and audio amplifiers.

4.3.6 Half-Bridge and Full-Bridge Resonant Converters:

 Half-bridge and full-bridge resonant converters utilize bridge configurations in

combination with resonant tank circuits.
 These topologies allow for higher voltage conversion ratios and power levels compared
to single-switch converters.
 They are commonly used in high-power applications such as electric vehicle chargers,
grid-tied inverters, and high-frequency welding equipment.

4.3.7 Quasi-Resonant Converter (QRC):

 Quasi-resonant converters combine features of resonant and non-resonant converters.

 They operate in a manner that combines both soft-switching characteristics of resonant
converters and the simplicity of non-resonant converters.
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  QRCs are often used in consumer electronics, such as television power supplies and
battery chargers, where efficiency and cost-effectiveness are important factors.

4.4 Construction and operation of LLC Resonant Converter

Fig. 4.3 LLC Resonant Converter.

A LLC resonant converter is a type of power converter used in various applications

such as power supplies, battery chargers, and renewable energy systems. It operates on the
principle of resonant conversion, utilizing the properties of inductance (L), capacitance (C),
and often leakage inductance (Leakage) to efficiently convert electrical energy from one form
to another. Here's a breakdown of its construction and operation:

4.4.1 Construction:

Transformer: The LLC resonant converter typically consists of a high-frequency

transformer with a primary winding (connected to the input source) and one or more
secondary windings (connected to the output(s)). The transformer is designed to provide
electrical isolation between the input and output sides.

Inductor (L): It is part of the resonant tank circuit and typically placed in series with the
primary winding of the transformer. This inductor helps store energy during the first part of
the switching cycle.

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Capacitor (C): Another crucial component of the resonant tank circuit, the capacitor is
connected in parallel with the primary winding of the transformer. It stores energy during the
second part of the switching cycle.

Switching Devices: Usually, high-frequency switches (such as MOSFETs or IGBTs) are

used for high-efficiency operation. These switches control the flow of current through the
primary winding of the transformer.

Control Circuitry: A control circuit is employed to regulate the switching of the power
switches based on feedback from the output side. This ensures stable and efficient operation.

4.4.2 Operation:

Resonant Tank Circuit: The LC tank circuit formed by the inductor (L) and capacitor (C)
establishes a resonant frequency. This frequency is typically set slightly above the operating
frequency of the converter. The resonant tank circuit allows the converter to operate in the
resonance region, where switching losses are minimized.

Switching Operation: The switching devices are turned on and off at a frequency
determined by the control circuit. During the on-state, energy is stored in the inductor (L) as
the current increases. When the switches turn off, the stored energy in the inductor causes the
current to continue flowing, transferring energy to the resonant capacitor (C).

Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) and Zero Current Switching (ZCS): LLC resonant
converters are designed to achieve ZVS and ZCS, which reduce switching losses and increase
efficiency. ZVS occurs when the voltage across the switch is zero at turn-on, while ZCS
occurs when the current through the switch is zero at turn-off.

Output Regulation: The output voltage and current are regulated by controlling the duty
cycle or frequency of the switching operation. Feedback mechanisms continuously monitor
the output and adjust the control signals to maintain the desired output voltage and current
levels.

Efficiency: LLC resonant converters are known for their high efficiency due to reduced
switching losses and optimized operation in the resonant mode.

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Overall, the LLC resonant converter offers advantages such as high efficiency, reduced
electromagnetic interference (EMI), and smaller size compared to other converter topologies,
making it suitable for various power conversion applications.

4.4.3 Modes of Operation

Since the LLC network gain is frequency modulated, the converter can operate in
three modes depending on input voltage and load current conditions, as listed below and
shown in Figure below:

1. At resonant frequency operation, fs=fr.

2. Above resonant frequency operation, fs>fr.
3. Below resonant frequency operation, fs<fr.

Fig. 4.4.3 LLC Frequency response of Resonant Converter.

Despite the aforementioned three modes; which will be explained in details later in this
section; the converter has only two possible operations within the switching cycle, as
described below. And each of the modes pointed out above may contain one or both of these
operations.

Power delivery operation, which occurs twice in a switching cycle; first, when the resonant
tank is excited with a positive voltage, so the current resonates in the positive direction in the
first half of the switching cycle, the equivalent circuit of this mode is shown in Figure 2.5,

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and second occurrence is when the resonant tank is excited with negative voltage, so the
current resonates in the negative direction in the second half of the switching cycle, the
equivalent circuit of this mode is shown in Figure below.

During the power delivery operations, the magnetizing inductor voltage is the
positive/negative reflected output voltage and the magnetizing current is
charging/discharging respectively.

The difference between the resonant current and the magnetizing current passes through the
transformer and rectifier to the secondary side, and power is delivered to the load.

Fig. 4.4.3.1Power delivery operation mode

Freewheeling operation, which can occurs following the power delivery operation only if the
resonant current reaches the transformer magnetizing current, this only happens when fs<fr,
causing the transformer secondary current to reach zero and the secondary side rectifier to
disconnect, consequently the magnetizing inductor will be free to enter the resonance with the
resonant inductor and capacitor, the frequency of this second resonance is smaller than the
original resonant frequency fr, especially at high values of m where Lm>>Lr, thus the
primary current during the freewheeling operation will only change slightly, and can be
approximated to be unchanged for simplicity. The equivalent circuits of the freewheeling
operation in both halves of the switching cycle are shown in Figures below.

Fig. 4.4.3.2 Free wheeling operation mode.

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Table 4.3.1 Operation of LLC Converter

At Resonant frequency Above resonant frequency Below resonant frequency

operation operation operation
fs=fr. fs>fr. fs<fr
Each half of the switching Each half of the switching Each half of the switching
cycle contains a complete cycle contains a partial power cycle contains a power
power delivery operation delivery operation (described delivery operation (described
(described above), where the above), similar to the resonant above), at the time when
resonant half cycle is frequency operation, but it resonant half cycle is
completed during the switching differs in that the resonant half completed and resonant
half cycle. cycle is not completed and inductor current ILr reaches the
By end of the switching half interrupted by the start of the magnetizing current, the
cycle, the resonant inductor other half of the switching freewheeling operation (as
current ILr reaches the cycle, hence primary side described above) starts and
magnetizing current ILm, and MOSFETs have increased turn carries on to the end of the
the rectifier current reaches off losses and secondary switching half cycle, hence
rectifier diodes have hard primary side have increased
zero.
commutation. conduction losses due to the
The resonant tank has unity circulating energy.
The converter operates in this
gain and best optimized
mode at higher input voltage, The converter operates in this
operation and efficiency;
where a step-down gain or mode at lower input voltage,
therefore, transformer turns
buck operation is required. where a step-up gain or boost
ratio is designed such that the
operation is required.
converter operates at this point
at nominal input and output
voltages.

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4.4 Design of LLC Resonant Converter
The following are detailed explanation of all design steps; additionally Figure below
shows a design flow chart that summarizes the design methodology.

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 START

Step1:
Select Qmax value

Step2:
Select m value

Step3:
Find Fx min

Increase m Decrease m Step4:

value value FindK max

Yes

Is K max <
No No Is K max =
required
Required gain?
gain?

Yes

Step5:
Solve for resonant
Components values

END

Fig. 4.4 Flow chart of Resonant Converter Design.

Step 1: Selecting the Qmax Value

Quality factor depends on the load current. Heavy load conditions operate at
high Q values, while lighter loads have lower Q values. It is important to set a value for the
Qmax associated with the maximum load point.
To illustrate the effect of the Q value on voltage regulation, Figure 3.2 shows an example
voltage gain plot for different Q values. Let’s assume that the resonant tank gain is required
to range from 0.8 to 1.2 for example, we can see that the low Q value curve (Q=0.3) can
reach higher boost gain, but it is less sensitive to frequency modulation in the “above
resonance fs>fr” region, hence, switching frequency has to increase much in order to reach
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the minimum voltage gain (K=0.8), causing extra switching losses, while the higher Q value
curve (Q=1) can reach the minimum gain (K=0.8) with less switching frequency increase, but
unable to reach the maximum gain (K=1.2). Therefore, a moderate Q value of around 0.5
seems to satisfy the voltage gain requirement in this specific case.

We conclude that adjusting the Q value can help achieving the maximum gain but increases
the frequency modulation range, thus, we should not rely on tuning the Qmax value as a
design iteration in order to reach the desired maximum voltage gain, but instead we should
rely on tuning the m value as will be explained in the next step.

Although there isn’t a direct method for selecting the optimum Q value, we should select
Qmax moderately as discussed earlier and based on the specific design in hand.

Fig. 4.4.1 Q Curve.

Step 2: Selecting the m Value

As mentioned above, m is a static parameter that we have to start the design by optimizing its
value, therefore it’s important to understand the impact of the m ratio on the converter
operation. To illustrate the effect of the m value, Figure 3.3 shows the same resonant tank
gain plots but for different m values, m= 3, 6 and 12. It is obvious that lower values of m can
achieve higher boost gain, in addition to the narrower range of the frequency modulation,
meaning more flexible control and regulation, which is valuable in applications with wide
input voltage range. Nevertheless, low values of m for the same quality factor Q and resonant

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frequency fr means smaller magnetizing inductance Lm, hence, higher magnetizing peak-
peak current ripple, causing increased circulating energy and conduction losses. We have to
start by selecting a reasonable initial value for m (6-10), and then optimize it by few iterations
to get the maximum m value that can still achieve the maximum gain requirement for all load
conditions.

Low m value: High m value:

 Higher boost gain  Higher magnetizing inductance
 Narrower frequency range  Lower magnetizing circulating current
 More flexible regulation  Higher efficiency

Fig. 4.4.1 Q Curve.

Step 3: Finding the Minimum Normalized Switching Frequency

After selecting a value for Qmax and an initial value for m, we need to find the minimum
normalized switching frequency that will guarantee inductive operation for the Qmax (max
load) condition, this minimum frequency will also guarantee inductive operation for all other
loads. The minimum normalized switching frequency occurs at the peak gain of the Qmax
curve, (assumed Qmax=0.4 and m=6 as an example), or can be visually spotted in the gain
plot as in Figure below.

Solve for Fxmin

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 0.1 Fxmin 1 10
Fx

Fig. 4.4.3 Fx min Curve

Step 4: Voltage Gain Verification

This step is to verify that the maximum gain Kmax reached during maximum load by the
selected m value is adequate. This can be visually spotted in the gain plot as in Figure above
Step

Fig. 4.4.4 Kmax Curve.

Few iterations are needed in order to reach the optimized design, as shown in the design flow
chart. If Kmax is not enough, then we have to reduce the m value and repeat steps 3 and 4, in
order to gain a higher boost gain. On the other side, If Kmax is higher than what is required;
in that case we can increase the m value and repeat steps 3 and 4 in order to gain a better
efficiency.

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Step 5: Calculating Resonant Components Values

After few iterations of the design flow and reaching the optimum m value, we can proceed to
calculating the resonant tank components values, Below equations can be solved to find Lr
and Cr, and then Lm can be calculated.

Design of LLC Converter for an example

Table 4.1 Design parameters.

Output voltage 400V

Input voltage 18V – 36V (33V

nominal)
Output power 250W

Output power derates linearly with input

voltage
Ex: Output power= 125W @ Vin=18V

Resonant frequency 100kHz

We start the design by calculating the transformer turn ratio and the minimum and maximum
voltage gains of the resonant tank, as follows.

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Step 1: Selecting the Qmax Value

Let’s choose = 0.4 from the Graph, which is Plotted in between the gain, frequency and
m.

Fig. 4.4.5 Q Curve.

Step 2: Selecting the m Value

Let’s choose m = 6.3 from the graphs, which are plotted in between the gain, frequency and
m. For different m values

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 Fig(a). m=15

Fig(b).m=6

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 Fig(c). m=3

Fig(a,d,c). 4.4.6 m Curves for m=3,6, and 15 generated in MATLAB

Step 3: Finding the Minimum Normalized Switching Frequency

We can solve the gain equation to find the minimum frequency, which occurs at the peak of
the Qmax curve, as shown below, or we can look it up from the gain plot as shown in below.

Step 4: Voltage Gain Verification

Since the power is derated at lower input voltages as listed in the specifications, we have to

calculate the maximum Q value at the minimum input voltage case ( ), as follows.
Note that this power derating specification is related to the solar panel I-V characteristics. (In
case of other applications where power rating is the same across the input voltage range, we
only have a single Qmax value).

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Then we can calculate the maximum gain reached at the minimum switching frequency for

condition, or we can look it up from the gain plot as shown below.

Step 5: Calculating Resonant Components Values

The reflected load resistance at full load is,

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4.4 Advantages of LLC Resonant Converters over others

LLC resonant converters offer several advantages over other types of power
converters, particularly in the realm of power electronics and energy conversion. Some of the
key advantages include:

1. High Efficiency: LLC resonant converters are known for their high efficiency, especially
at high power levels. The resonant operation allows for reduced switching losses, leading
to improved efficiency compared to traditional PWM converters.
2. Wide Load Range: LLC resonant converters can operate efficiently over a wide range of
loads. This makes them suitable for applications with variable loads, as they can maintain
high efficiency across different operating conditions.
3. Soft Switching: LLC resonant converters achieve soft switching, meaning that the
switching transitions occur when the voltage across the switches is near zero. This
reduces switching losses and electromagnetic interference (EMI), leading to improved
reliability and reduced noise.
4. Reduced Component Stress: The soft switching characteristics of LLC resonant
converters result in lower stress on the power semiconductors and passive components
such as capacitors and inductors. This can extend the lifespan of these components and
improve the overall reliability of the converter.
5. Compact Size and Lightweight: LLC resonant converters can be designed to operate at
higher frequencies compared to traditional converters, allowing for the use of smaller and
lighter passive components such as transformers and capacitors. This contributes to a
more compact and lightweight converter design, which is desirable in many applications.
6. Lower EMI: The resonant operation and soft switching characteristics of LLC converters
help in reducing electromagnetic interference (EMI), which is crucial in applications
where EMI must be minimized to comply with regulations or to prevent interference with
other electronic systems.
7. Improved Power Factor Correction (PFC): LLC resonant converters can be designed
to provide active power factor correction (PFC), which helps in achieving a near-unity
power factor. This is important in applications where compliance with power quality
standards is required or where efficient utilization of the power grid is desired.
8. Voltage Regulation: LLC resonant converters offer good voltage regulation
characteristics, ensuring stable output voltage even under varying load conditions. This
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 makes them suitable for applications requiring precise voltage regulation, such as in
power supplies for sensitive electronic equipment.

Overall, LLC resonant converters offer a compelling combination of high efficiency, wide
load range, compact size, and reliable operation, making them a preferred choice for various
power conversion applications, including renewable energy systems, electric vehicles, and
high-performance power supplies.

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 CHAPTER 5
EV CHARGER

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5.1 Introduction

Fig. 5.1 EV Charger.

In today's rapidly evolving landscape of transportation, electric vehicles (EVs) are

gaining significant traction as a cleaner and more sustainable mode of transportation. As the
adoption of EVs continues to grow, the need for efficient and accessible charging
infrastructure becomes increasingly paramount.

Leading provider of innovative EV charging solutions designed to meet the evolving needs of
drivers, businesses, and communities. Our mission is to accelerate the transition to electric
mobility by offering reliable, convenient, and scalable charging solutions.

We understand that the success of electric vehicles hinges not only on the availability of EVs
themselves but also on the accessibility and reliability of charging infrastructure. That's why
we offer a comprehensive range of charging solutions tailored to various environments,
including residential, commercial, and public settings.

Our residential charging solutions provide EV owners with the convenience of charging their
vehicles at home, ensuring that they start each day with a full battery and peace of mind. For
businesses looking to cater to the growing population of EV drivers, our commercial charging
solutions offer scalable options that can accommodate fleets of all sizes, from small
businesses to large corporations.

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In addition to residential and commercial solutions, they also specialize in public charging
infrastructure, making it easy for EV drivers to charge their vehicles while on the go.
Whether it's at shopping centres, restaurants, or public parking facilities, the network of
charging stations provides drivers with the confidence to embark on longer journeys with
ease.

What sets apart is our commitment to innovation and customer satisfaction. We leverage the
latest advancements in technology to deliver cutting-edge charging solutions that are reliable,
efficient, and user-friendly. Our team of experts works closely with clients to understand their
unique needs and develop customized charging solutions that exceed expectations.

As the demand for electric vehicles continues to rise and remains at the forefront of the EV
charging revolution, empowering drivers and businesses alike to embrace a cleaner, more
sustainable future. With the future of mobility is within reach.

5.2 Types of EV Chargers

Electric vehicle (EV) chargers come in various types, each offering different charging speeds,
compatibility, and features. Here are some common types of EV chargers:

Level 1 Chargers:

Fig.5.1.1 Level 1 EV Charger.

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 These are the most basic type of EV chargers and typically come as standard
equipment with electric vehicles. They use a standard 120-volt AC plug and are suitable for
charging at home or in locations where longer charging times are acceptable. Level 1
chargers provide the slowest charging speeds, typically adding around 2-5 miles of range per
hour of charging.

Level 2 Chargers:

Fig.5.1.2 Level 2 EV Charger.

Level 2 chargers offer faster charging speeds compared to Level 1 chargers. They use
a 240-volt AC plug and require installation of a dedicated charging unit. Level 2 chargers are
commonly found in residential settings, workplaces, and public charging stations. They can
add around 10-60 miles of range per hour of charging, depending on the vehicle and charger
specifications.

DC Fast Chargers (DCFC):

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 Fig.5.1.3 DC Fast EV Charger.

DC Fast Chargers, also known as Level 3 chargers, provide rapid charging for EVs, making
them ideal for long-distance travel and quick top-ups. Unlike Level 1 and Level 2 chargers,
which use alternating current (AC), DC fast chargers supply direct current (DC) power
directly to the vehicle's battery. This enables significantly faster charging speeds, allowing
EVs to gain up to 80% of their battery capacity in 20-30 minutes, depending on the charger
and vehicle capabilities. DC fast chargers are commonly found along highways, major travel
routes, and in densely populated urban areas.

Wireless Chargers:

Fig. 5.1.4 Wireless EV Charger.

Wireless EV chargers, also known as inductive chargers, eliminate the need for physical
cables and plugs by using electromagnetic fields to transfer power from a charging pad to a
receiver pad installed on the EV. While still in the early stages of adoption,

wireless charging technology offers the convenience of hassle-free charging and can be
installed in residential garages, parking lots, and public spaces.

Smart Chargers:

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 Fig.5.1.5 Smart EV Charger.

Smart chargers are equipped with advanced features such as Wi-Fi connectivity, mobile app
integration, and remote monitoring capabilities. These chargers allow users to schedule
charging sessions, monitor energy usage, and receive notifications remotely via smartphone
or computer. Smart chargers also support energy management features such as load balancing
and demand response, optimizing charging efficiency and reducing operating costs.

Portable Chargers:

Fig. 5.1.6 Portable EV Charger.

Portable EV chargers, also known as EVSEs (Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment), are
compact and lightweight units that can be easily transported and plugged into standard
electrical outlets. These chargers are ideal for emergency charging situations, travel, or
locations where permanent charging infrastructure is unavailable. Portable chargers typically
operate at Level 1 charging speeds and are compatible with most electric vehicles.

These are some of the common types of EV chargers available in the market, each catering to
different charging needs and scenarios. The choice of charger depends on factors such as
charging speed requirements, installation location, budget, and vehicle compatibility.

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5.3 Design of Resonant EV charger

Fig. 5.3 Resonant EV Charger.

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 Fig. 5.3.1 PFC Circuit

Power Factor Correction (PFC) circuits in converters operate to improve the power factor of
the system, particularly in AC-DC converters. They achieve this by shaping the input current
waveform to closely follow the input voltage waveform, typically using a boost converter
configuration. The PFC circuit controls the input current to be in phase with the input
voltage, thus reducing harmonic distortion and ensuring compliance with regulatory
standards. Active components such as MOSFETs or IGBTs are commonly used in PFC
circuits for higher efficiency and better performance. Overall, PFC circuits enhance the
efficiency and power quality of converters by improving power factor, reducing harmonic
distortion, and enabling efficient power utilization from the grid.

Under normal operation, the regulated DC link voltage is set to be 395V. For a 2 kW
universal AC mains voltage operated PFC boost converter design, the maximum input line
current happens to flow at worst input AC line voltage i.e. 190V. The quiescent Dmax under
AC input voltage of 190V can be given as,

5.3.1 Design of Half Bridge LLC EV Charger with PFC

The PFC boost converter is designed under CICM mode using ACM control at a switching
frequency of 45 kHz. Choosing CCM mode of operation, employs dual loop implementation
for DC voltage regulation. However, it provides an advantage of lower ripple current through
the inductor resulting in lower current stress in semiconductor devices and EMI requirements.

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Neglecting the DBR voltage drop, the instantaneous duty cycle D(t) can be expressed as a
function of input AC voltage, Vs and DC link voltage, Vd as

Under normal operation, the regulated DC link voltage is set to be 395V. For a 2 kW
universal AC mains voltage operated PFC boost converter design, the maximum input line
current happens to flow at worst input AC line voltage i.e. 190V. The quiescent Dmax under
AC input voltage of 190V can be given as,

Considering ideal DBR, the inductor current ripple ΔIL1p can be given as,

It follows from that the maximum inductor current ripple occurs at the instant when vs equals
half the value of DC link voltage i.e Vs = 0.5Vb and can be given as,

For a 2kW PFC boost converter operating in CCM mode with a 30% current ripple, the
maximum current ripple can be given as,

So, the peak device current rating can be given as,

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The boost output capacitor design relies mainly on maximum allowed ripple voltage and
holdup time requirements and can be given as,

Accordingly, three 220µF/450V electrolytic capacitors are selected to form a 660µF DC link
to provide a low ripple regulated DC voltage to secondary stage LLC converter.

The intermediate DC link, which is regulated by an outer voltage control loop of PFC boost
controller, is applied to isolated HB-LLC converter for EV battery charging applications. For
a lithium-ion phosphate LiPO4 battery with 16 cells in series, the charge voltage is 57.6V.
The transformer ratio is calculated as,

To operate below resonance, the turns ratio is selected at 3.6 (primary turns 18 and centre
tapped secondary with 5 turns). The resonant peak current is given as,

With a choice of 126 kHz resonant frequency, the resonant capacitor Cr can be expressed as,

To provide voltage gain, the ratio of Lm and Lr, is selected to be 6, consequently, the
resonant inductor Lr and magnetizing inductor Lm can be selected as,

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 CHAPTER 6

SIMULATION AND RESULTS

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6.1 Simulation and Results of LLC Resonant Converter.

The design details of the LLC resonant converter with the specification Po=750W,
Vo=60.85V, Vin=175V efficiency 90% is developed as shown in the figure below. Input to
the converter is DC source. Integrated transformer is used here, and a resonant inductor is
connected in series with the transformer primary. The schematic of the modelled Resonant
LLC converter maintaining an output voltage of 60.85V and connected to a resistive load of
4.833Ω. The converter has a nominal output of 60.85V and 12.59A.

Testing

Table.6.1.1 Design parameters

PARAMETERS VALUES

Voltage Input 175V

Resonant Inductor (Lr) 22.6𝛍H

Resonant Capacitor (Cr) 112nf

Magnetising Inductor (Lm) 79.1𝛍H

Inductance ratio 3.5

Output Capacitor 100𝛍H

Output Voltage 60.85V

Output Current 12.59A

Output resistance 4.833Ω

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Results

Fig. 6.1.2 Voltage and Current across the Mosfet.

Fig. 6.1.3 Voltage and Current across the Diode.

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 Fig. 6.1.3 Current across the Lr.

Fig. 6.1.4 Voltage across the Lr.

Fig. 6.1.5 Voltage across the Cr.

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 Fig. 6.1.6 Voltage across the Lm.

Fig. 6.1.4 Current across the Lm.

Fig. 6.1.7 Output Voltage and Current of Converter.

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Explanations
We have done the design of LLC Resonant Converters and Simulated the design values in
MATLAB Simulation and generated Results are shown in figure in Results Chapter, And
with the help of LLC converter, we have designed an LLC Converters Based EV charger as a
application of Resonant Converters. In that we have done the LLC Converter with a Rating of
Output Voltage 60V and Output Current 12.85A with a power rating of 800W. And designed
an LLC based EV Charger with a rating of 2KW with PFC Circuit.

Conclusion
From Design of LLC Resonant Converter, we get better efficiency and voltage regulation
through MATLAB simulation. And found the simple design Procedure to find the resonant
parameter. In Process of design we generated frequency response curves between through m,
Kmax, Frequency to determine best Q value. So, we have designed LLC Based EV Changer
and tried the simulation. But Results not got through the simulation. So, we have done the
design and simulation for LLC Resonant Converter, But for LLC based EV charger design is
Completed, Simulation is not working.

Future scope
In future, the Resonant Converter DC-DC Converters going impact the world, And Resonant
design provide better converter and efficiency, Similar the EV Chargers are also very
important for future. The feature of Resonant Converter based EV Charger is very
Compatible for EV Chargers.

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References
[1]. Rawad Zgheib, Innocent Kamwa, Kamal Al-Haddad “Comparison between Isolated and
Non-Isolated DC/DC Converters for Bidirectional EV Chargers” École de Technologies
Supérieure ÉTS, Electrical Engineering Department, GRÉPCI, Montreal, Qc, Canada **
Institute de Recherche dehydro-Québec (IREQ), Varennes, Qc, Canada.

[2]. Mangesh A. Chewale, Viraj B.Savakhande, Pravin R.Sonawane, Ritesh A.Wanjari “A

Review on Isolated and Non-isolated DC-DC Converter for PV Application”, Dept.of
Electrical Engg., R.I.T. Sakharale, India, S.B.G.I Miraj, India.

[3]. Subhash Chander, Pramod Agarwal and Indra Gupta “Design, Modeling and Simulation
of DC-DC Converter” Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee-247667-INDIA.

[4]. Alexander Bubovich “The Comparison of Different Types of DC-DC Converters in

Terms of Low-Voltage Implementation” Dept. of Industrial Electronics and Electrical
Technologies Riga Technical University Latvia.

[5]. M. Lakshmi and S. Hemamalini “Nonisolated High Gain DC–DC Converter for DC
Microgrids” Member, IEEE.

[6]. Sinan Li ,Shu Yuen (Ron), Chong Tan, Yaxiao Qin, Ying Huang Member, IEEE “A
High Efficiency DC/DC Converter for High Voltage Gain High Current Applications” Ying
Huang Member, IEEE.

[7]. T. Porselvi Research Scholar, M. Arounassalame Associate Professor “A novel Single

Switch High Gain dc-dc Converter” Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Pondicherry Engineering College Puducherry-605014, India.

[8]. Z. U. Zahid, Z. Dalala, and L. Jih-Sheng, "Design and control of bidirectional resonant
converter for Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) applications," in Industrial Electronics Society, IECON
2014 - 40th Annual Conference of the IEEE, 2014, pp. 1370-1376.

[9]. Hengshan Xu, Zhongdong Yin, Yushan Zhao, Yongzhang Huang, “Accurate Design of
High Efficiency LLC Resonant Converter With Wide Output Voltage” IEEE.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 93

[10]. Lokesha M H Student member IEEE Dr S G Srivani, Member IEEE “LLC RESONANT
CONVERTER DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT“ PG student, Associate professor ,Dept of
EEE, RVCE Bangalore.

[11]. Sam Abdel-Rahman “Resonant LLC Converter: Operation and Design” Infineon
Technologies North America (IFNA) Corp.

[12]. Arik Subhana “Design of Bidirectional Asymmetric CLLC Resonant DC-DC

Converters for V2G and V2H Applications” Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY.

[13]. MARTIN MORENO, JAVIER PEREDA, FELIX ROJAS, IVAN DOMINGUEZ-

LOPEZ “Decoupled PI Controllers Based on Pulse-Frequency Modulation for Current
Sharing in Multi-Phase LLC Resonant Converters” (Student Member, IEEE), (Member,
IEEE).

[14]. Shi Pu “Analysis, Design and Construction of an LLC Resonant Converter” A thesis
submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the Degree of Master of Science Auburn, Alabama May 7, 2016.

[15]. Yuqi Wei, Quanming Luo, Zhiqing Wang and Alan Mantooth “A Complete Step by
Step Optimal Design for LLC Resonant Converter” IEEE.

[16]. Nitin Trivedi, Nikhil S. Gujar, Subrata Sarkar and S.P.S. Pundir “Different fast charging
methods and topologies for EV charging” R&D ERDA Vadodara, India, NTPC Greater
Noida, India.

[17]. Chaohui Liu “Analysis, Design and Control of DC-DC Resonant Converter for On-
board Bidirectional Battery Charger in Electric Vehicles” A thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering Faulty of
Engineering The University of Sheffield February 2017.

[18]. Mohsen Ahmadi, N. Mithulananthan and Rahul Sharma “A Review on Topologies for
Fast Charging Stations for Electric Vehicles” School of Information Technology & Electrical
Engineering University of Queensland Brisbane, Australia.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 94

[19]. Md Ahsanul Hoque Rafi, Jennifer Bauman “A Comprehensive Review of DC Fast
Charging Stations with Energy Storage: Architectures, Power Converters, and Analysis”
Member, IEEE.

[20]. Sevilay Cetin “High efficiency isolated on-board EV battery charger using LLC
resonant converter” Technology Faculty, Pamukkale University, Denizli, 20125, Turkey.
Corresponding Author: scetin@pau.edu.tr.

[21]. Rahul Pandey, Bhim Singh “A Power Factor Corrected Electric Vehicle Battery
Charger Using Boost Converter” Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi New Delhi 110016, India.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 95

 ANNEXURE

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SIMULATION

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 Fig. 6.1 LLC Resonant Converter.

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 Fig. 6.1.1 LLC Resonant Converter Output

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MATLAB Code for Curves

clc;

clear all;

close all;

m=[3 6 15];

wx=logspace(-1,1,1000);

colors = ['r' 'g' 'b' 'c' 'm' 'k'];

Q=[0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 6];

for y=1:3

figure

for i=1:6

Gain=(((8/(pi^2))(wx.^2)(m(y)-1))./(((m(y)(wx.^2)-1).^2+((wx.^2) . ((wx.^2)-1).^2) .*
((m(y)-1).^2)*(Q(i)^2)).^0.5));

semilogx (wx, Gain, 'color', colors(i), 'LineWidth', 3)

hold on

end

legend ('Q=0.2', 'Q=0.3', 'Q=0.5', 'Q=0. 7', 'Q=1' , 'Q=6')

title(['|G| (\omega) vs \omega with m ', num2str (m(y) ) ], 'FontSize', 18)

xlabel ('\omega_x','FontSize',18)

ylabel('|G|(omega_x)','FontSize',18)

grid on

end

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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 101