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Welding
❖ Welding is a fabrication process used to join two metals, either similar or dissimilar, by fusion. This
process can be carried out:

1. With or without applying pressure

2. With or without using filler material

The resulting joint is permanent and can be as strong as the parent metal.

Welding is broadly categorized into two types:

1. Plastic Welding (Forge or Pressure Welding): The joint is formed by applying pressure.

2. Fusion Welding (Non-Pressure Welding): Metals are melted and fused together without applying
pressure.
Arc Welding

Arc welding is a fusion welding process in which electric heat is obtained from an electric arc between the
workpiece and the electrode. Temperatures of 6000°C to 7000°C can be produced during the process.

• There are 2 types of polarities used in Arc Welding:

1. Straight Polarity: In DC welding machines, when the work is connected to the positive
terminal of a DC welding machine and the negative terminal is connected to the electrode
holder, it is called straight polarity.

2. Reverse Polarity: When the work is connected to the negative terminal and the electrode to the
positive terminal, this setup is called reverse polarity.

• 2 types of arc welding based on the type of electrode:

1. Unshielded Arc Welding: When a large electrode or filler rod is used for welding, it is called
unshielded arc welding.

2. Shielded Arc Welding: When a welding rod coated with flux is used, it is called shielded arc
welding.

During an arc welding process:

1. The arc is created by a low-voltage and high-current supply.

2. The arc is created by contact resistance.

3. For producing a sound weld, the optimum size of the gap between the electrodes and the workpiece is 3
mm.

4. The arc length should be approximately equal to the diameter of the electrodes.

5. The eyes need to be protected from ultraviolet as well as infrared rays.

Electrodes
1. Bare Electrodes:

➢ They do not prevent the oxidation of the weld, resulting in weaker joints.

➢ They are used in applications where the strength of the joint is not a significant consideration.

2. Flux Coated Electrodes:

A flux coating is provided on the electrode to perform the following actions:

i) Provide slag of suitable characteristics to protect molten metal.
ii) Add alloying elements to the weld metal.
iii) Perform metallurgical refining operations.
iv) Remove oxides and impurities.
v) Stabilize the arc.
vi) Reduce splashing of weld metal and keep the weld in position.
vii) Slow the cooling rate of the weld.
viii) Increase the efficiency of deposition.

Arc Welding Processes:

1. Carbon Arc Welding:

➢ A common welding process in engineering practices.

➢ Heat is obtained from an electric arc between the electrode and the workpiece.

➢ For welding heavy plates, additional metal is deposited in the form of a filler rod.
 2. Metal Arc Welding:

➢ The arc is produced between the metal electrode (filler rod) and the workpiece.

➢ During welding, the metal electrode melts due to the heat of the arc and fuses with the
workpiece.

➢ Temperatures of 2400°C to 2700°C can be attained during welding.

3. Metallic Inert Gas (MIG) Welding:

➢ Consumable electrodes are used.

➢ The filler metal is deposited by an arc surrounded by an inert gas.

➢ MIG welding requires DC electrode reverse polarity.

➢ Provides a uniform and slag-free weld bead.

4. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding:

➢ Heat is produced between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece.

➢ The welding zone is shielded by an atmosphere of inert gas (helium or argon) from an external
source.

➢ Direct current with straight polarity is used for welding copper alloys and stainless steel.

➢ Reverse polarity is used for welding magnesium.

➢ Alternate current is used for welding steel, cast iron, and aluminum.

5. Thermit Welding:

➢ In thermit welding, a mixture of iron oxide and aluminum (thermit) is used.

➢ The reaction is ignited at a temperature of about 1500°C.

➢ All parts of the weld section are molten at the same time, and the weld cools almost uniformly,
preventing internal stresses.

➢ It is used to weld very thick, heavy plates, such as rails, pipes, and thick steel sections.

➢ In steel mills, thermit welding is employed to replace broken gear teeth.

6. Submerged Arc Welding:

➢ Used for welding low-carbon and alloy steels.

➢ The arc is produced between a bare metal electrode and the workpiece.

➢ It may also be used for welding many non-ferrous metals.

7. Atomic Hydrogen Welding:

➢ The arc is obtained between two non-consumable tungsten electrodes.

➢ The welding zone is surrounded by a stream of hydrogen.

8. Stud Arc Welding:

➢ It is a direct current arc welding process used for welding metal studs to flat metal surfaces.

Gas Welding

Gas welding is a type of fusion welding process in which the heat required for welding is obtained from the
combustion of fuel gas. The most commonly used gas combination is oxygen and acetylene, capable of producing
a flame temperature of up to 3200°C.

Flame Types in Gas Welding:

1. Neutral Flame:

➢ Equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are used.

➢ Has two sharply defined zones:

i) Inner luminous cone (~3200°C).
ii) Outer cone or envelope with a bluish color (~1250°C).

2. Oxidizing Flame:

i. Produced by burning excess oxygen with acetylene.

ii. The inner cone is short and sharply pointed with reduced luminosity.

iii. The blue envelope is shortened.

iv. This is the hottest flame, used where maximum temperature is needed, e.g., welding brass and
bronze.

3. Reduced or Carburizing Flame:

i. Obtained with excess acetylene in the oxy-acetylene mixture.

ii. Results in lower flame temperature and slower cooling, with increased carburizing properties.

iii. Used for welding metals like Monel, nickel, steel alloys, non-ferrous metals, and hard-surfacing
materials.

Gas Welding Techniques:

1. Leftward or Forehand Welding:

i. Welding torch held in the right hand, tip pointing left, and the weld progresses from right to left.

ii. Torch angle: 60°–70°; welding rod angle: 40°.

iii. Not suitable for plates above 6mm in thickness.

2. Rightward or Backhand Welding:

i. Welding torch in the right hand and filler rod in the left hand; weld progresses from left to right.

ii. Torch angle: 40°–50°; welding rod angle: 30°–40°.

iii. Suitable and economical for plates above 6mm thickness.

3. Vertical Welding:

i. Can be performed using either the leftward or rightward technique.

ii. No edge preparation required for plates up to 16mm in thickness.

4. Linde Welding:

A special gas welding process using an oxy-acetylene flame with excess acetylene and the rightward
technique.
Equipment for Gas Welding:

1. Welding Torch (Blowpipe):

1. Mixes oxygen and acetylene in proper volumes and burns the mixture at the tip.
 2. Types:
i) Injector (low-pressure type).
ii) Positive (high-pressure type).

3. In the low-pressure type, acetylene pressure is below 7 kN/m², and oxygen pressure varies
from 70 to 280 kN/m².

4. In the high-pressure type, both gases are supplied at pressures above 7 kN/m².

2. Welding Torch Tip:

i. Made of high thermal conductivity materials like copper and its alloys.

ii. Interchangeable tips are used for various thicknesses.

3. Pressure Regulators:

➢ Two gauges indicate cylinder pressure and pressure delivered to the torch.

➢ Oxygen pressure: 70–280 kN/m².

➢ Acetylene pressure: 7–102 kN/m².

4. Hoses and Fittings:

• Black hose for oxygen; red hose for acetylene.

5. Gas Cylinders:

• Standard color for oxygen: Black.

• Standard color for acetylene: Maroon.

6. Other Equipment:

• Welding rods, fluxes, spark lighters, goggles, and gloves.

Resistance Welding

Resistance welding is a pressure welding process for joining sheet metal or wire. The welding heat is obtained by
electrical resistance at the joint, using low voltage (6–10 V) and high current (60–4000 A).

• Steps in Resistance Welding:

1. Heat is generated by electrical resistance through the metal pieces.

2. Temperature at the joint reaches the required level.

3. Pressure (25–55 MPa) is applied until the weld solidifies.

Types of Resistance Welding:

1. Spot Welding:

➢ Used for metal plates 0.025–1.25 mm thick in lap joints.

➢ Plates are placed between copper electrodes.

➢ Tip diameter (d) = √t (t = plate thickness).

➢ Distance from edge to weld center ≥ 1.5d.

➢ Gap between two welds ≥ 3d.

2. Roll Spot (Seam) Welding:

 ➢ Spot welds are placed closely together to form a seam.

➢ Used for metal thicknesses from 0.025–3 mm.

3. Projection Welding:

➢ Similar to spot welding, but one piece has projections for weld points.

➢ Known as multi-spot welding.

➢ For materials of different thermal conductivities, projections are made on the higher
conductivity piece.

➢ For pieces of different thicknesses, projections are made on the thicker piece.

4. Butt Welding:

➢ Two types: Upset Butt Welding and Flash Butt Welding.

➢ Upset Butt Welding: Used for rods, pipes, and uniform sections.

➢ Flash Butt Welding: Used for steel containers and joining mild steel shanks to high-speed
drills.