Welding and Fabrication

Welding is the process of joining together two pieces of metal so that bonding takes place at
their original boundary surfaces. When two parts to be joined are melted together, heat or
pressure or both is applied and with or without added metal for formation of metallic bond.

The joining takes place by means of heat from blacksmith’s fire, electric arc, electric
resistance or by chemical reactions.

Fabrication:

Terms used in Welding

Autogenous Welding: this is the process of joining two similar metals by melting the edges
together without addition of filler metals e.g. Joining iron metal to iron metal

Homogenous Welding: This process of joining similar metals using a filler rod of the same
metal. Eg joining iron with a iron filler rod.

Heterogenous Welding: The process of joining dissimilar metals using filler.

Weldability

This is the defined as the property of metal which indicates the ease of welding metals. This
means metals with good weldability can be easily welded.

Factors Affecting Weldability of Metals

There are various factors affecting the weldability of metals

 Composition of a metal
 Brittleness and Strength of a metal at elevated temperatures
 Thermal properties of the metal ie the melting and boiling points of the metals.
 Welding techniques, fluxing material and filler metal used.
 The type of heat treatment before and after the deposition of the metal.
 The common metals used in welding and their weldability in descending Order

Iron
Most weldable
Carbon

Steel

Cast iron

Low alloy of steel

Stainless Steel
Least Weldable

Advantages of Welding/ Welded joint

 The welding structures are normally lighter than riveted or bolted joints structures.
 The alterations and additions can be easily made in the existing structures
 Welding structures is smooth in appearance and pleasing
 Welded joints have greater tension strength than riveted and bolted joints
 The welded joints are rigid hence not easily movable
 The process of welding takes less time than other chances.
 No need to drill hole on parent parts: Welded joint does not require such holed to be
drilled on parent parts, except for edge preparations

Disadvantages of welding/ welded Joints

 It requires a highly skilled labor and supervision.

 Because of uneven heating and cooling, residual stress generates within the welded
structures
 Uneven heating and cooling is also associated with distortion of jointed structures,
which causes dimensional inaccuracy and thus rejected parts
  Welded joints are prone to vibration and thus fail if used for longer duration under
vibration. In such scenario riveted joints are preferable
 Checking presence of defects within welded joints is a bit difficult task and need
sophisticated testing methods (non-destructive testing) for inspection, which are
usually costlier

Types of Welding

The welding is broadly divided into the following two groups.

 Forge or Pressure Welding: this a type of welding where work pieces are heated to
plastic state and then the work pieces are joined by application of pressure without
filler metal.
 Fusion or Non- pressure welding: This type of welding where work pieces are
joined with a filler metal heated to a temperature above the melting of the metal and
allowed to solidity.

Types of Welded Joints

1. Butt joint

The parts lie in the same plane and are joined at their edges.
 2. Corner joint

The parts in a corner joint form a right angle and are joined at the center of the angle

3. Lap joint

Lap joint consists of two overlapping parts

4. Tee – Joint

One joint is the right angle to the other joint in the approximate shape of the letter “T”.
 5. Edge Joint

The parts in edge joint are parallel with at least one of their edges in common and the joint is
made at the common edge(s).

N/B: In order to obtain sound welded joints. It is important to clean the faces to be welded from
dust, sand grits oil etc

Welding Position

Welding positions are classified as follows:

 Flat Position Welding

The face of the weld is approximately horizontal

  Horizontal Welding Position

In this position, the weld is deposited upon the side of a horizontal and against a vertical surface.

 Vertical Position

The line of welding is in vertical position is in a vertical plane and the weld is deposited upon a
vertical surface.
  Overhead Position

The weld is deposited from the under side deposited of the joint and face of the weld is
horizontal.

ARC WELDING

Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric arc to create heat to melt and join
metals. A power supply creates an electric arc between a consumable or non-consumable
electrode and the base material using either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) currents.

The electric arc is produced when two conductors of an electric circuit are touched together and
the separated by a small distance, such that there is sufficient voltage to maintain flow of current
through gaseous medium.
Types of Arc Welding

Unshielded Arc Welding – This is a type of arc welding where large coated filler rod or
electrode is used for welding.

Shielded Arc Welding – This is a type of arc welding where the welding rods with fluxing
materials.

N/B: The fluxing material is applied to the rod by dipping and extrusion.

Types of Electrodes for Arc Welding

The electrodes for arc welding are generally of the following two types.

 Bare or Non – coated Electrodes: This is a type of electrodes with covering or coating
of some fluxing materials.
 Coated Electrodes: This is a type of coated electrode with a flux.

Benefits of coating Electrodes

 Forming a gaseous shield around the weld area

 Removing impurities from the weld
 Introducing deoxidizers into the reaction zone using the coating (to reduce oxidation of
the base metal)
 Formation of a solid coating on the weld as it cools
 Additional alloying elements are introduced through the coating
 ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

Precautions in Arc welding

 Protect yourself from possible dangerous electrical shock. Always insulate yourself from
the work and ground by using dry insulation
 Avoid breathing welding fumes and gases when welding. Keep your head out of
the fume. Use enough ventilation and/or exhaust at the arc to keep fumes and
gases away from the breathing zone.
 Use a shield with the proper filter and cover plates to protect your eyes from sparks and
the rays of the arc when welding or observing open arc welding Filter
 Remove fire hazards well away from the area. If this is not possible cover them to
prevent the welding sparks from starting a fire Remember that welding sparks.
 Droplets of molten slag and metal are thrown or fall from the welding arc Protect
yourself with oil free protective garments
 GAS WELDING

It is type of fusion welding, in which the heat for welding is obtained by the combustion of a fuel
gas e.g. Oxygen and acetylene.

In gas welding, the edges or surfaces to be joined are melted by the heat of a gas flame.

The most commonly used gas combination used for producing hot flame for welding metals
oxygen and acetylene (C2H2). It has the highest flame temperature of (about 3200 oC)

The approximate flame temperatures produced by different combination of gases.

Oxy – acetylene, 3200oc

Oxy – hydrogen, 2400oc

Oxy – propane, 2200oc

Air – acetylene, 2400oc

Air - propane, 1750oc

Equipment for Oxy – acetylene Gas Welding

Function of parts of oxy – acetylene Equipment

Welding Torch – it is a tool for mixing the oxygen and acetylene in the desired volumes and
burning the mixtures.

Welding Torch Tip – is that portion of the torch through which the gases pass just prior to their
ignition and burning.
Pressure Regulators

It has 3 functions

 It reduces the source pressure from the cylinders to a workable pressure.

 It maintains constant delivery pressure and gas volumetric rates
 It permits adjustment to deliver gas at a certain desired pressure within its rated pressure
range

Hose and Hose Fittings

This part offers passage way for gas from the cylinder to the welding torch

The standard color for oxygen hose is black and for acetylene is red.

The hose should be strong, durable, non – porous, light and flexible.

Gas cylinder

It is used to store oxygen or acetylene.

Goggles

The goggles protect eyes from the blinding light of the flame cone molten metal.

N/B: welding rods are used in gas welding to provide extra metal to the weld by melting the
end of the rod.
 Procedure for setting up the gas welding equipment

Step 1  Turn on Oxygen Tank valve completely and Acetylene

Step 2  Crack open Acetylene torch valve and set the regulator to the
correct line pressure.

Step 3  Close the Acetylene torch valve.

Step 4  Crack open the Oxygen torch valve and set the regulator to the
correct line pressure

Step 5  Close the Oxygen torch valve.

Step 6  Crack open the Acetylene torch valve and using a striker light
the torch and adjust the Acetylene to get a clean burning flame.

Step 7  Open Oxygen torch valve until you get a neutral flame.

Procedure for shutting down the gas welding equipment

 Close the Acetylene torch valve

 Close the Oxygen torch valve
 Close the Oxygen and Acetylene tank valves.

 Crack open the Oxygen torch valve and drain the Oxygen
line until both the line and tank pressure gauges read zero.
Close Oxygen torch valve.
 Crack open the acetylene torch valve and drain acetylene
line until the line and tank pressure gauges read zero. Close
acetylene torch
 Wrap the hose around the cart handles
Fluxes

Fluxes is used to prevent oxidation and other unwanted chemical reactions during welding

When metals are heated, the oxygen from the air combines with them and form oxides. These
oxides produce poor quality and low strength welds. In some cases, it makes welding
impossible.

Commonly used fluxes include borax, sodium carbonate, boraic acids and bisulphates

Gas Flame

The combustion of acetylene with pure oxygen takes place into two stages. In the first stage,
the carbon from acetylene combines with oxygen to form carbon monoxide, the hydrogen of
the acetylene is freed.

C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2

In the second stage, the carbon monoxide and hydrogen (produced in the first stage). together
with oxygen, form carbon dioxide and water ( steam)

These reactions take place in the large blue flame which surrounds whitish cone.

The flame can be adjusted, to suit welding conditions, by regulating the supply of acetylene
and oxygen. The following three types of flames are used for gas welding.
Oxidizing Flame

Oxidizing welding flames are produced when slightly more than one volume of oxygen is mixed
with one volume of acetylene.

Oxidizing welding flames are commonly used to weld these metals:

 zinc
 copper
 maganese steel
 cast iron

Carburizing Flame

The carburizing flame has excess acetylene; the inner cone has a feathery edge extending beyond
it. This white feather is called the acetylene feather. If the acetylene feather is twice as long as
the inner cone
Used for welding high carbon steel and hard facing such nonferrous alloys as nickel and Monel.

Neutral Welding Flame

The neutral flame has a one-to-one ratio of acetylene and oxygen. It obtains additional oxygen
from the air and provides complete combustion. It is generally preferred for welding. The neutral
flame has a clear, well-defined, or luminous cone indicating that combustion is complete.

Neutural welding flames are commonly used to weld:

 Mild steel
 Stainless steel
 Cast Iron
 Copper
 Aluminum
Welding Techniques

The usual techniques in oxy – acetylene welding are as follows

1. Leftward or Forward Welding

In this technique, the torch is held in the right hand and the filler rod is in the left hand of the
operator. The welding is started from the right hand end of the plate and travels towards left
hand. The torch tip makes an angle of 60-70° and the filler rod makes an angle of 30-40° with
the work surface.

2. Rightward or Backward Welding:

In this technique, the welding torch is held in the right hand and the filler rod is in the left hand.
The welding is started from the left hand end of the plate and travels towards right hand. The
torch tip makes an angle of 40-50° and the filler rod makes an angle of 30-40° with the work
surface.
3. VERTICAL WELDING

In this technique, the welding is started from the bottom of the welded joint and goes towards
top of the joint. This may be carried out either by the leftward or rightward technique. The
welding is done by giving oscillating movement to the torch and the filler rod. The torch makes
an angle of 25 to = to 90°, depending upon the thickness of the plates to be welded.

The filler rod makes an angle of 30° with the vertical line. This method is better and economical
for plate’s thickness of 6mm and above.

4. LINDE WELDING

This is a special welding technique used for butt welding of steel pipes. The edges of the pipes
are bevelled at 70° and butted together with a gap of approximately 2.5mm. The seam is welded
with excess acetylene flame.
Gas and Oxygen Cutting of Metal

Cutting Oxy – Acetylene Equipment

The process of gas cutting consists of preheating the materials, to be cut to its kindling or
ignition temperature (about 1350).

After this temperature is attained, a jet of high pressure oxygen is directed on the hot metal. The
metal is rapidly oxidized.

The molten oxides is formed in the process are washed out by a stream of oxygen. As molten
metal runs down, it heats the cooler metal and makes the cutting operation continuous.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING GAS WELDING

 Provide enough ventilation wherever gas welding, cutting, and heating operations are
performed. Proper ventilation will protect the operator from inhaling toxic fumes and
gases.
 Wear safety goggles made for gas welding and cutting purposes. They will protect your
eyes from radiation burns and from sparks
 Keep Areas for welding and cutting clear and free of flammable liquids, such as
gasoline, paints, and solvents; combustible solids, such as paper, packing materials, and
wood; flammable gases, such as acetylene and hydrogen
 Provide a preventive fire extinguisher to help fight accidental fires,
 Never use acetylene at pressures above 15 psi. Using acetylene at pressures in excess of
15 psi gauge pressure is a hazardous practice.
 Prevent cylinder damage; secure cylinders by chain or strap to suitable cylinder carts,
benches, wall, post, or racks.
 Unless in use, cylinder valves should be kept closed at all times. This will prevent
accidental release of gas.

Soldering

Soldering is a joining process used to join different types of metals together using solder usually
made of tin and lead which is melted using a hot iron. The iron is heated to temperatures above
400oc which then cools to create a strong bond.

Solder is melted by using heat from a soldering iron. It is heated up to temperatures beyond its
melting point which then causes it to melt, which then cools creating the soldered joint.
Brazing

This is the process of joining of two metals pieces by means of heat and a special filler metal
(known as spelter commonly made of copper base or silver alloys) having a melting point above
400oc but lower than the melting point of the parts being joined.

In brazing, the two metals pieces to be joined are, first of all, cleaned to remove all grease and
oxides.

N/B; A flux (usually borax) is applied on the joint and then heated to temperature above the
melting point of the spelter.

Types of Brazing

Torch Brazing: This is a type of brazing where heating is done by the means oxy – acetylene
torch.

Furnace brazing: This is a type of brazing where heating is done in a furnace.

Electric Brazing; this a type of brazing where heating is done by means of arc heating

Dip Brazing; This type of brazing which involves dipping the piece of spelter and placing it at
the joint.

Silver Brazing: brazing using a silver alloy as the filler metal. It is used in the tool industry to
fasten hard metal.

Bronze brazing: This is a type of brazing that uses bronze filler rod. The filler metal flows to
the joint
Defects in welding

The lack of training to the operator or careless application of welding technologies may cause
discontinuities in welding. In aluminum joints obtained by fusion welding, the defects such as
porosity, slag inclusion, solidification cracks etc., are observed and these defects deteriorates the
weld quality and joint properties. Common weld defects found in welded joints: These defects
may result in sudden failures which are unexpected as they give rise to stress intensities. The
common weld defects include

i. Porosity

ii. Lack of fusion

iii. Slag Inclusions

iv. Cracking

v. Undercut

vi. Lamellar tearing

i. Porosity

Porosity occurs, when the solidifying weld metal has gases trapped in it. The presence of
porosity in most of the welded joints is due to dirt on the surface of the metal to be welded.It is
found in the shape of sphere or as elongated pockets. The region of distribution of the porosity is
random and sometimes it is more concentrated in a certain region.

Remedy

Porosity is avoided degreasing and cleaning the surface before welding.

ii. Lack of Fusion

It occurs due to too little input or too slow traverse of the welding torch, lack of fusion arises.
Remedy

 Lack of fusion is avoided by increasing the temperature, by properly cleaning the weld
surface before welding and by selecting the appropriate joint design and electrodes.
 It can also be solved by extending the fusion zone to the thickness of the joints fully

iii. Slag Inclusions

It occurs due to the trapping of the oxides, fluxes and electrode coating materials in the weld
Inclusions occur while joining thick plates in several runs using flux cored or flux coated rods
and the slag covering a run is not totally removed after every run and before the next run starts.

Remedy

 It can be avoided maintaining a clean surface before the run is started,

 It can also be solved or avoided by providing sufficient space for the molten weld metal
between the pieces to be joined, the inclusions can be prevented.

iv. Cracking

Due to thermal shrinkage, strain at the time of phase change, cracks may occur in various
directions and in various locations in the weld area. Due to poor design and inappropriate
procedure of joining high residual stresses, cracking is observed.

Remedy

 Cracks are avoided by stage-wise pre-heating process and stage-wise slow cooling
 The cracking can be minimized by preferring fillers with low carbon and low impurity
levels.
 The solidification cracking can be avoided by reducing the gaps and cleaning the surface
before welding.

v. Undercutting
Wrong filler metal, excessive heat, fast weld speed, as well as poor welding technique, may all
leads to undercut welding defect on a welding joint. Also, very high weld current, incorrect use
of shielding gas and using the wrong electrode could cause undercuts.

Undercutting can be detected by a naked eye and the excess penetration can be visually detected.

Remedy

 Undercutting in welding can be avoided by employing the right welding technique that
does not involve excessive weaving.

 Lowering the arc length and minimizing the travel speed of the electrode can also help
prevent undercutting.

vi. Warpage

Warpage is an unwanted distortion in the shape of a piece of metal. This occurs when the welder
fails to properly control the expansion and contraction of the base material.

Remedy

 Warpage can be prevented by using only the required amount of heat.

 Opting for moderate travel speed and electrode feed speed while welding can also help
curtail the problem of warpage.

vii. Overlap

Overlap welding defect can arise when using large electrodes greater than the metal size and
High welding current and the use of improper welding technique.

Remedy

Overlap welding defect can be avoided by employing the correct welding Technique, using small
Welding electrode
Types of weld testing:
The majority of weld testing and inspection can be separated into two categories.

Destructive testing:
Destructive weld testing, as the name suggests, involves the physical destruction of the
completed weld in order to evaluate its characteristics.

Non-Destructive Weld Testing

Element's non-destructive testing services evaluate the structural soundness of components
without causing damage. E.g.using visual inspection.
Our team of experts can perform a full suite of tests on components and materials to determine
weld strength and integrity without destroying the part. Non-destructive tests are used to check
for cracks and imperfections, and as a quality check for new components.
Cold and hot water supply system

Sources of Water Supply

Surface sources - Lakes, streams, rivers, reservoirs, run off from roofs and paved areas.

Underground sources - Shallow wells, deep wells, artesian wells, artesian springs, land springs.
Materials tools and equipment

Water supply pipes are classified into three basic groups. Namely

I. Galvanized Iron
II. Plastic pipes (PVC, PPR & HDPE)
III. Copper Pipes.

GALVANIZED Iron (G.I) pipes

 These pipes have a threaded end to fit to the threaded fittings

 Galvanized iron pipes are used for external plumbing from the tank to the house,
underground, under the floor and for supplying water to outside taps

Plastic Pipes (PVC, PPR and HDPE)

 These pipes are for adhesive fittings or connections

 Plastic-pipes are best suited for external use, as underground or sewer pipes
 Plastic-pipes are commonly used in many areas because they are much easier to cut and
connect than any other pipes and few tools are needed
Copper pipes

 These pipes are for solder joints and flare joint fittings
 Copper pipes are used for distributing the water inside, the house to all applications
(shower, sinks, toilets) and are mostly laid in the wall because they are of small diameter
and is easy to bend. Copper pipes are also used for hot water systems

Pipe Measurement

 Pipes are always measured by inside diameter usually in inches.

Pipes are available in sizes of:

½" = 15 mm
¾" = 20 mm
1" = 25 mm
1¼" = 32 mm
1½" = 38 mm
2" = 50 mm
3" = 75 mm
4" = 100 mm
5" = 125 mm
6" = 150 m
 Plumbing tools

 When planing the plumbing work, you must decide which type of pipes to use. Your
choice will depend on the plumbing tools available. As plumbing with G.I pipes requires
a lot of different tools to cut, bend, thread and join the pipes, it is less practical for many
plumbing, because of the high costs of these tools
 Plumbing with PVC-pipes and copper-pipes need only a few tools because pipes need not
to be threaded due to the fittings which are either glued (PVC-pipes) or connected with
special designed flare connectors (Copper-pipes)
 Below is a list of the most important plumbing tools.
a) Hacksaw: - Used for steel, copper and PVC-pipes cutting

b) Pipe cutter: - For steel, copper and PVC pipes. Pipe cutters do not remove any metal. The
wheel squeezes the metal and forces it ahead of the cutter until the pipe is cut through the
wall thickness

c) Self-locking, hinged pipe vice: - For steel pipes only. Pipes to be cut or threaded must be
held steady and prevented from rotating by holding them in a suitable vice.
 d) Chain pipe vice: - For steel pipes only. These vices are made to hold pipes with outside
diameters up to 8" (200 mm). They are mounted on solid benches

e) Pipe reamer: - For G.I and steel pipesonly.

To remove internal burrs caused by cutting pipes. Several types of tapered reamers are available
from ½" to 2" with a cross handle.
 f) File: - File off all the outside burrs of the galvanized steel pipe with a flat bastard file or
with a halfround bastard file.

g) Stock and die

 These are stock and dies for cutting external threads on bars and small pipes up to 1"
 The stock is a suitable frame with handles to hold and rotate the die.

These dies are used to cut external threads.

- The die must be set exactly at an angle of 90 degrees to the bar or pipe-end and is pressed
firmly against the end while rotating the stock clock wise until -the length of the thread is cut.

- Reverse and rotate the stock carefully anti-clock wise. Then repeat to clean out the thread.

h) Ratchet stock and die:

- For steel pipes only. It works in the same way as the other model but is adjustable from ½" to
2" and the single cutter can be exchanged.

- It has only one handle and when reversing, the knob has to be turned around.
- The length of a pipe thread should be between 15 mm and 35 mm long - depending on the pipe
diameter.

i) sealing threads:

- For steel and PVC threads. Threads must be sealed to ensure a completely tight joint between
pipe and fitting.

- Hemp string: For steel threads. Wind it in the same direction as the male thread.
- Seal tape: For steel and PVC threads. If using sealing tape, unroll a sufficient length of tape and
wrap it around the male thread as shown.

Figure

j) Stillson pipe wrench:

- It is used for all types of pipes with ½" to 2" diameters.

- The stillson pipe wrench is designed as a heavy duty tool to withstand rough handling and
heavy work. The jaws give a immediate and positive grip.

k) Adjustable spanner: - For tightening or loosening connectors. Available in different sizes for
pipe fittings up to 2".
l) Tube flaring tool set:

- Only for copper pipes. Copper pipe-ends must be flared to fit with the copper ring used by
connectors which are tightened with a nut to the pipe.

- The flaring tool consists of two parts. The part in which the pipe is fastened, and the sharp
pointed inserter which is forced with a hammer, or with a spindle into the end of the pipe to
widen it.
- This job must be done with accuracy to ensure a sealed joint.

Plumbing fittings

 Fittings are used when installing pipes to go around corners, to join pipes, to reduce the
diameter of the pipes and to set taps
 The fitting system for PVC and metal pipes is the same. For metal pipes only metal
fittings are used, while for PVC pipes PVC and metal fittings can be used because the
threads are the same size. For PVC pipes many fittings can be glued with a "PVC solvent
cement".

I. Nipple
 Is a short stub of pipe, usually male-threaded steel, brass, chlorinated polyvinyl
chloride (CPVC), or copper (occasionally unthreaded copper), which connects two
other fittings

II. Female socket threaded

 Connects two pipes. If their sizes differ, the fitting is known as a reducing
coupling, reducer, or an adapter. There are two types of couplings: "regular" and
"slip".

III. Plug

 A plug fits inside the pipe segment or fitting

IV. Reducing male socket/Reducing Nipple

 To Reduce / Increase Port Sizes

V. Reducing female socket

 Connecting pipes of different size diameter.

 VI. Bushes

 Mostly used for reducing the size of pipes used

VII. Tee – joint

 The most common pipe fitting, is used to combine or divide fluid flow

VIII. Cross – joint

 A cross fitting has openings on all four of its ends and can connect four pipes. Cross
fittings come with three inlets and an outlet or three outlets and an inlet
 IX. Back nut

 Tap backnuts are hexagonal nuts with an integral flange and are used to secure a tap
fitting to a basin, sink or bath.

X. Union

 A union also connects two pipes, but is quite different than a coupling, as it allows
future disconnection of the pipes for maintenance.

XI. Double female Elbow 90 deg. Threaded

 Used to navigate corners and change direction of flow.

 XII. Double female Elbow 45 deg. Threaded

 Used to navigate corners and change direction of flow.

 Commonly used in water-supply facilities, food, chemical and electronic industrial
pipeline networks, air-conditioning pipelines, agriculture and garden production, and
solar-energy facility piping

XIII. PVC-Elbow plain

XIV. PVC - Elbow + Inspection eye

 A pipe fitting with a removable plug which provides access for inspection or cleaning
of thepipe run. Also called an access eye or cleaning eye.

XV. Male - Female Elbow

 XVI. Flange

 A flange is a method of connecting pipes, valves, pumps and other equipment to form
a piping system. It also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or
modification. Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged joints are made by
bolting together two flanges with a gasket between them to provide a seal

XVII. 'S'- Trap

 It is also referred to as a sink trap because it is installed under most sinks. Because of
its shape, the trap retains some water after the fixture's use. This water creates an air
seal that prevents sewer gas from passing from the drain pipes back into the building.
 XVIII. 'P'- Trap

 A P-trap is a plumbing fixture that has several purposes. It traps debris that has
drained from the sink and prevents it from forming a clog deep within the plumbing
system, and to stops sewer gases from passing into the home.

XIX. Floor waste

 It is used to drain whatever water winds up on the floor. In the shower, it drains the
water that is on the shower floor while showering. In a commercial restroom is it
used to drain water spilled on the floor, or water used to clean the bathroom

XX. Gate valve

 Also known as a sluice valve, is a valve that opens by lifting a barrier (gate) out of
the path of the fluid
 Bip - Tap

Stop - Cock

Hose - Cock
Guidelines for plumbing

The most important thing is to make sure the water pressure is sufficient for all taps in the house.
To ensure that, the watertank must be at least 500 mm higher than the highest tap in the house
(most probably the shower). The more taps there are in a house, the larger the tank outlet must be
to be able to reduce the pipe diameter after every second tap.

Figure

Description:

1. 1" galv. pipe two end threaded

2. 1" Gate valve
3. 1" PVC connector male thread, female glued
4. 1" PVC pipe
5. 1" galv. Union
6. 1" PVC Tee-joint
7. ¾" PVC pipe
8. ¾" PVC Tee-joint
9. ½" PVC pipe
10. ½" PVC Elbow 90 degree female
11. 1" - ½" Bush
12. 1" - ¾" Bush
13. ¾" - ½" Bush
14. ½" control gate valves
Direct System of Cold Water Supply

Direct systems source water straight from the mains water supply. All pipes to the cold drew off
points are taken directly from the rising main.
Advantages
 They require smaller storage cisterns and less pipe work than indirect systems.
 They are also cheaper to install.
 Easier to install direct cold water system for you will only need water storage for hot
water. All of your taps with dispense drinkable water as they will be connected to the
mains supply.
Disadvantages
 A direct water supply has a greater risk of pollution than an indirect supply.
 They are also affected by burst pipes, mains repairs and leaks in the system which may
result in a lack of water for your property.
 Direct water supplies are subjected to high pressures which cause wear and tear in your
fittings

 There is a danger of foul water from the sanitary fittings being siphoned back into the
main water.
 During peak periods there is a tendency for the lowering of pressure and with buildings
on higher ground a possible temporary loss of supply.
 

Indirect System of Cold Water Supply

An indirect water supply system is the most common type found in modern houses.

The mains water comes in via a rising main and directly feeds at least one cold tap at the kitchen
sink with ‘potable’ water. The rising main also feeds a storage tank at a high point in the building
from where the water is fed to all the other taps using gravity.

Advantages
 There is no risk of back siphonage with this system.
  There is no tendency of water hammer due to the low pressure in the pipework.
 Should there be an interruption in the mains supply there is an adequate store of cold
water.
Disadvantages
 Longer pipe runs are required.
 A larger storage cistern is necessary.
 Drinking water is only available at the kitchen sink.
Hot water Supply

When a supply of domestic hot water (dhw) is required, the designer has to consider
many factors to ensure the most suitable system for the building

When water is heated it becomes less dense than cooler water. Because hot water rises,it is
drawn off from the top of the storage vessel to supply the various draw-off points (taps).

The cold feed is supplied low down in the vessel, thus preventing unnecessary cooling to the
previously heated water. At the highest point in the system, a vent pipe is run up to terminate,
with an open end just below the feed cistern lid. This pipe is to allow air to escape from the
system upon initial filling and allows air in on draining down.
The vent pipe also acts as a fail-safe device should the cold feed become blocked, preventing the
expanding water passing back up into the cistern. Should this occur, the water is forced over the
vent and discharges into the cistern.
The electrical power supply to an immersion heater must come directly from the consumer unit
to terminate close to the hot storage vessel with a double pole switch.

This unit deals with

I. Direct Domestic hot water supply

II. Indirect Domestic hot water supply
 Direct domestic Hot Water System

The direct domestic hot water system is mainly used for soft water (water with low minerals)
because the hot water from the boiler mixes directly with the water in the cylinder. The boiler
heats the water and returns it to the tank higher up. When hot water is drawn from the tank, it is
replaced by cold from the cold tank, which in turn is fed to the boiler. This is direct heating of
the water by either the immersion the boiler. The hot water is simply stored in the tank.

To identify a direct water system you will find the end of the vent pipe fixed above your cold
water tank. This allows for any stem expansion in the cylinder to flow directly into the cold tank
and not damage the cylinder or cause air locks in the system.
Indirect Domestic hot water supply

With an indirect water system, the copper hot water cylinder contains a coil of pipe. This coil
forms part of a run of pipe work attached to the boiler. It is heated directly by the boiler.
Indirectly, it heats the water in the cylinder. The coil, or "heat exchanger" forms part of the
central heating circuit, and its water heating abilities are purely a by-product of its main function,
which is to heat the radiators. This heating is called the "primary" circuit, the pipes running to
and from the boiler are called the primary flow and return. The hot water tank operates in exactly
the same way as the direct system.

To identify an indirect system, you will see two water tanks in your loft. The second, smaller
one, is the feed for the primary circuit. It will top up the system when necessary and will also
have a vent pipe over the top. The level of water in this tank will be considerably lower to allow
the water to rise as it expands when it gets hot without overflowing.

Both of the boiler systems above are called "vented" systems. Because of this vent pie, they are
open to atmospheric pressure and operate as "low pressure" systems. They both call for cold
water from a cold tank stored, generally, in the roof space. Because they are low pressure,
sometimes the flow from the taps etc is not as great as one might like and pumps can be
introduced, both for the domestic hot water and the heating, to give greater flow.
Sanitary appliances

Sanitary appliances are accessories that are designed to receive foul or waste water and then
discharge it through a system of sanitary pipework or directly to the drainage system where it
will be disposed off.

Sanitary appliances are classified into:

I. Soil Appliances
II. Waste appliances

Soil Appliances

Soil appliances receive and dispose human excreta. They include bed pan washer, slop sinks,
urinals and water closets.

I. Bed pan washer

These appliances are only found in hospitals, hospices and large hotels. They are used for
emptying and washing bed pans. A bedpan or bed pan is a receptacle used for the toileting of a
bedridden patient in a health care facility, and is usually made of metal, glass, ceramic, or plastic.
A bedpan can be used for both urinary and fecal discharge.

II. Slop sinks

They are deep sink for filling and emptying scrub pails, washing out mops.

III. Urinals

These are appliances are fixed in buildings. They are designed for use by males. There many
types of urinals.

Stall urinal

It is made in single units complete with floor channel and have sides provided privacy.
Slab urinal

They are built up to any required length but do not generally have the sides pieces except at the
ends of the ends of the range.
Bowl Urinal

It consists of a wall – mounted bowl with optional separate screens fitted in range.
IV. Water closets (WC)

They are designed to receive excreta and to flush it into a drainage system. They are smooth and
easily cleaned surfaces and be made in one piece one – piece wherever possible, with an integral
water trap.

Wash – down Closets

The content of the pan are washed out by the action of the flushing water, which must be
directed all around the pan by a flushing rim.

The water trap seal is normally 50mm deep.

The trap seal is either an s or p – outlet with a diameter of 100mm (4inch).

A simple rubber push – fit connectors with are available to suit into soil pipe. (Waste pipe)
P - Trap
Siphonic Closet

In the case of a siphonic toilet, typically you will see the water in the bowl rises and then subside
rapidly into the bowl outlet. What happen is, the water is flowing out faster from the tank than it
tries to exit the bowl. This is usually due to a larger flush valve diameter than the trapway. As
water exits through the trapway, it displaces the air inside to form a vacuum. Then when it flows
over the kink in the trapway, that’s when the siphon begins. You can tell from the water in the
bowl that a siphon action has started when it stops rising and begin to subside rapidly.The
siphon, at its optimum state is so strong, heavy solid wastes get sucked out with the water. You
may see a swirl with some siphonic toilets, but the working principle is the same.Towards the
end of the flush you can hear a gurgling sound, that’s when the vacuum is broken and stop the
siphon. The bowl is filled with the remnant water, and the refill in the tank begins. All ready for
the next flush.

way

Squatting Closet

This floor – mounted closet is unlike other closet in that you do not sit on it but squat.

It is usually connected to the high level flushing cistern and directs water the closet.
Flushing Cisterns

There are used to contain and discharge water manually into soil appliances such as water closets
pans to flush out the contents and clean the soiled surfaces.

For urinals, they are usually use automatic type.

Most of the most modern cistern are siphonic and can only discharge when a lever is operated.

The types of cistern include:

A. Bell type flushing cistern

B. Dual-flush cistern
C. Automatic flushing cistern

Bell type Flushing Cistern

A – Cistern

B – Flush lever

C- Flush Pipe

D – Stand Pipe

E – Cast – iron bell – shaped dome

As the flush lever is pulled down, the bell is raised by the hook on the lever. Water in the cistern
moves into the lower compartment of the cistern as the thick bell is pulled away from the bottom.
Some water is pulled up inside the bell by surface tension

When the lever is released, the bell falls rapidly to the bottom of the tank. This causes water in
the lower compartment to be displaced by the bell, and to be forced up inside the bell and over
the top of the standpipe. This starts the syphon, which discharges the water in the cistern until air
enters the bell, flushing ceases and the cistern refills

Automatic flushing cistern

Gents' urinals always have automatic cisterns, which flush at regular intervals. These cisterns
work in the same way as ordinary syphonic cisterns, except that the syphon dome and plunger
assembly are omitted, and the top of the syphon tube is below the top water line.

As water fills the cistern, either from a simple tap or via a flow control device which lets water in
the water level slowly approaches the top lip of the syphon tube. Once the top of the tube is
reached, water pours over the top of the syphon lip and down the flushpipe. The small projection
in the pipe causes the falling water to pull air down the outlet, causing the air pressure in the pipe
to drop. This starts the syphon and the cistern flushes.
Dual-flush cistern

To prevent wastage of water, dual flush cistern is available to which can give a full flush of
9L and half flush of 4.5 l.

To give a full flush, the lever arm is held in position until the flush is finished.

For half flush, the lever is operated and then left, when water goes half way down the tank,
air enters the short leg of the siphon tube through the hole or small pipe to break the
symphonic action.

With arm held, it keeps the plunger valve tight against the hole, preventing the air from
entering the siphon.
Waste Appliances

They receive water and dispose excreta from general washing purposes or food preparation.

They include; Basins, baths, bidets, drinking fountains, sinks and showers.

Drinking Fountains

They are normally install in factories and mines where heavy peak – time washing of hands is
needed and a range of washing basins would not be sufficient.

They are usually manufactured as circular bowls with a central pillar through which several
nozzles spray water into the bowl.

They are fixed away from the walls so that people access water round the bowl.

Wash basin or Lavatory

They are used for hand washing and face washing.

They are available in various sizes but the commonest are between 600mm and 685mm wide and
between 400mm to 560mm deep to the back, with a bowl depth approximately 240mm deep.

Domestic basins are usually made of vitreous china and mostly supported pedestal of the same
material.
Baths

They are used for whole body washing and are usually rectangular or tub shaped, with sizes
ranging from 1.68 – 1.83 m long, 0.71m – 0.74m wide and 0.43m – 0.45m deep.
Shower

A Shower can be installed to discharge into a bath or into a ceramic or plastic shower tray inside
a waterproof cubicle.

The shower are used for whole body washing and are hygienic than baths because you are not
actually immersed in dirty water.
Sinks

They are usually fitted in kitchens and used for general household work, including washing and
preparing food.

Their sizes range from 450mm – 1200mm long, 380 – 600mm wide and 200mm – 300mm deep.

Materials like stainless steel enameled steel and plastic are more popular these days and can be
manufactured in various shapes.

Above Ground Drainage

Above ground drainage is the system of pipe that carries waste water within the building.

Effluent/ waste from the building is transported by drains to sewers, and from sewers to a
suitable outfall or treatment

Sanitary pipe is the piping system that transports soil and waste matter from the sanitary
appliances to the drainage system.

It is soil pipes pipes and waste pipes either separate or combined and also ventilation or vent
pipes which may be separate to the main soil and waste pipes or part of them.
 The main vertical pipes are known as Stacks.

The choice of drainage system used depends on the local bye – laws and regulations and the
type of drainage used in the area.

There are basically three different systems:

 One – pipe system

 Two – pipe system
 Single stack system.

Basic requirements for Drainage System.

 All soil (soil sanitary appliances) and waste pipework (waste sanitary appliances)
should big enough to take the discharge from all appliances i.e should not be in any
case less than the diameter of the appliance’s outlet.
 Material for drainage system (sanitary pipework) should be strong and durable and
securely fixed to the building structure, while all expansion and contraction with
change of temperature.
 All sanitary pipework should be fixed in an accessible position for maintenance.
 Internal surfaces for all pipes and fittings should be smooth and self – cleaning (able
to remove debris and bacteria by themselves) during use.
 Foul gases from the drainage system must be prevented from entering the building
through the appliances. This should be done fitting traps with water seal to the
appliances unless with integral trap (forming part of the appliance)
 Ranges of waste appliances can discharge into a common waste pipe, with the waste
pipe itself trapped (instead of appliances) before it enters the main discharge stack.
 Compatible with outdoor drainage system

N:B Suitable material for sanitary (drainage pipe work )

Main Stack: cast iron, galvanized steel and UPVC (Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride)
Branch waste or vent pipes: ABS plastic, copper galvanized steel, lead, polypropylene

Traps

A trap is a U – tube containing water. It can either forming part of the appliances like in the
water closet or separately fitted to the outlet of the sanitary appliances

The water seal must in the trap both during and after use to prevent foul smell from drains
entering the room where the appliance is fixed.

The trap should have a self – cleaning action and should be smooth from inside.

Trap are most commonly nowadays made of polythene, polyproplyne, brass and copper.

All traps should be accessible for cleaning.

Traps are named from their angle of outlet into:

 P – trap
3
 Q- trap or4 S - trap

 S – trap

Crown of trap
Traps are also named from their appearances into:
 Bottle trap

 Bag - trap

 Running trap
Loss of Trap Seal

In some circumstances, it is possible for water seal to be lost. Below are various causes of
loss of water seal.

 Capillary

This is where material with fibre such as strands of hair, cotton or rags temporary stay over
the outlet of the trap and soak water from the seal

 Compression

This happens where pressure builds up inside the waste pipe and causes seal to ‘blow out”
into the appliances

This mainly happens to the traps fitted near the bottom of the vertical stacks in the builds
with several floors and all appliances drain in the same stack. This causes pressure to build
up of pressure at the bottom of the stack.

 Evaporation

This is where water in the trap evaporates because the appliances is not in use over a long
period of time.

 Leakage or Mechanical Damage

This is where traps get knocked causing them loose or break, resulting to loss of water.
 Momentum

This is caused by a quick discharge of water through the trap causing water seal to “follow”
the discharged water.

 Siphonage

This is caused by a reduction in pressure inside the main discharge stack causing greater
pressure from the inside of the room to force water seal through the outside.

 Wavering Out

In a windy condition, changing air pressure inside the main stack creates wave motion in the
trap water seal causing water to flow over the crown of the trap
 N:B the second often cause of loss of water seal is siphonage which is caused by
imbalanced pressure on both side of the seal. The most effective way to keep pressure
balanced is to provide anti- siphonage pipe or branch ventilation pipe connected to a
main ventilation stack

The anti – siphonage pipe should be connected to the top of waste pipe within 300mm of the
crown of the trap but nearer than 75mm to the crown.

The diameter of the anti – siphonage pipe should not than 2/3 of the waste pipe and not less than
32mm.
One – pipe system

In this system a separate vent pipe is added in addition to waste collection pipe hence this
method is more effective than the single stack system.

The vent pipe provides ventilation to the water seals of the entire trap.

The main pipe is directly connected to the drainage system.

If this system is provided in multi-storey building the WC block of various floor are placed one
over the other

Advantages

 In this system there is one soil pipe and all the waster matter from water closets, bath,
sink etc. is discharge in this pipe hence cheaper than two – pipe system
 It offers an improved ventilation than single stack system

Disadvantages

 It is not cost – effective for low rise building because of the additional vent pipe work.
 If there is blockage both soil and waste appliances are affected.
Two – pipe system

In this system two set up of pipe are laid.

One pipe i.e. soil pipe is connected to the soil fixture such as urinal and water closets.

Another pipe i.e. waste water pipe is used to collect the waste matter from bath kitchen etc.

The soil pipe and waste pipe provided with separate vent pipe.
Advantages

 With waste and soil appliances separate it offers convenience for if one pipe gets blocked
block the other still works.
 It is also effective for the because of the extra ventilation works.

Disadvantages

 It is more costly because of the additional pipe work

 It takes longer to install
 Single stack system.

In single stack system a single vertical soil pipe is fixed and all the waste matter from baths,
kitchen, water closet etc. discharge into it.

This pipe also acts as vent pipe.

This system is economical, but its effectiveness entirely depends upon the water seal.

Therefore, the water seal in traps should not be less than 75mm deep.
N/b; sanitary pipe work system should be watertight and prevent foul smell gas from
escaping (Airtight)

Rainwater Collection and Disposal

The method of rainwater collection and disposal depend mainly on the intensity, duration and
frequency of rainfall experienced in the area.

This also influences the local by- laws relating to drainage in the area.

In area experiencing heavy rains, it advisable to discharge rainwater through a separate system of
drainage direct a river, stream or to storage cistern where it could be used for other purposes crop
irrigation, domestic purposes or treated for drinking.

Gutters and downspouts/ down pipes are used to collect rainwater from the roof.

Gutters are fixed are around the eaves (part of a roof that overhangs the walls of a building) to
collect rainwater and discharge it into a downpipe which in turn connects it to a drainage system.

Most gutters are either half – round or rectangular with common sizes 100 – 150 mm in diameter
or cross – sectional length.

Down Pipes range from 63 – 75 mm diameter or cross – sectional length.

Gutter are mostly from light gauge cast iron, cast aluminum, zinc, galvanized steel and UPVC.

Incase one chooses to use plastic gutters, best quality gutter that can with stand high long
duration sunlight and high temperatures.

Both gutter and down pipes should be properly fitted to all for thermal expansion.
Factors to consider when designing rainwater collection.

Roof Pitch:The roof pitch is perhaps the top factor to look at when choosing a gutter. It will
determine exactly how many feet of gutters and accompanying downspouts you’ll need to make
an effective system.

Material: Choice of material will directly affect the service life of your gutters. Gutter material
that can withstand constant exposure to different climates around the year.

Appearance: gutters need to complement the other components of your exterior

Gutter Capacity:Your gutter’s capacity must be large enough to carry the maximum expected
flow of water at any point in the system.

Building Regulations:All the requirements for disposal of rainwater are outlined in the Building
Regulations It’s essentially in place to ensure that rainwater does not damage the foundations of
a building or any adjacent structures

Problems Associated with Rainwater Gutter

Debris: Debris falls onto the roof can get swept into gutters by water and wind. This debris
can prevent water from draining, and can foster mold and insects. Gutters should clean
oftenly.
 Gutter Slope: Another common problem related to installation is improper slope. Gutters
must have a low and positive slope towards downspouts. This allows water and debris to
flow toward the openings and leaves the gutters dry afterward.

Downspout Termination: Downspoutsthat dump rainwater right at the base of your exterior
walls can create serious problems. As water pools and soaks into the soil, it can eventually
work its way into the foundation. For this reason, it is important to direct rainwater away
from the house.

Sagging of Rain Gutters:When full of water, rain gutters can become extremely heavy. As a
result, the types made of flexible materials such as aluminum, vinyl, and galvanized steel can
begin to bend and sag and their hangers to loosen. As this happens, they cease to do a good
job of draining rainwater efficiently, allowing water to pool along their lengths. This, of
course, just exacerbates the problem, making them heavier and causing them to sag even
more.

Below Ground Drainage

The below ground drainage system is a set the set of pipes, drains and sewers that carries waste
water from buildings to a collecting point ready for treatment and disposal.

In modern cities drainage system is buried underground.

Drainage Systems

Drainage systems can be classified in three types.

 Separate drainage system

 Combined drainage system
 Partially separate drainage Drainage.

Separate drainage system

In separate system, one pipe carries all the surface water while another carries domestic effluent
and industrial waste water to the waste water treatment Plant (WWTP) before disposal.

Advantage:

 all foul sewage is discharged after treatment

  The load on treatment plant is less as only sewage is carried to the plant.
 The size of sewer is small, thus economical
 When pumping is required, the system proves to be economical.
 Natural/storm water is not unnecessarily polluted by sewage

Disadvantages:

 It has two pipes hence expensive to construct

 Cleaning of sewer is difficult due to their small size.
 The self cleansing velocity is not easily obtained.
 The storm sewers come in operation in rainy season only. They may be chocked in dry
season by garbage.
 Maintenance cost is high.
 Sewage sewers are provided below storm sewer which causes greater depth and pumping
at waste water treatment plant (WWTP).

Combined Drainage System

It uses only a single pipe; this collects surface water as well as domestic and industrial waste
water to the waste water treatment Plant (WWTP) before disposal

Combined system is fitted with overflow weirs at strategic points.

These allows excessive amount of storm to escape during periods of heavy rainfall.

Advantages

 Easy cleaning because of larger diameter.

 Reasonable maintenance cost.
 Strength of sewage is reduced due to dilution of sewage by storm water.
 This system requires only one set of sewer making it economical.

Disadvantage:

 In storm season sewer may overflow and the sewer may damage causing serious health
risks
 The combine sewer gets silted and becomes foul in dry days
 Load on treatment plant is more because storm water is also carried there
 The storm water gets polluted unnecessarily
 The system becomes uneconomical when pumping is needed
Partially Separate Drainage System

This system is the compromise between separate and combine system taking the advantages of
both systems

In this system the sewage and storm water of buildings are carried by one set of sewers while the
storm water from roads, streets, pavements etc are carried by other system of sewers usually
open drains
Advantages

 It combines the good features of both systems.

 The silting is avoided due to entry of storm water.
 The storm water from houses is easily disposed off.
 The sewers are of reasonable size

Disadvantages

 A very small fraction of bad features of combined system are there in partially separated
system.

Choice of Drainage System

For new developments, a number of factors have to be balanced in determining the most
appropriate system for a given area. These factors include

 Local geography
  The natural and artificial features in the area.

Flow through the System

Gravity flow through drainage system is the best, but where this would require the pipes to
be buried to great depths pumping stations can be used.

To prevent deposits of solids from eventually blocking the system, be laid at a slope to give
water flow a self – cleaning velocity of about 0.75m/s.

At least a slope at least 1:70 is needed for a pipe of diameter 100mm.

1 mm

70mm
Meaning slope 1mm for every 70mm length travelled.
If the slope is too shallow, the flow will be deep and slow enabling solid to settle out.
If the slope is too steep, the flow will be shallow and solid matter is likely to be left
behind.
Sewerage Treatment

The purpose of sewerage treatment is to stabilize the sewage and make it suitable for discharge
into natural waterways without it affecting the natural water.

They are based on natural process of oxidation of the waste by microorganism, with various
method employed to speed up the work of the organism.
Cess pools

Cesspools (or leaching pools) are pits into which concrete, brick or cement block walls have
been placed.

Wastewater flows into the cesspool and drains or "percolates" into the soil through perforated
walls

Soak pits
Septic tank

A septic tank is an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through which
domestic wastewater (sewage) flows for basic treatment.

The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank that
decomposes the waste discharged into the tank.

Settling and anaerobic (lack of oxygen) processes reduce solids and organics, but the treatment
efficiency is only moderate/ basic.

Wastewater enters the first chamber of the tank, allowing solids to settle and scum to float. The
settled solids are anaerobically digested, reducing the volume of solids. The liquid component
flows through the dividing wall into the second chamber, where further settlement takes place.
The excess liquid, now in a relatively clear condition, then drains from the outlet into the septic
drain field (a field specifically designed to percolate water in to the ground), also referred to as a
leach field, drain field or seepage field, depending upon locality

Eventually, the accumulation of sediment is removed by pumping into an exhaust tanker to

transport way for disposal.
Provision for Access and Rodding

it is important to provide access to the drainage system at strategic points to enable blockages to
be cleared.

Inspection chambers and fittings with rodding eyes can be installed at suitable locations

Rodding eyes are much cheaper to provide and can be used where drains are close to the surface.

Inspection Chamber

Inspection chamber is usually a small access to underground services with room to access by
hand from the ground surface.

The drain running through the inspection chamber is carried by a half – round channel with
concrete benching to cause any water flow to fall back to the channel.
Manhole

A manhole cover or maintenance hole cover is a removable plate forming the lid over the
opening of a manhole, an opening large enough for a person to pass through that is used as an
access point for maintenance and other work on an underground utility vault or pipe. It is
designed to prevent anyone or anything from falling in, and to keep out unauthorized persons and
material

By – Laws Pertaining to Manhole Construction

(1) Every manhole shall comply with the following internal dimensions –

Depth SIZE

Not exceeding 2 ft .6 in. 2 ft. 0 in. x 1 ft. 6 in.

2 ft. 6 in. – 4 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 0 in.

Exceeding 4 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 6 in.

(2) Every manhole shall be constructed of approved materials and in an approved manner. It
shall be watertight, and if constructed of brickwork, solid blockwork or stonework, it shall be
rendered with cement plaster of at least ½ in thickness and finished with a smooth surface and
the walls shall not be less than 6 in in thickness down to a depth of 6 ft and at a greater depth the
wall thickness shall not be less than 9 inches.

(3) The sides of the channels in every manhole, shall be brought up vertically to a height not less
than the diameter of the drains, and shall be benched in good concrete, and such benching , shall
be sloped off from the top of the channels at an angle of thirty degrees from the horizontal, and
finished with smooth cement.

(4) A manhole which is more than 5 ft. in depth, shall be provided with a sufficient number of
step irons.

(5) Every manhole, shall be fitted with a moveable airtight cast iron manhole cover of adequate
size and strength, and fixed in a manner which prevents surface water gaining access into the
drainage system.

(6) In all other respects, an installation of drainage constructed in accordance with the
appropriate British Standard Code of Practice, and with material which comply with the
appropriate British Standard Specifications, shall satisfy the requirements of by-laws 32 of these
bylaws

Access points location

 At changes of direction of less than 135o and at junctions where the branch joins the main
between 900 - 1350
 At or within 12m of the connection of the drain to the sewer.
 At the highest point of the drain
 In long straight runs of the drain at a maximum of 90m intervals.
 Where a backdrop is required to change the level of the drain.
Safety when working with drains

Board the sides of the trench to prevent being buried in the trenches.

Always station a helper at the ground level and have a safety rope tied round you if have to
descend to deep inspection chambers with full of hydrogen sulphide gas which can suffocate in a
few minutes.

Always prevent splashes of contaminated water from entering any body cut.