UNIT – I

 SURVEY OF POLITICAL HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA

Political system of a country indicates the structure of organizations that constitute the State and
its Government. Ancient India is no different and it had also developed government and political
institutions to give figure and form to the fundamental ideology. The developed political institutions
in ancient India as follows:

Vedic Age[1]: The characteristics of its government belong to the ancient Vedic age. Ancient
Indian Political System goes back to about five thousand years or more. Ancient India is a land
that has been shaping civilizations through settlement patterns. Therefore, history of India
becomes enriched with the description of the Indus Valley civilization. The people formed urban
societies with agriculture as an occupation. Moreover this pattern gave rise to large units or clans
formed by a group of village. The circle continued with several clans forming the tribe and their
leader was Rajan or the Vedic king. He protected his people from enemies and was accompanied
with a senani or commandant, the Sabha and the Samithi in administration. However, the invasion
by the Aryans had changed the whole scenario. Indian civilisation was again predominated by the
nomadic culture[2].

Aryans Social Life[3]: The Aryans can be identified as the pioneers in introducing the concept of
society in Indian culture. This civilization was subjected to various forms of kingdoms with a flow of
political boundaries. In the later Vedic age, the Gangetic Valley or Aryavartha became the centre
of political activity.
A different concept of society in India developed with the Aryans, in the early Vedic period. The
Early Vedic saw the rise of kingdom which was tribal in character. Each tribe formed a separate
kingdom. The basic unit of the political organization was family and a number of families formed a
Village. A reflection of the Ancient Indian Political System can be traced in the social life of the
Aryans. These villages were headed by Gramani. Various Kingdoms like Kosala, Videha, Kuru,
Magadha, Kasi, Avanti and Panchala came into existence. The king was the highest authority and
his position was considerably supreme. Kingship became hereditary and the he was responsible
for defence and maintaining law and order of their kingdoms. Moreover, they had vast empires
and tried to extend their territories. In Manu Samhita the history of kingship is described. In
Hinduism, Manu is considered to be the first king of the earth[4].
Concept of Dharmas[5]: In earliest Indian Political System, the king was bound by Dharma’s or rule
of law which were code of duties. Though a king, yet he had limited powers. The king was required
to take oath and loyalty of the people. The king was not assigned with arbitrary powers and he
was functional according to the approval of the people. The king was then only a constitutional
monarch and the guardian, executor and the servant of Dharma. Besides, monarchies several
republics also evolved. After the Battle of Kurukshetra, large empire began to fade away and
several republican states emerged. The rulers were hereditary kings or sub kings who ruled with
the assistance of faithful ministers appointed by them. Ancient Indian Political System revolved
round the autocracy of the king and he was assisted by councilors or ministers to share the
multifarious activities of the state. The council of ministers was given great power and they
continued to advice the kings on their day to day handling of administration[6].
Village and Revenue Administration: Ancient Indian village administration was a significant part of
the Political System. In the Vedic period, the Aryans had built up small villages and the
administration of the area was looked after by the village councils. A system of giving taxes also
prevailed in the ancient society. Taxes such as Pali, Sulk and Bhaga were collected from the
people. The revenue was spent for the benefit of the subjects. Mentions of village administration
are found during the fourth century B.C. when republican federation existed in the society of
India[7].
Panchayat System: At village level panchayat system is one of the essential democratic institutions
which developed in India. Panchayat system originated in ancient India and references are found
in the age of Mahabharat. This system is an institution of the Local Self Government found at the
village level. It constitutes of a village council consisting of village elders. These local self
governments perform administrative and judicial function. The Panchayat system used to serve
since ancient times and at present it has become an integral part of Indian Administration. At
present Panchayat system is a three tier institution and continues to administer the villages[8].

1. Concept of Kingship in Ancient Indian (Vedic age)

Meaning of Kingship: Kingship means hereditary rule i.e. rule by the members of the same family.
In other words in Kingship after the death of the king generally the eldest son of the king becomes
the king, while in republics the people choose their representatives to rule themselves.
As we know that, of the Undecipherment of Indus valley script we can not say with authority about
Kingship and Republic in Indus valley period. Various kind of dominance is required to govern the
people, to run a society or an Institution. Rig Vedic Aryans were semi nomadic people who
probably came from central Asia around 1500 B.C. and settled down in the north western region of
India, Saptsindhu means the area of seven rivers[9].
Aryans came to India for two causes. a. Population force b. Paucity of grazing land. The idea of
kingship not only arises after the formation of tribes or rashtra but if we go back in time we find that
the concept of kingship perhaps took birth simultaneously with the rise of any culture and
civilization. Aryan society was a rural society and family was the basic unit of the society. Family
was headed by Kulpati. Gram was headed by gramini. Vish was headed by vishpati. Jana was
headed by Janapati.

Essential purpose of all was to protect their community. We see it was the need of the time as
mentioned in Aiterya Brahman. There was a war between gods and demons in which gods were
defeated. They realized that their defeat was because they had no King. The god said let us elect
our king. Here the institution of Kingship created because of the situation of the gods. Prajapati
installed Indra as a King because he was strong and powerful. Kingship was normally hereditary
but there are occasional references to the selection of the ruler through their choice, but usually
from the imperial family.

Kingship in Vedic Age: Kingdom was traditional but elective monarchy or election of the king was
also there from, the majestic family was also there. King’s command was checked by Sabha,
council of elder people and Samiti council of common people plus gana and vidath. King was
helped by a few officials-Purohit, Senani and Gramini. No regular taxation was th6~re but people
voluntary offered Bali (a sort of tax). The King had no right over the land. There was no officer for
administering justice and it was: discharged by the King himseij. There was no standing army and
the military functions were performed by different Trribal groups, Vidhth, Gana etc.
Kingship in Later Vedic Age: Traditionaly monarchy continued Sabha, Samiti lost their importance.
The term Rashtra which indicates territory first appeared in this period. Now the wars were fought
for territories not for cows. The term Rashtra appears for the first time in this period. The King’s
influence was strengthened by rituals like Ashwamedha[10], Rajasuya[11], Vajapeya[12] etc.

1. Kingship in Ramayana Period

Ramayana was written by Balmiki in that Lord Rama of Ikshwaku family (Dynasty) son of king
Dashratha has been explained in detail. The king Dashartha Kingdome belonged to Awadh
state. His capital was Ayodhya and Rama’s rule is well-known for the golden age. In Ramayana
we obtain a reasonable idea about their rule and the ruling policy. In Ramayana we see that
relevance of a state depends upon the existence of the king and the expansion of a state depends
upon the power of the king. A strong king would have a large area and a weak king would have a
small area. It seems that the source of the state depends upon the theory of survival of the fittest.
Existence of the state depends upon the power of the king. That is why on the death of the King
Dashrath the priests asked Vashisth that on the same day there must be a new King of Ishwaku
family. In the absence of a new king, the state could not continue to exist even a single day. Guru
Vashisht says that people should always be aware of the seven parts of the state[13]. After the
death of king Dashrath there arose the question who would be the king and this question was
placed in front of Vashist. Generally the eldest son in succession would become the King, who
was well versed in Vedas, far sighted respected by people, popular in the entire three worlds,
indulged in religious ceremony and rituals, strong, brave and who was always ready to protect his
people. In Ramayana fine and accountable of Kings are follow the religious practices, moral
values and patronage to knowledge.
According Ramayana there were two kinds of state a. Sovereign state b. Dependent state.

1. Sovereign State: Sovereign were those which where strong, prevailing and used to collect taxes and gifts
from the reliant states. In Ramayana, King and state were two sides of a single coin and the existence of
the state lay in the existence of a king. To enlarge their area of influence they acted according to religion
and moral values. And there was also control and power on the position of the king who used to rule
according to the desires of the people and there are instances when an evil King was disposed by public.
2. Dependent state: A dependent state does not exercise the full range of power over external affairs. The
controlling or protecting state may also regulate some of the internal affairs of the dependent state.
Formal treaties and the conditions under which the status of dependency has been recognized by other
states govern the balance of sovereign powers exercised by the protecting state and the dependent state.
1. Balkand: Balkand is first chapter of Ramcharitra Mans which is written by Tulsi das, in this chapter of
Balkand Vishvamitra advises Ram to kill Tarka because to kill her would be a victory of good over evil
and to kill demons (mischief sprite) to defend general people or community is not a sin but a decent act
and above all it’s the obligation of the King to protect his public.
2. Ayodhya Kand: Ayodhya Kand is second chapter of Ramcharitra Mans, in Ayodhya kand make out how
a king should run his administration when Ram says to Bharat his younger brother, that an emperor
should be pious and regimented (disciplined). Valmiki[14] said that relation between the King and his
subject was not of a master and slave but, which followed parental principle. Public protested when
Bharat was being coronated as the King instead of Ram, which shows that people had influence in royal
affairs and even the opinion of the representative of people was measured.
III. Kishkindaha Kand: Kishkandaha Kand is another chapter of Ramcharitra Mans, in this
chapter when Rama hurt Bali with an arrow, Bali says to Ram that he is from a dignified family,
pious who acted according to time, need and religion, helpful to needy and he has all the required
character of an emperor.
1. The Lanka kand: In this chapter Ramcharitra Mans gave idea how was kingship of Ravana in Lanka.
Ravana was great king and Ravana’s ten heads represent the ten crowns he wore as a result of his being
the sovereign of ten countries. According to Ramayana, ‘Sone ki Lanka’ or Golden Lanka was the place
where the demon king Ravana dwelled in the “Treta yuga.” Lanka flourished under his rule and Ravana
had proceeded on a series of campaigns conquering humans, celestials and demons. It is said that Ravana
ruled Lanka for several hundred years prior to the times of Ramayana, when he was killed by prince
Rama for kidnapping his wife Sita. he pushpaka vimana or the aeroplane which he flew is held as an
example of great scientific achievements made during his regime while Ravana also holds a high position
as a physician and there exists, to this day, seven books on Ayurveda in his name. He is also believed to
have authored Ravana Sanhita, an anthology of Hindu astrology and his description as a ten-headed
person, Daśamukha or Daśagrīva, is believed to be a reference to his vast knowledge and intelligence.
His Kingdom had mainly concentrated around the Eastern and Southern corners of the country and
believed to have been lost to the sea with the years[15].
Conclusion: After going through different chapters of Ramayana and Ramcharitra mans like
Kishkindakand, Ayodhyakand, Balkand, lankakand etc. in Vedic Age, I bring to a close that
Hereditary Monarchy was generally famous there. The impious king was removed by the people.
King was controlled by sabha and Samiti and helped by Senani, Gramini, and Purohit. But in later
Vedic age, Sabha and Samiti lost importance. Hereditary Monarchy was there besides this there
was an important factor the spirituality of the King was added in which King was assumed as the
God himself. After observation of different chapters it’s can say that King would rule accordingly to
religion, moral values welfare of the people and state punished the wicked to protect the common
people. In other word, it can say that the benefit of King existed in the benefit of the state and
people and lord Rama left no stone unturned in establishing his state as an ideal state, through his
character of Kingship.

1. KINGSHIP DURING MAHABHARAT PERIOD

Mahabharata consists of eighteen chapters and about one lakh couplets and consists of twenty
thousand slokas or verses. Mahabharata written by Ved Vyas[16]. According to the
orthodox view, Mahabharat belongs to Dwapar Age[17]. But the modern historians believed that it
was written in 950 B.C. According to a tradition view Krishna passes away at the commencement
of the Kalyug after the lapse 36 years from the Mahabharat War. During this there were a large
number of states in India and normal form of government was Kingship but there were republics
also which got developed form in Buddha age. The King was compulsory to act according to rule
of fairness and ethics.
Mahabharata is related to the feud between the Kauravas (the hundred sons of Dhitrastra) with
their capital at hanstinapur and the pandavas (the five sons of Pandu).the Pandvas became the
heirs to kuru throne, since Dhritrastra was blind and therefore not eligible to rule. The Pandvas
were resented by the Kauravas, who plotted against them and finally forced them to leave the
country. Dhritrashstra divided the kingdom and gave half to the pandvas, who rulled from
indraprashta. But this arrangement did not satisfy the Kauravas and they invited Pandvas to a
gambling match. Pandvas lost their kingdom. Pandavas went into exile for thirteen years as a
compromise to get back their kingdom. The Kauravas refused to give back not only the kingdom
but even five villages. A famous struggle at Kurukshetra lasted eighteen days and fuslulted in the
annihilation of the Kuravas. We find all the tribes and people of the sub-content participated in the
battle[18].
Mahabharat believes the divine theory of kingship i.e. the King is an ambassador of God. In the
Mahabharat Shantiparv, Bhishm says that kingship is of divine source and the king as a God is
come in person form. The King should not at all be insulted, because Agni, Aditya, Vayu and
Kuber all exist in inside the King. The King should forever indulge in interests and prosperity of
citizens. The importance of a king depends upon the value of administration. A King who is not
competent of fulfilling his duties is liable to be deposed by public or even could be killed by the
people, for example a emperor named Ven, father of Venya, was killed by seers because he was
not able to rule efficiently. In brief, it can say that during this period the king was not an autocrat
but an ambassador of the people. The people played an important role in appointing or deposing
King.

Administration: The King was head of the government or state who was the head of justice and
military department. In Shantiparv of Mahabharata Bhishm says that basically it is riot possible to
have all the character in a single person. That why require of a council of ministers i.e. Sabha
arose. In Mahabharat there is refer to of appointment of Brahamans who skilled in medicine,
scholars, and of fine moral principles, and character, eighteen & shatriyas’ who are versed in war
affairs and twenty one vaishyas who are economically sound and three Shudra who are
well versed in serving and a scholar of mythology. These forty seven members of sabha perform the
administrative purposes but the ultimate authority was vested in the Rashtra.
It can state that in monarchical shape of government the King would be the center of and power
and the common people have personally no right in the appointment and deposition of the King
but this right was enjoyed by members of royal family and people of upper strata of the society. In
the administration, Amatya, Sabha, Rashtra, Janpad all played important role and Brahaman
played a chief role.

Law and Justice: In Shantiparv of Mahabharat, Bhishm says that the safety of the state and his
people is stranded on the rule of law that’s means state should be governed according bylaw and
fairness. Fountain head of was justice King, in the administration of justice punishment of Dand
always played an essential role. And the purpose of punishment was to punish the guilty and to
save from harm the innocent without any
prejudice, so that crime should be restricted. In brief, it can say that during Mahabharat age
position of law and justice was satisfactory.
1. Republic State in Ancient India
Character of Republics: In Chapter 107/108 of the Shantiparv of Mahabharat, Yudhishtar asked to
Bhishm “Your Excellency, I want to have facts about the character of republics, is how they come
in existence, how one could save them from inner confliction and how they should over come their
opponenties”. Bhishma said, voracity, desire and anger among the emperors of the republics
produce confliction among them and after that they usually leave no stone unturned in getting
satisfied their selfish means. Republics split mainly because of disunity between the republics.
That is why republics ought to try to unite themselves in the confederation of republics by which
they get the monetary prosperity and maintain of other republics. They could development only if
they pursue the path of Dharma. The rulers of the republic should keep their Kings under their
control by following the path of Dharma and religion. Republic should follow the diplomatic policy
to settle issues with their enemies. As soon as the conflictions emerge among the republics their
heads and other elders should find the solutions at once”. That is why he laid importance on the
unity of the republics for their continued existence. Bhishm in Shantiparv favours the thought of
unity and this idea of unity is definitely relevant to present time history too[19].
Concept of Republic in Vedic period: In relation to republic in Vedic Age, different
academics have given views. Some academics articulate that monarchy was the only form of
government known to the public of earliest India. And what are maintained to be republics, were
nothing more than tribal states. But this view was not accepted by famous scholars Dr. A. S.
Altekar and Dr. R. Sharma Shastri who are of the observation that there were some types of
republic in the Vedic Age. According to Dr. R. S. Sharma Vedic Gana was prevailing, Tribal
republic and the Vedic Gana were self active armed organizations and were forerunners of the
Ayudhyajivi Sangh of Panini and Vedic Gan was primarily in a tribal republic (state). The view of
Shyam Shastri is that when the Aryans invaded India, they were separated in number of gana and
Jans and during the Vedic and Brahaminic period a number of Jans passed into elective monarchy
while a few retained their republic form as late as Buddhist time. There were individual republic
and confederation of republics. Gana was the individual republics, and confederation of republics
was sanghatangan. Lack of unity was there between individual republics, but not among the
sanghthan republics. The republics of Yadav, Kukara, Bhoj, Andhakas and Vrishinis formed
themselves into a sangh presided over by Lord Krishna. The village was the unit of administration.
It was under a Gramani (Headman).
Republics during buddha period: The Buddhist literature, particularly the Anguttara Nikaya[20] lists
the sixteen mahajanapadas given as Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti, Gandhara,
Kamboja, Matsya, Kurus, Panchala, Surasena, Chedi, Vajjis, Mallas, and Assaka[21].
1. Kashi: its capital was Banaras; among the sixteen states Kashi was at first the most powerful state and
Kashi played a vital part in the subversion of the Videhan monarchy. Eventually it had to submit to the
power of Kosala and later annexed to Magadh by Ajatasatru.[22]
2. Kosala: It embraced the area occupied by eastern Uttar Pradesh and has its capital at Shravasti, which is
identical with Sahet – Mahet in the borders of Gonda and Bahraich districts in Uttar Pradesh. Kosala was
bounded on the west by the river Gomati, on the south by the Sarpika or Syandika (Sai), on the east by
the Sadanira (Gandak) which separated it from Videha and on the north by the Nepal hills.
3. Anga: Anga in the east of Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Monghyr and
Bagalpur. Its capital Champa, situated on the bank of the river of the same name, was noted for its wealth
and commerce. It was annexed to Magadha in the time of Bimbisara.
4. Magadha: Between Anga and Vatsa there lay the kingdom of Magadha, corresponding to modern Patna
and Gaya districts, bounded on the north and west by the rivers Ganga and Son, on the south by the
Vindhya outcrop and on the east by the river Champa. Rajagriha or Girivraja, rendered impregnable by a
perimeter of five hills, was the Magadhan capital. The earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by
Brihadratha. However, Magadha came into prominence under Bimbisasra and Ajatsatru.
5. Vatsa: The Vatsa country had a monarchical form of government. Its capital was Kausambi (identified
with the village of Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad. Kausambi, a very prosperous city was the most
important entre pot of goods and passengers from the south and the west. Udayana, the ruler of this
 country in the sixth century B.C. had to struggle against king Ajatasatru of Magadha and king Pradyota
of Avanti.
6. Avanti: The state of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa. The river Vetravati divided Avanti
into north and south. Terrirorially, it was a big kingdom and its capital was Ujjayini or modern Ujjain.
The ruler of Avanti in the time of Buddha was Chanda Pradyota. He was a contemporary of Udayana of
Kausambi. Although he was given the nickname of Chanda on account of his ferocity, he became a
convert to Buddhism. Avanti became a very important centre of Buddhism. The kingdom of Avanti was
finally annexed to Magadhan Empire by Sishunaga.
7. Gandhara: The state of Gandhara roughly corresponded to modern Kashmir and extended upto the
Kabul valley. Its capital was Taxila which was a famous seat of learning where scholars came from all
over the world. According to the Buddhist tradition, the Gandhara King Pukkusati exchanged gifts with
Bimbisara in Magadha and went on foot to see the Buddha. Later it formed the twentieth province of the
Achaemenid Empire (Persian) according to the Greek historian, Herodotus.
8. Kamboja: It was the country adjoining Gandhara in the extreme North-West with Dwarka as its capital.
A little before 530 B.C. Cyrus, the Achaemenid emperor of Persia, crossed the Hindukush and received
tributes from the people of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-Indus area. During Kautilya’s time,
Kamboja transformed from a monarchy to a republic.
9. Matsya:The Matsyas were to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna. The Matsya country
corresponded roughly to the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan.
10. Kurus: The Kuru state approximately to the modern Delhi and the adjoining doab area. It was the very
important kingdom of the later Vedic age but during the sixth century B.C. the Kurus did not occupy the
same position. They set up their capital at Hastinapur located in the district of Merrut in Uttar Pradesh.
11. Panchala: The Panchala Empire, which covered the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun and
Farukhabad of Uttar Pradesh state, lost its well-known position as in the Vedic period. The Panchala
capital was at Kampilla, perhaps modern Kampil in Farrukhabad district in Uttar Pradesh.
12 Surasena: The Surasena was situated at the south east of Matsya state with capital at Mathura.
The capital also knows at the time of Megasthenes as the centre of Krinshna worship. Later on the
kingdom became an integral part of the Maghadh Empire.
13 Chedi: The .kingdom of the Chedis corresponded roughly to the eastern parts of Bundelkhand
and adjoining areas, and their king lists occur in the Jatakas.
14. Vajjis: The Vajji region lay north of the Ganga and expanded as far as the Nepal hills. Its western limit
was the river Sadanira (Gandak), which separated it from the Malla and Kosalan cities. The Vajji state is
said to have been a union of eight clans (atthakula), of whom the Videhans, the Lichchhavis, the Jnatrikas
and the Vrijjis were the most essential place.
15. Mallas: The region of the Mallas, a republican, was divided into two parts, both having its own capital.
The two principal cities were Kushinara (known with Kasia in the Gorakhpur district), and Pava (present
Padrauna). The importance of these two cities is very great in the history of Buddhism as Buddha took
his last meals and was taken ill at Pava, and at Kusinara, he died.
16. Assaka: The Empire of Assaka (Asmaka) was located nearthe river Godavari in the South, and it became
commercially significant in course of time. Its capital was Patlia or Potna. All the 16 Mahajanapadas did
not play the same role in contemporary politics, Kashi, which was most important at first, lost its
situation to Kosla and Magadha. These two empires vied with each other for manage of the Ganga basin,
which, owing to the riverine commercial traffic, had certain clear strategic and economic reward.
Conclusion – In short we can say the existence of the republic cannot be definitely proved during
Rigvedic period: There is reference in Vedic literature which referred to democratic system of govt.
The kings mentioned here are probably the heads of Kshatriya family assembling probably at the
time of the coronation of the king. The sovereign powers thus did not belong to the masses but to
the few leaders of the aristocratic classes. Public opinion had attained importance shown by the
existence of sabha and samiti. Samiti some times elected their king also. The presence of the king
in it was considered to be essential. From these examples we come to the conclusion that public
opinion was sufficiently important.
UNIT – II
(A) KAUTILYA
Brief Introduction of Kautilya: Kautilya[23] is estimated to have lived from 350 – 283 B.C. He was
an Indian political thinker in ancient India Chanakya is hyped as the economist of India”. Kautilya
was the adviser and Prime Minister of Emperor Chandragupta. Kautilya was a professor at the
University of Takshila (located in present time in Pakistan) and was an expert in commerce,
warfare, economics, etc. His well-known works contain Chanakya Neeti, Arthashastra and
Neetishastra.
At time of Kautilya birth he had a full set of teeth, which is a symbol that he would become a king
or ruler. But since Chanakya was born in a Brahmin family, it was well thought-out improper.
Consequently, his teeth were broken and it was forecasted that he would make another person an
emperor and rule by him. During in child age, Chanakya had the qualities of a born leader. His
level of awareness was beyond children of his time.

Chanakya was thrown out of the court of King Nanda who was Magdh emperor as he was a blunt
man and spoke his mind clearly. Chanakya swore he would take revenge. He comes across
Chandragupta as a young child. Yet at that age, he was a born leader and showed the qualities of
a talented ruler. He was the guiding force behind Chandragupta and the crucial person who made
him a capable ruler.

Kautilya puts in poison in little amounts daily in Chandragupta’s food in order to make him immune
to poisonous, lest some rival tries to toxic emperor Chandragupta’s. Though Chandragupta was
unknown this fact and once gave a little parts of food to his wife after eaten that food she died she
was in the ninth month of pregnancy also. After that Chanakya cut open her belly and took out the
baby. This baby grew up to turn into capable emperor and famous named Bindusara.

In Bindusara emperor had a minister Subandhu who dislike Chanakya. He misguides Bindusara
that Chanakya had killed his mother. Without evaluating real facts, Bindusara confronted
Chanakya. After some time knowing the whole and real story, he felt embarrassed at his speedy
actions and begged for forgiveness. He ordered Subandhu to go and apologize and make
Chanakya come back. Subandhu was very cunning and on the pretext of going to apologize to
Chanakya, he killed him. Theirefore ended the life of a great person like Chanakya just because of
political jealousy.

Kautilya’s Arthashtra, a book on statecraft was written tin the Maurya period in 4 th century B.C. the
text was divided into 15 chapters, 380 Shlokas and 4968 Sutras known as books. Different books
deal with different subject matters concerning polity, economy and society, the king’s duties, the
code of conduct of officers, agriculture and industry, the inter-state relations[24].
Kautilya was the chief advisor of the king Chandra gupta maurya, in his rule the biggest Hindu
empire came into being. Kautilya’s wish was for his king to triumph over the world. In his book
Chankaya focused on king diplomacy related to Peace, War, Neutrality, Marching, Alliance,
Double Policy war, diplomacy and various parts of life. His book is still being analysed and
discussed in the strategic society[25].
SEVEN ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
In book Arthashastra, Kautilya lists seven pillars for an organisation. “The king, the minister, the
country, the fortified city, the treasury, the army and the ally are the constituent elements of the
state” namely[26]:
1. The King (The leader): All great organisations have great leaders. The leader is the visionary, the
captain, the man who guides the organisation. In today’s corporate world we call him the Director, CEO,
etc. Without him we will loose direction.
2. The Minister (The manager): The manager is the person who runs the show – the second-in-command
of an organization. He is also the person whom you can depend upon in the absence of the leader. He is
the man who is always in action. An extra ordinary leader and an efficient manager together bring into
existence a remarkable organization.
3. The Country (Your Market): No business can exist without its market capitalization. It is the area of
your operation. The place from where you get your revenue and cash flow. You basically dominate this
territory and would like to keep your monopoly in this segment.
4. The Fortifid City (Head Office): a place from where all planning and strategies are made. It’s from here
that your central administrative work is done. It’s the nucleus and the center of any organization.
5. The Treasury: Finance is an extremely important resource. It is the backbone of any business. A strong
and well-managed treasury is the heart of any organization. Your treasury is also your financial hub.
6. The Army (Your Team): When we go to war, we need a well-equipped and trained army. The army
consists of your team members. Those who are ready to fight for the organization. The salesmen, the
accountant, the driver, the peon – all of them add to your team.
7. The Ally (Friend / Consultant): In life you should have a friend who is just like you. Being, in the same
boat, he can identify with you and stay close. He is the one whom you can depend upon when problems
arise. After all, a friend in need is a friend in deed.
CHANAKYA SUGGESTION FOR A COUNTRY
Chanakya in his book Arthashatras suggested idea of a country reaching the following levels of
development in terms of ideologies and social and economic development[27]:
 A self sufficient economy which is not dependent on foreign trade.
 An egalitarian society where there are equal opportunities for all.
 Establishment of new colonies for the augmentation of resources. He also advocated the development of
the already annexed colonies. His imperialistic views can be interpreted as the development of natural
and man made resources.
 According to Chanakya, the efficient management of land is essential for the development of resources. It
is essential that the state keeps an eye on the occupation of excess land by the landlords and unauthorized
use of land. Ideally the state should monitor the most important and vital resource – Land.
 The state should take care of agriculture at all times. Government machinery should be directed towards
the implementation of projects aimed at supporting and nurturing the various process; beginning from
sowing of seeds to harvest.
 The nation should envisage constructing forts and cities. These complexes would protect the country
from invasions and provide internal security. The cities would act as giant markets increasing the revenue
of the state.
 Internal trade was more important to Chanakya than external trade. At each point of the entry of goods, a
minimal amount of tax should be collected. The state should collect taxes at a bare minimum level, so
that there is no chance of tax evasion.
 Laws of the state should be the same for all, irrespective of the person who is involved in the case.
Destitute women should be protected by the society because they are the result of social exploitation and
the uncouth behavior of men.
 Security of the citizens at peace time is very important because state is the only savior of the men and
women who get affected only because of the negligence of the state. Antisocial elements should be kept
under check along with the spies who may enter the country at any time.
 Chanakya envisioned a society where the people are not running behind material pleasures. Control over
the sense organs is essential for success in any endeavor. Spiritual development is essential for the
internal strength and character of the individual. Material pleasures and achievements are always
secondary to the spiritual development of the society and country at large.
(B) Manu
Manu is a term found with various meanings in different mythologies of Hinduism. In early
texts[28], it refers to the representative man, or to the first man (progenitor of humanity). In later
texts[29], Manu is the title or name of mystical sage-rulers of earth, or alternatively as the head of
mythical dynasties that begin with each cyclic kalpa (aeon) when the universe is born anew. The
title of the text Manusmriti uses this term as a prefix, but refers to the first Manu Svayambhuva, the
spiritual son of Brahma. On the the other hand in some Puranic mythology, each kalpa consists of
fourteen Manvantaras, and each Manvantara is headed by a different Manu. The current universe,
in this mythology, is asserted to be ruled by the 7th Manu named Vaivasvata. In Vishnu Purana,
Vaivasvata, also known as Sraddhadeva or Satyavrata, was the king of Dravida before the great
flood. He was warned of the flood by the Matsya (fish) avatar of Vishnu, and built a boat that
carried the Vedas, Manu’s family and the seven sages to safety, helped by Matsya. The myth is
repeated with variations in other texts, including the Mahabharata and a few other Puranas. It is
similar to other flood myths such as that of Gilgamesh and Noah[30].
Manusmriti, translated “Laws of Manu” or “Institutions of Manu,” is the most important and
authoritative Hindu Law Book (Dharmashastra), which served as a foundational work on Hindu law
and jurisprudence in the ancient Indian society. Until the modern times it was the standard
reference for both the rulers who patronized Vedic faith and the people who practiced it[31].
According to Hindu tradition Manu is considered to be the first sons of Brahma’s and a progenitor
of human race, so it is very difficult to decide the period of Manusmriti. It considered to that law of
Manu might have been identified to the Vedic people for a long time before they were codified into
their present form sometime during the post Vedic period. In ancient India the people believed in
the order and regularity of the world as the manifestation of God’s will and intent, and the clear
victory of the divine forces over the demonic. Therefore, the laws governing the perform of
individuals and the order and regularity of Hindu society were prepared by many scholars and
sages in ancient India since the primitive times.

Manusmriti schemes an ideal society and best human conduct as the basis to establish a
systematically society and divine centered life. To support those principles and implement divine
will, it offers numerous laws to minutely govern human life and conduct as applicable to each
individual according to her or his society category, responsibilities and functions. Their object is to
maintain control, provide a basis for the rulers to enforce lawful conduct, and ensure the orderly
progression of the world through righteous conduct and observation of obligatory duties by
individuals. The power to implement the laws is carefully circulated among the rulers and the
guardians of society who support him in taken decision.

The laws that were proposed by Manu to govern human conduct and society reflect the conditions,
needs and values of the times in which they were formulated. Most of them do not fit into the
present day value system. They acknowledge prevailing social and gender inequalities as natural
conditions of human existence, and propose laws to govern the behavior of individuals without
providing scope for any changes that time may bring in the conditions of society or the lives of
people. Hence, today you may find many laws of Manu archaic, outdated, and even primitive. The
laws favor a paternalistic society and family system, vesting the authority to regulate them with
men, and proposing rather a subordinate status and subservient role to women. They also betray
a clear lack of trust in the integrity and sexual choices of women, thereby suggesting that they
should always be guarded by men and should never be left alone in the presence of men outside
their families. At the same time, they do not ignore or undermine the role of women in family and
domestic matters, and urge men to treat them with honor and respect and not let them suffer[32].
Manusmriti recognize and validate the caste system as the foundation of order and regularity of
society. It identifies four classes of people like Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras, and
their own roles in the protection of dharma. Brahmanas and Kshatriyas are given many civil
liberties and superior leniency in matters of sentence for misbehavior, whereas Sudras are given
the least number of civil liberties but the harshest of punishments even for minor misdemeanors.
Thus, it is important to study Manusmriti with an open mind to understand its historical and
religious importance in the development of Hinduism from its early days to its current shape.

UNIT – III
CONCEPT OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT INDIA
India is a federal state with a parliamentary form of government. It is governed under the 1949
constitution (effective since Jan., 1950). The president of India, who is head of state, is elected for
a five-year term by the elected members of the federal and state parliaments; there are no term
limits. The kingdom of Magadha, ruled by Bimbisara, is the most powerful state in India. The
Indian epic the Ramayana is composed by the sage Valmiki. The life of Siddhartha Gautama
according to modern scholar consensus. Life of Indian Emperor Chandragupta, first ruler of the
Mauryan Empire.

The three theories of origin of state in ancient India are as follows: 1. Social Contract Theory 2.
Divine Origin Theory 3. Organic Theory. The core issues in the study of political science are the
state and the government. The institution of state is studied in relation to its origin, nature, aims
and functions of the state in ancient India. The dawn of civilization was stated to have marked the
beginning of the origin of state. The state in ancient India was considered necessary, for it ensures
peace, order and happiness. It was a social organization with political power. However, ancient
scholars were not unanimous in their opinion with regard to the origin of the state. According to
some, state was the outcome of a contract mainly political in nature between the rulers and the
ruled. They opine that prior to the origin of state there was something called a golden age, wherein
the people enjoyed a life of peace, order, self-discipline and happiness. Similarly, several theories
like force theory, patriarchal theory, matriarchal theory, divine origin theory and finally the
evolutionary theory advanced the origin of the state[33].
1. Social Contract Theory: The social contract theory, one of the common theories of the origin of state,
believes that state is a result of a contract between the king and his subjects or representatives. The king,
thus appointed, was expected to save the state and the subjects from external aggression and establish
order and security within the state. However, the earliest Vedic works never stated that state was the
result of a contract. But, they clarified that king was elected to wage a successful war against the
demons[34].
2. Divine Theory: The Divine theory of origin of kingship as well as the state was not widely acclaimed in
the ancient Indian polity. The emperor, according to this theory, was a subordinate to law, which was
made by the community and not him. The society as a whole was given greater importance than the king.
The king was not allowed to act indiscriminately and was expected to act as a father to his subjects, and
treat them with affection and kindness[35].
The Divine theory holds the vision that state is like an organism and that each department has a
specific function to perform. The theory believes that the healthy functioning of the whole organism
depends upon the healthy conditions of each part of the body or organism and its efficient
performance.

The seven parts of the body, that is, state are the king or the sovereign, the minister, the territory
and population, the fortified city or the capital, the treasury, the army, the friends and the allies.
Among all the seven elements or parts, it is the king who is most important.

It was also stated in Manusamhita that ‘when the world was not without a king and dispersed in
fear in all directions, the lord created a king for the protection of all. And because, he’s formed of
fragments of all those gods, the king surpasses all other beings in splendor’.

3. Organic Theory: Organic theory deals the view that state is like an organism and that each department
has a definite role to execute. The theory deals that the healthy functioning of the whole organism
depends upon the healthy conditions of each part of the body or organism and its efficient functioning.
The seven parts of the body, likes state are the king or the sovereign, the minister, the territory and
population, the fortified city or the capital, the treasury, the army, the friends and the allies. Among all
the seven elements or parts, it is the king who is most significant.

CONCEPT OF JUSTICE AND LAW IN ANCIENT IN INDIA

Administration of justice was not a part of the state’s duties in early times. We do not find
references to any judicial organizations in Vedic literature. The aggrieved party in order to get its
wrong redressed used to sit before the accused house and not allow him to move till his
(aggrieved party) claims was satisfied or wrong righted. Later justice was administered by the tribe
and clan assemblies and the judicial procedure was very simple. But with the extension of the
functions of the state and the growth of the royal powers, the king came gradually to be regarded
as the origin of justice and a more or less elaborate system of judicial administration came into
 existence. The Dharma Shastras, Niti Shastras and the Arthashastra provide us information about
the well-developed judiciary. According to these literatures the king is the fountain head of all
justice and he was required to spend every day about a couple of hours in adjudication. The
paramount duty of the king is the protection of his subjects which involves the punishment of the
wrongdoer. The law to be administered is the Dharma Shastras subject to local and other usages
which are not inconsistent with the shastras[36].
TYPES OF COURTS
According to Brihaspati[37] there are four types of courts likes
1. Movable courts
2. Stationary courts
3. Courts deriving authority from the king and
4. Courts presided by the king himself.
Brihaspati also mentioned three types of nomadic courts as following:
First: For the promote toforest dwellers.
Second: For the profit of caravan serai merchants.
Third: For the advantage of military men.
According to Bhrighu rishi[38]: There were some of the prominent courts for justice as follows:
1. The Kings Court: At the head of the judicial system stood the kings court at the capital and presided by
the king himself. But more often a learned Brahmana was appointed for the purpose and he was known as
Adhyaksha or Sabhapathi. Earlier the Adhyaksha was selected for each particular occasion and in course
of time became a permanent officer of state and held the position of the Chief Justice (Pradvivaka). Apart
from the king, this court consisted of the Pradvivaka and three or four jurors.
2. Court presided by the Chief Justice: The court presided by the chief justice appointed by the king
called Pradvivaka was the second type of court.
3. Principal Courts: Another court of importance were the principal courts in large town where royal
officers assisted by learned person administered justice. They were presided by Adhyakshas appointed by
the central government.
4. Popular Courts: One special feature of ancient Indian judicial system is the existence of popular courts.
According to Yajnavalkya[39] for the first time refers to three types of popular courts.
1. Kula: The Kula has been defined by the Mitakshara[40]as consisting of a group of relations, near or
distant. The Kula or joint families were often very extensive in ancient India. If there was a quarrel
between two members the elders used to attempt to settle it. The Kula court was this informal body of
family elders.
2. 2. Sreni: When the effort at family arbitration failed, the matter was taken to Sreni court. The term Sreni
was used to denote the courts of guilds which became a prominent feature of the commercial life in
ancient India from 500 B.C. Sreni had their own executive committees of four or five members and it is
likely that they might have functioned as the Sreni court also for settling the disputes among their
members. This was an assembly of persons following a particular profession like betel sellers, weavers,
shoe makers and such like.
3. 3. Puga: Puga was an association of persons drawn from various castes and following different
professions but staying in the same village or town. The Sabha or the village assembly of the Vedic
period and Gramavriddha court of the Arthasastra were the forerunner of the Puga court.

CONCEPT OF DAND IN ANCIENT INDIA

Danda: The word Danda is derived from the words Dam and Dand, which refer to tame, subdue,
to conquer or to restrain and the like. This term also means a stick. Danda, in fact, is one of the
elements of a state. The main reason for institution of Danda is to bring about discipline in the lives
of human beings who by nature are evil and corrupt. According to Manu, it is only the king who
can protect the entire mankind and for this protection, the king uses Danda as a means or as an
instrument. In the ancient Indian political system, it was the responsibility of the king to maintain
Dharma by means of Danda. It was widely believed that it is only through fear of punishment that
the mankind can be made more disciplined. It is this punishment that keeps a check on their
actions consciously or subconsciously[41].
 The Purposes of Punishment: Punishment has five recognized purposes as follows[42]:
1. Deterrence: Deterrence prevents future crime by frightening the defendant or the public. The two types
of deterrence are specific and general deterrence. Specific deterrence applies to an individual defendant.
When the government punishes an individual defendant, he or she is theoretically less likely to commit
another crime because of fear of another similar or worse punishment. General deterrence applies to
the public at large. When the public learns of an individual defendant’s punishment, the public is
theoretically less likely to commit a crime because of fear of the punishment the defendant experienced.
When the public learns, for example, that an individual defendant was severely punished by a sentence of
life in prison or the death penalty, this knowledge can inspire a deep fear of criminal prosecution.
2. Incapacitation: Incapacitation prevents future crime by removing the defendant from society. Examples
of incapacitation are incarceration, house arrest, or execution pursuant to the death penalty.
3. Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation prevents future crime by altering a defendant’s behavior. Examples of
rehabilitation include educational and vocational programs, treatment center placement, and counseling.
The court can combine rehabilitation with incarceration or with probation or parole. In some states, for
example, nonviolent drug offenders must participate in rehabilitation in combination with probation,
rather than submitting to incarceration (Ariz. Rev. Stat., 2010). This lightens the load of jails and prisons
while lowering recidivism, which means reoffending.
4. Retribution: Retribution prevents future crime by removing the desire for personal avengement (in the
form of assault, battery, and criminal homicide, for example) against the defendant. When victims or
society discover that the defendant has been adequately punished for a crime, they achieve a certain
satisfaction that our criminal procedure is working effectively, which enhances faith in law enforcement
and our government.
5. Restitution: Restitution prevents future crime by punishing the defendant financially. Restitution is when
the court orders the criminal defendant to pay the victim for any harm and resembles a civil litigation
damages award. Restitution can be for physical injuries, loss of property or money, and rarely, emotional
distress. It can also be a fine that covers some of the costs of the criminal prosecution and punishment.

Unit-4
A Brief survey of the Political History of Medieval India
Medieval period refer to the phase of Indian history that stretches from the fall of the Gupta Empire
and advent of Islam into India in other words the beginning of the Sultanate period in the 13th
century. Numeral Delhi Sultanates were in power from 1210 AD to 1526 AD. The Delhi Sultanate
was established Muhammad Ghori by defeating Prithviraj Chuhan (Rajput king) in the battle of
Tarain-II in 1192 AD. In 1206 death of Muhammad Ghori, Qutb ud-Din became himself sultan of
Delhi and established the Slave dynasty; it came to an end in 1290 AD. The sultanate of Delhi was
in regular change as five dynasties (families) as follows:

1. Slave dynasty (1206 AD to 1290 AD)

2. Khalji dynasty (1290 AD to 1320 AD)
3. Tughluq dynasty (1320 AD to 1413 AD)
4. Sayyid dynasty (1414 AD to 1451 AD)
5. Lodi dynasty (1451 AD to 1526 AD).
THE SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290)
Muhammad Ghur or Muhammad Gori left his Indian empire in the care Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Qutb-
ud-din Aibak was his trusted former slave. On Muhammad’s death, Qutb-ud-din severed his ties
with Ghazni. Muhammad Ghur dynasty referred to as the ‘mameluks’ or slave dynasty. The
founders of these dynasties were Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban who did not descend
from a common ancestor. This dynasty ruled over Delhi during the period 1206 to 1290.

QUTB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210): after Muhammad Ghur, Qutb-ud-din Aibak received title of
Sultan of Delhi from Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud, nephew and successor of Muhammad of Ghur. He
reinforced his position by political matrimonial coalitions. He was very religious Muslim, his
devotion to Islam is known by the two mosques, Quwwat-ud-Islam built at Delhi and Arhai Din ka
Jhonpara built at Ajmer. He also started the construction of Qutub Minar. He died in 1210, from the
effects of a fall from his horse while playing polo. He was known as lakh bazirs or ‘giver of
lakhs’[43].
ILTUTMISH (1210-1236): Qutb-ud-din Aibak son was Aram Shah but incompetent for post of
sultan. Aram Shah challenged to Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s. After defeated Aram Shah in 1211 and
Iltutmish made himself secure as the Sultan. His full name was Shams-ud-din Iltutmish. He was
Aibak’s son-in-law also. On his accession to the throne he had to face many complexities. But
I1tutmish proved himself equal to the every situation. After defeated all rivals, and was honoured
with the patent of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229. He was the first ruler to adopt a
monetary standard the silver ‘tanka’, the ancestor of modern rupees. Iltutmush built other three
more stories, and in 1368, Firoz Shah Tughlak constructed the fifth and the last storey[44].
RAZIYA SULTAN (1236-1240): Razia Sultan, a brave sultan belonged to slave dynasty and was
the first mulim women to rule India and only women to occupy the throne of Delhi. She succeeded
her father Shams-ud-din Iltutmish to the Sultanate of Delhi in 1236. She was talented, wise, brave,
excellent administrator, and a great warrior that attracted her father which resulted that she
became the next sultan of Slave dynasty. Though her reign was just for three years, her bravery,
her struggle and her undaunted spirit has been preserved in the treasures of history. Razia
Sultan’s Tomb in Delhi is one of those places, which relives the uncharted spirit of the brave
woman who ruled Delhi once and for all[45].

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 AD to 1413 AD): Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, who was the Governor of
Punjab during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji, ascended the throne in 1320 A.D. and founded the
Tughlaq dynasty. He conquered Warrangal and put down a revolt in Bengal. Muhammad-Bin-
Tughlaq succeeded his father and extended the kingdom beyond India, into Central Asia. Mongols
invaded India during Tughlaq rule, and were defeated this time too[46].
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq: First shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Deccan. However, it
had to be shifted back within two years. He inherited a massive empire but lost many of its
provinces, more particularly Deccan and Bengal. He died in 1351 A.D. and his cousin, Feroz
Tughlaq succeeded him[47].
Feroz Tughlaq: The invasion of Delhi by Timur in 1398 may be said to mark the end of the Tughlaq
Empire. When ascended to the throne of Delhi, Firoz was a man of 45 years. His mother was a
Hindu princess of Dipalpur, who gave herself to his father Razzab (the younger brother of Ghazi
Malik) to save her people from the demands and oppressions of the half-breed Turks. Firoz was
trained in the art of the administration under his late cousin, the “man of ideas” Muhammad bin
Tughlaq. Muhammad kept him with himself like his son. Once becoming Sultan, he reversed every
order of his predecessor. Firuzshah Kotla (in Delhi) is the city established by him. It was destroyed
by the later rulers. The empire which was broken during his cousin Muhammad’s reign was to be
recovered back. He campaigned against Bengal for two times, planned a new city Jaunpur in
memory of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. General administration Since he was half Muslim, got a
religious temperament, probably to prove himself equal to the Pure Muslims. He started seeking
advice of the Ulemas and ruled as per the Shariat. All the taxes which were unlawful as per
Shariat were abandoned by him[48].

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

It was the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled the Sultanate from 1414 AD to 1451 AD.
Khizr Khan was the founder of Sayyid Dynasty. After Timur invasion in 1398 AD, the Tughlaq
Dynasty became extremely weak. After the massacre, people lived a completely chaos life without
a central powerful authority for more than one decade. In 1414 AD Khizr Khan acquired the Delhi
Sultanate and founded the Sayyid Dynasty[49].
Khizr Khan (1414-1421): Timur’s nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new Sultan and
the first of the Sayyid Dynasty. They ruled over Delhi and surroundings districts.
Mubarak Shah (1421-1434): He succeeded Khizr Khan at the throne after his successful
expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangetic Doab area. He was killed by the nobles
in his own court.
Muhammad Shah (1434-1443): The nobles put Muhammad Shah on the throne, but could not
survive the in-fighting among the nobles in the court. He was authorized to rule a meagre area of
around 30 miles and rest of the Sultnate was ruled by the nobles.
Alam Shah (1443-1451): The last Sayyid king descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and himself
retired. Thus began the Lodhi dynasty, which confined to Delhi and a few surrounding areas.
Lodi Dynasty was the last dynasty of Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1451 AD to 1526 AD. The
Lodi Dynasty was of Afghan origin and Bahlul Lodi was the founder of Lodi Dynasty. In 1451 AD,
Alam Shah, the last ruler of Sayyid Dynasty voluntarily abandoned the throne of Delhi Sultanate in
favour of Bahlul Lodi. In 1526 AD, the Lodi Dynasty came to end after the first Battle of Panipat
and marked the beginning of Mughal Empire.

The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)

Bahlol Lodhi (1451-88 AD): Bahlul Lodi was the first ruler of the Lodi Dynasty. He ruled the Delhi
Sultanate from 1451 AD to 1489 AD. He was first Afghan dynasty of India. He also knew as
Pathans sultans. Sikandar Lodi established himself in Punjab after invasion of Timur founded of
Lodhi dynasty. He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering territories around Delhi.
Extending his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal, Gwalior etc. Though he
was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning[50].
Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD): His real name was Nizam Khan. After the death of Bahlul Lodi, his
son Sikandar Lodi succeeded him and ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate in 1489 AD. He
ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1489 AD to 1517 AD. Sikandar Lodi was a good and caring ruler for
his Muslim subjects but he was extremely strict and harsh for Hindus. He founded Agra in 1504
AD as his second capital after Delhi. In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his
capital. Set up an efficient spying system and introduced the system of auditing of accounts. He
was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian under the pen-name of Gulrukhi. He also repaired
Qutab Minar. He was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi
Temple at Naga Kot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed.
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26 AD): Ibrahim Lodi, the youngest son of Sikandar Lodi succeeded his father
in 1517 AD and ruled the Delhi Sultanate till 1526 AD. He was the last Sultan of Lodi Dynasty as
well as the Delhi Sultanate. At last Daulat Kan Lodhi, the governor of Punab invited Babur to
overthrow Ibrahim Lodhi. Babur accepted the offer and inflicated a crushing defeat on Ibrahim
Lodi. Defeated & killed by Babur in the first battle of Panipat in 1526. In 1526 AD, the Mughal
Emperor Babur defeated him in the first Battle of Panipat and established the Mughal Empire.
Ibrahim Lodi died in the battle. He was the only Sultan who had killed in battle. This battle is
considered as ending of Lodi Dynasty and beginning Mughal Empire in India[51].

KHILJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)

After the decline of the Slave reign, the Sultanate became even more fragile and instable due to
the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty started with the crowning of
Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This was around the year 1290 A.D. But within a few years, he was
killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji under a conspiracy hatched by the latter. The Khilji dynasty is
also known by the name of Khalji dynasty. The history of Khilji dynasty is marked by brutal wars
and internal conflicts among the rulers. Read on about the history of the Khalji dynasty. The next
territory that Alauddin Khilji conquered was that of Gujarat. Around 1301 A.D, he captured
Ranthambhor and murdered the Rajput Hamir Deva. Then, he killed Rana Rattan Singh and
captured Chittor. By 1305, he had captured territories like Malwa, Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and
Chanderi but couldn’t capture Bengal. He had conquered almost entire north India by the year
1311 A.D. and established his kingdom successfully. Read about the main Khilji dynasty rulers of
India[52].
JALAL UD-DIN FIRUZ KHILJI: The founder of the Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji,
who ruled from 1290 – 1294. He attacked India and built his empire which was capital in Delhi,
however he never really ruled from Delhi. He builds another capital at Kilokhri, and reigned from
there for around 6 years. At the time Mongols attacked the on country, Jalal-ud-din Khilji confront
very bravely due to his daring Mongols depart. They came back after, five years later and attack
once again when his nephew ascended on the throne. Jalal-ud-din Khilji was murdered by his own
nephew which known as Ala-ud-din Khilji, when he was going to visit in Kara.
ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI: After Jalal-ud-din Khilji throne ascended by the second ruler Ala-ud-din
Khilji, whose real name was Juna Khan. He reigned in India from 1296-1316. He was the nephew
and son-in-law of the first Khilji ruler. Jalal-ud-din Khilji killed the first Khilji ruler (or his father-in-
law) and proclaimed himself as the ruler of Delhi. Ala-ud-din extended his territory into the
peninsular India very rapidly. Due to an acute health condition Jalal-ud-din Khilji died on January
1316 A.D.
QUTB-UD-DIN MUBARAK SHAH: The last and third ruler of the Khilji dynasty in India was Qutb-
ud-Din Mubarak Shah. The third ruler of the Khilji dynasty was the weakest ruler, during his reign,
all taxes and penalties were eradicated. He released all prisoners of war. Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak
Shah killed by Khusru Khan, hence ended the Khilji dynasty in India.

ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI

Alauddin Khilji was a stern despot and exercise complete authority over his vast
empire. Alauddin combined efficiency with sternness. He suppressed rebellions with a strong
hand. To prevent future troubles he enacted various laws by which he put a ban on the
consumption of wine, prohibited social meetings among the nobility, and even forbade inter-
marriage among them without his special permission. He employed many spies who kept him
informed of the doings of his subjects. He burdened his subjects with heavy taxes. Naturally, the
wealthier classes were subjected to more taxes. Sultan Alauddin Khilji realized the need of
keeping an efficient army. This could only be done at heavy expenses. To reduce heavy military
expenditure the Sultan fixed a price of every article and attempted to make goods available in
cheap rates[53].
1. Fountain head of administrative system:The Sultan was the fountain head of the administrative
system. The earlier Muslim rulers carried on their administration by the Koranic principles and the
Ulemas or Muslim divines had a large say in the formulation of policies. However, Alauddin Khilji
differed from that of his predecessors in this respect. He did not allow the Ulemas to lay down the
principles of administration. As he used to say, “I do not know what is lawful and what is unlawful;
whatever I consider to be for the good of my kingdom I do.” These words sum up his attitude towards
government and its objects[54].
Ibn Batuta describes Alauddin Khalji as one of the best Sultans. This observation, however, is not
justified either by the manner in which he came to power or by the way he carried on the
government. However, when the vastness of his conquests is taken into consideration, then only
perhaps the remark that he was a great Sultan can be justified.

Sir Wolseley Haig has remarked, “With the reign of Alauddin begins what may be called the
imperial period of Sultanate which lasted about half a century.”
2. Central Administration: Sultan Alauddin Khalji established a strong central government during his
reign in which the Sultan was the head of the administration. AH executive”, legislative and judicial
powers were centred in the hands of the “Suttan and he had the supreme power in all the three
departments. K. M. Ashraf remarks, “The Sultan of Delhi was in theory an unlimited despot bound by no
law, subject to no material check and guided by no law or will except his own.”
There were two powerful classes—nobility and ulema in the Sultanate throughout the 13th
century. Alauddin snatched all the powers from the nobility and deduced them to the position of
mere servants. He also minimized the powers of Ulema in the affairs of State and religion.

Dr. Ishwari Prasad writes, “Alauddin was opposed to the interference of the Ulema in matters of
State and in this respect, he departed from the tradition of the previous Sultans of Delhi. The law
was to depend upon the will of the monarch and had nothing to do with the laws of the prophet.
This was the guiding maxim of the new monarch.”

3. Ministers: A powerful ministry was organized by the Sultan for the smooth running of administration.
Each minister was attached to one Particular department. Their duties were to tender advice to the Sultan
but there was not bound to act according to their counsel. The post of minister was not reserved for any
class. It was the privilege of the Sultan to appoint or suspend a minister. The ministers had to work in
their respective departments according to the will of the Sultan. The following were the notable ministers
during the reign of Aluddin Khalji.
4. Wazir: Wazir was the most powerful minister of the Sultan. His position was next to the Sultan in the
Sultanate. He was both a civil and military officer. He was in charge of revenue department and he had a
right to inspect the departments of other ministers.
Various appointments were made by the Sultan in consultation with the Wazir. He used to
command the royal forces at the time of war.

1. Diwan-i-Ariz – This was a department pertaining to the army and war and the incharge of this
department was named Ariz-i- Mamalik. He assisted the Sultan in recruitment of soldiers, organization of
the army and expeditions.
2. Qazi-ul-Quzat – He was incharge of judicial department. He was expected to administer justice
according To Islamic law.
3. Mir Arigf – He was the lord of petitions. People could not approach the Sultan directly. They could only
send their petitions to the Sultan through the Mir Ariz.
4. Diwan-i-Ashraf – He was the accountant general. He used to maintain the accounts of the Sultanate.
5. Mustaafi -The auditor general was known as Mustaufi. He audited the accounts of the Sultanate.
G. Bakshi-i-Fauj -He was the pay master of the royal army.
I. Amir-i-Kohi -He was in charge of the agriculture department.
J. Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana-l-Mandi – They looked after the affairs of the
market. They used to keep close watch on the prices.
K. Kotwal – During pre-Mughal period the post of Kotwal was very significant.
The person who worked on it had to maintain law and order in the city. He was
also expected to check thefts and robberies. To provide peaceful life to the
citizens was the first and foremost duty of the Kotwal.
Besides the above referred officials, there were several other officers who looked after the affairs
of administration, out of which the following were significant: a. Vakil-l-Dar (Incharge of the keys of
the gates of palace. b. Amir-i-Hajib (Incharge of festivals). c. Amir-i-Akhur (In charge of royal
stables). d. Amir-i-Shikar (Lord of the Hunts). e. Sar-i-Jandar (Head of the bodyguards).

4. Provincial Administration – The empire of Alauddin was divided into several provinces due to its large
extent. The incharge of each province was known as governor. They were almost kings in miniature but
they had to obey the orders of the Sultan. They had all executive, legislative and judicial powers. People
 could prefer appeal against their decisions to the Sultan or to Qazj-ul-Quzat. They had independent army
and ‘hey made use of it in realizing revenue. At the time of war, they sent their army for assistance of the
royal army.
The vast empire of Alauddin Khalji was divided into eleven Provinces: I. Gujarat, II . Mlultan and
Sehwan, III.Dipalpur, IV. Samana and Sunam, V. Dhar and Ujjain, VI. Jhain, VII. Chittor, VIII.
Chanderi, IX. Badaun, X. Avadh, XI. Kara.

Besides these provinces there were some States which accepted supremacy of the Sultan. The
rulers of these States were more independent than the Governors. Owing to strong monarchy of
Alauddin veteran governors like Ghazi Malik, Malik Kafur and others dared not disobey the
commands of the Sultan.

Towns were the lower units. The administration of the towns was in the hands of separate officers.
Villages were the smallest units of administration. Alauddin used to keep a close watch over local
and village administration.

5. Judicial System – Alauddin Khalji was a lover .of justice. Dr. K. S. Lai has
remarked, “The Sultan was as relentless and unflinching in administering
justice as Balban.” He was the fountainhead of justice. He listened to the
appeals and gave his judgements.
Qazi-ul-Quzat was next to him. Justice was administered by Qazis (junior officers) in the
provinces. Panches and Panchayats used to settle the disputes in the villages. Alauddin was in
favour of awarding impartial and immediate justice’.

Severe punjshmeala were in vogue during the reign of Alauddin. Mutilation of limbs was very
common. Nobody could escape justice on the basis of his piety or wealth. The criminals were
tortured to accept their crimes. Contemporary historian, Barani has written that owing to cruelty of
Alauddin and his barbarous justice thefts and dacoities were not heard of in his reign.

6. Police and Intelligence System – Alauddin established a strong and

effective police and intelligence system in his territories. The Kotwal was the
chief police officer and it was his first and foremost duty to establish law and
order in the Sultanate. Alauddin is also known for establishing a strong spy
system in the country. Intelligence department was the base of his strong
autocratic rule.
Without an effective espionage system, he might not have achieved success in establishing
control over the Amirs and nobles. Barani has also written, “No one could stir without his
(Alauddin’s) knowledge and whatever happened in the houses of Maliks and Amirs, officers and
great men, was communicated to the Sultan. The fear of spies led barons to cease speaking
anything aloud in the Hazur Sultan and if they had to say anything they said through gestures. Day
and night did they tremble in their own houses on account of the activity of the patrol? Neither did
they do anything nor did they utter a single word which could subject them to reproof or
punishment.”

MARKET REFORMS OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI[55]: The market reforms of Alauddin Khalji were
oriented towards administrative and military necessities. Medieval rulers believed that necessities
of life, especially food grains, should be available to the city folk at reasonable prices. But few
rulers had been able to control the prices for any length of time. Alauddin Khalji was more or less
the first ruler who looked at the problem of price control, in a systematic manner and was able to
maintain stable prices for a considerable period. It has been pointed out that Alauddin Khalji
instituted the market control because after the mongol seige of Delhi, he wanted to recruit a large
army. All his treasures would have soon exhausted if he was to spend huge resources on army.
With low prices the sultan could recruit a large army with low expenses. Whatever may be the
reason for the market reforms, elaborate administrative arrangements were made to ensure that
the market control was followed strictly.
Alauddin fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, cattles etc. He also set up
three markets at Delhi, the first for food grains, the second for cloth of all kinds and for expensive
items such as sugar, ghee, oil, dry fruits etc. and the third for the horses, slaves and cattle. For
controlling the food prices, Alauddin tried to control not only the supply of food grains from the
villages, and its transportation to the city by the grain merchants, but also its proper distribution to
the citizens. A number of measures were taken to see that prices laid down by the Sultan were
strictly observed.

Market for cloth, dry fruits, ghee etc. was called Sarai-i-adl. All the clothes brought from different
parts of the country and also from outside were to be stored and sold only in this market at
government rates. To ensure an adequate supply of all the commodities, all the merchants were
registered and a deed taken from them that they would bring the specified quantities of
commodities to the Sarai-i-adl every year. The Merchants who, brought commodities from long
distances including foreign countries were given advance money on the condition that they would
not sell to any intermediaries. In cases of costly commodities an officer was to issue permits to
amirs, maliks etc. for the purchase of these expensive commodities in accordance with their
income. This was done to prevent any black marketing of these expensive products. The third
market dealt with horses, cattle and slaves. The supply of horses of good quality at fair prices was
important for the army.

SHER SHAH SURI

Farid Khan to Sher Khan: On the death of Ibrahim Lodi, Bahar Khan had proclaimed himself as
the Sultan of Bihar, assuming the title of Muhammad Shah Nuhani. Farid joined the service of
Sultan Muhammad Shah, who rewarded him the title of Sher Khan, for killing a tiger with his bare
hands during a hunting expedition. Impressed by his service, Muhammad Shah made him the
deputy to his minor son, Jalal Khan. After some time, Sher Khan took leave to visit his Jagirs.
During his absence, Muhammad Sur poisoned the Sultan’s ears that Sher Khan was planning to
join Mahmud Lodi, a brother of the late Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, and requested him to confer his Jagirs
on Suleiman. Muhammad Sur sent a force to occupy the Jagirs and defeated Sher Khan’s army.
Thus Sher Khan was once again deprived of his paternal Jagir[56].
During the Service of Babur, with the intention of recapturing his Jagirs, he joined the services of
Junaid Birlas, the Mughal governor of Jaunpur. Junaid was much pleased with Sher Khan and
gave him troops to recover his parganas. Unable to resist, Muhammad Sur and Sulaiman fled;
Sher Khan got possession of his own parganas as well as Muhammad Sur’s. He then befriended
Muhammad Sur and returned him the possession of Chaundh. After leaving Nizam (his own
brother) in charge of the Jagirs, he went to Junaid Birlas and was presented to Emperor Babur at
Agra in 1527. He accompanied Babur in the siege of Chanderi. He remained for some time among
the Mughals, where he had the opportunity to observe their military arrangements and the
character of their nobles. Once he said to his Afghan fellows, “if luck and fortune favour me, I will
very shortly expel the Mughals from Hind, for the Mughals are not superior to the Afghans in battle
or single combat; but the Afghans have let the empire of Hind slip from their hands, on account of
their internal dissensions. Since I have been amongst the Mughals, and know their conduct in
action, I see that they have no order or discipline, and that their kings, from pride of birth and
station, do not personally superintend the government, but leave all the affairs and business of the
State to their nobles and ministers, in whose sayings and doings they put perfect confidence. If
fortune extends a hand to me, the Shaikh shall soon see and hear how I will bring the Afghans
under my control, and never permit them again to become divided”[57].
ADMINISTRATION OF SHER SHAH SURI
Sher Shah Suri, also known as Sher Khan or the Lion King, was one of the greatest administrators
of medieval Indian. The Sher Shah Suri administration was based on the old institutions in a new
spirit, and in this task attained to much success that he almost transformed the medieval Indian
administration and made it serve the interest of the people. He created no new ministry and his
administrative divisions and sub-divisions were borrowed from the past, and so also the titles of
his officer[58].
The Central administration: Like all rulers of the Sultanate of Delhi, Sultan Sher Shah was a
despot and was at the top of the Central administration. But unlike his predecessors, he was a
benevolent despot, exercising power for the benefit of the people. Still, all the strings of policy and
civil and military powers were concentrated in his hands. His ministers were in charge of the daily
routine work of administration and had no authority to initiate policy or to propose radical changes
in the mode of transacting business or in the administrative setup[59].
The Empire assisted by ministers. Thus, Sher Shah had four ministers after the model of the
Sultanate period. They were as such:

1. Diwan-i-Wazarat,
2. Diwan-i-Ariz,
3. Diwan-i-Risalat, and
4. Diwan-i-Insha.
Thus, there were minor officers, two of whom (the chief qazi and the head of the news
department) enjoyed quite high rank and are placed by some writers in the group of minister.
Hence it may be said that the machinery of the central government under Sher Shah Suri was just
the equal as under earlier Slave dynasty.

Ariz-i-Mamalik (Army Ministry): after central administration second category ministry was Ariz-i-
Mamalik. Who was the army minister. He was not the commander-in-chief of the army. He was in
charge recruitment cell and maintains discipline. He had to make planning for payment of salaries
of the army and their officers and to look after the disposition of army on the field of battle.
However, in the military department Sher Shah was personally interest, he generally interfered
with the work of Diwan-i-Ariz. Sher Shah fixed the salary of individual soldiers and looked their
welfare also.
Foreign minister: The third category ministry was the Diwan-i-Risalat or Diwan-i-Muhtasib (Foreign
minister). He was in charge of not only diplomatic correspondence, but also the charity and
endowment department. His work was related to ambassadors and representatives.
Diwan-i-Insha: The fourth types of ministry were known as Diwan-i-Insha. The heads of Diwan-i-
Insha had to draft imperial announcement and dispatches. His responsibility was also to
communicate with governors and other local executive officers. He maintained Government record
also.
Diwan-i-Qaza and Diwan-i-Barid: The other departments which were sometimes reckoned as
ministers were Diwan-i-Qaza and Diwan-i-Barid. The chief qazi was the head of the first. He had to
supervise the administration of justice besides deciding cases, whether in the first instance or
appeals from the courts of provincial qazis[60].
The Barid-i-Mamalik: was the head of the Intelligence department, and it was his duty to report
every important incident to the king. He had a host of news writers and spies who were posted in
towns, markets and in every important locality. He also made arrangements for the posting of new-
carriers at various placed to carry the royal dak[61].
There seems to have been a high official in charge of the royal household and the various
workshops attached to it. His duty was to administer the king’s household department and to keep
watch over crowds of servants attached to it. He was very near the royal person and therefore,
enjoyed a high prestige.

Provincial administration of Sher Shah[62]: Dr. Saran maintains that Sher Shah did have large
military governorship. Throughout the Sultanate period, including the reign of Sher Shah and his
son Islam Shah, there were administrative divisions corresponding to provinces, but they were not
uniform in size or income. They were not called subas or provinces, but were known as iqtas
which were assigned to important chiefs. Besides these, there were numerous of vassalage under
the sultans of Delhi. Such states and the iqtas did not enjoy a uniform political status and were not
governed by the same system of administration. But while during the reign of earlier sultans of
Delhi the control of the central government over them was nominal, under Sher Shah it was
substantial and strict. It will, thus, be seen that there were military governorships in the time of
Sher Shah, such as those of Lahore, the Punjab, Malwa and Ajmer. The officials in charge of
these provinces were commanders of large armies. Sher Shah established a new type of
provincial administration in Bengal, which he divided into a number of sarkars, placing each in
charge of an Afghan officer. At the head of the entire province he placed a civilian with a small
army under his command. His principal duty was to supervise the work of the officers of the
sarkars and to settle their disputes. This was done to guard against rebellions.
All other provinces had governors and a few other officers who seem to have enjoyed the same
designation in various provinces, barring which there was no uniformity in their administrative
machinery or method. In fact, we have not means of ascertain the names and number of officers
appointed to various provinces; nor do we know whether the governor was authorized to appoint
his colleagues or they were appointed by Sher Shah himself. In short, the provincial administration
under Sher Shah was not so much organized as that under Akbar. But it was definitely a good
step forward.

Land Revenue System of Sher Shah[63]: Before Sher Shah, the land rent was realized from the
peasants on the basis of estimated produce from the land but this system did not seem to be
faultless as the produce was not constantly the same. It increased or decreased year after year.
Sher Shah introduced a number of reforms in the fields of revenue. These are as follows.
1. Sher Shah was the first Muslim ruler who got the whole of the land measured and fixed the land-tax on it
on just and fair principles.
2. The land of each peasant was measured first in “bighas” and then half of it was fixed as the land tax.
According to More land in certain portions of the empire such as Multan the land tax was however one-
fourth of the total produce.
3. The settlement made between the Govt. and the peasant in respect of the land revenue was always put in
black and white. Every peasant was given as written document in which the share of the Govt. was
clearly mentioned so that no unscrupulous officer might cheat the innocent peasant. This is known as
‘Patta’.
4. Each and every peasant was given the option to pay the land-tax either in cash of in kind. The subjects of
Sher Shah used to Kabul (Promise) that they should pay taxes in lieu of Patta.
5. The peasants were required to credit the land-tax direct into the Govt. treasury, to be on the safe side, so
that the collecting officers might not charge them any extra money.
6. Strict orders had been issued to the revenue authorities that leniency might be shown while fixing the
land tax, but strictness in the collection thereof should be the inevitable rule.
7. But suitable subsidy was granted to the farmers in the time of drought, famine or floods from the royal
treasury.
8. Special orders were issued to soldiers that they should not damage the standing crops in any way.
According to Abbas Khan, the cars of those soldiers, who disregarded these orders, were cut off. Even
when Sher Shah led an expedition to the territory of his enemy, he was very particular about it that no
harm shall come to the farmers in any way from the excesses of his soldiers.
9. In case of damages compensation was granted to the former by the Govt. This arrangement of Sher Shah
was as reasonable as was adopted not by Akbar only but was followed by the British Govt. also. The
well-known ‘Ryatwari System’ which has been in vague till now, was not founded by Akbar but by Sher
Shah.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MUGHALS EMPIRE

Babur (reign – 1526 to1530 AD) The founder of the Mughal Empire in India,was the descendant of
as Changez Khan. Ousted by his cousins, he came to India and defeated Ibrahim, the last Lodi
Sultan in 1526 at the First Battle of Panipat. There was a brief interruption to Mughal rule when
Babur’s son Humayun (reign – 1530 to1540 AD) was ousted from Delhi, by Sher Shah, an Afghan
chieftain. It was Babur’s grandson Akbar (reign – 1556 to1605), who consolidated political power
and extended his empire over practically the whole of north India and parts of the south. Jahangir
(reign- 1605 to 1627 AD) who succeeded Akbar was a pleasure loving man of refined taste. Shah
Jahan (reign 1628 to 1658 AD) his son, ascended the throne next. Shah Jahan’s fame rests on the
majestic buildings he has left behind – the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid.
Aurangzeb (reign – 1658 to 1707 AD) was the last Great Mughal ruler.

ADMINISTRATION OF AKBAR
The administrative machinery of the Mughuls, which functioned during the Mughul’s rule, was
launched by Akbar. ‘Mughul Administration means Akbar’s Administration. Akbar was not only a
brave warrior, a successful leader and a great religious reformer but also a great administrator. He
initiated various reforms in every parts of the administration.

Central Administration: Akbar was the overall in-charge of the central government. All the
executive, judicial and legislative powers of the state were combined in him. There were no
limitations on his despotism and his word was law. But Akbar had always the welfare of his people
in his mind and so his was a benevolent despotism. He himself supervised all the branches of his
administration and worked hard to discharge his manifold duties. He would hold an open court,
listen to the complaints of his subjects and try to pacify them[64].
Akbar administration was assisted by a numerous ministers. The most important ministers were
Vakil, Diwan, Mir Bakshi, Sadar-i-Sadur, Khan-i-Saman, Muhtasib Daroga-i-Dak ,Chowki. There
works were as follows:

1. The Vakil – He maintained a general control over all the central departments and acted as the chief
adviser of the King, who was in-charge of finance and revenue also.
2. Mir Bakshi – He maintained the records of all the Mansabdars and distributed pay among the high
officials.
3. Sadar-i-Sadur – He acted as a religious adviser to the king, disbursed royal charity and discharged the
function of the Chief Justice of the empire.
4. Khan-i-Saman – Beside these ministers, there were other ministers of lower rank- Khan-i-Saman, who
was in-charge of the royal household; Muhtasib, who saw that the people (Muslims) led a highly moral
life according to the Muslim law.
5. Daroga-i-Dak Chowki – Daroga-i-Dak Chowki an officer who was in-charge of the postal and
intelligence department.
Provincial Administration: Akbar divided his vast empire into fifteen Subas or provinces. In each
suba or province there was a Subedar, a Diwan, a Bakshi, a Sadar, a Qazi, a Kotwal, a Mir
Bahr and Waqa-i-Nawis.
1. The Subedaror Governor – He was the head of the provincial administration. He enjoyed vast powers
and was in-charge of the provincial military, police, judiciary and the executive.
2. The Diwan- was in-charge of the provincial finance and all bills of payments were signed by him.
3. The Bakshi – He looked after the management of the provincial army. The Sadarwas in-charge of the
judicial charity department.
4. The Qazi – He was in-charge of the judicial department of his province. He supervised the work
of Qazisin the districts and towns.
5. The Kotwal– Was the supreme administrator of all the ‘thanas’ of the province and was responsible for
the maintenance of law and order in all the cities. The Mir Bahr was in-charge of customs and taxation
department.
6. The Waqa-i-Nawis – Was in-charge of the secret service of the province.
The provinces were further divided into Sarkars and Sarkars into Parganas. The head of
the Sarkar was Faujdar who kept his own small force and maintained law and order in his area. He
was assisted by a number of other officials who collected the revenue, maintained the accounts
and deposited the money into the state treasury. The head of the Parganas was
called Shikdar whose functions were the same as those of the Faujdar in a Sarkar.
Each Pargana comprised several villages. Each village was under the charge of a Muqaddam,
a Patwari and a Chowkidar who carried on the work of administration with the help of the
village panchayat.
Military Administration: Akbar paid much attention towards the organization, equipment and
discipline of the army. For efficient military administration he introduced a new system known as
the Mansabdari System. The Mansabdars had to maintain soldiers according to his grade or rank.
There were thirty three grades of these Mansabdars who maintained soldiers ranging from 10 to
10,000. They were paid salaries in cash and the system of assignments of lands was discouraged.
They were directly under the charge of the emperor and were promoted, degrade or dismissed at
his will. He also revived the practice of taking the descriptive rolls of the soldiers and branding the
horses. A large number of troops were, no doubt, supplied by these Mansabdars but Akbar had
maintained a standing army of his own. The Mughul army consisted of infantry, cavalry, artillery,
elephants, and navy. The cavalry was the most important wing of the army and special attention
was paid towards its organization and equipment[65].
Land Revenue Administration: Land Revenue was the chief sources of income of the Government.
So, Akbar paid special attention towards the organization of the land revenue administration. With
the help of his Diwan (Revenue Minister), Raja Todar Mal, Akbar introduced many reforms in his
revenue department. First of all, the land was measured into ‘bighas’, secondly, all the cultivated
land was classified into four divisions – Polaj, Parauti,Chachar and Banjar. The Polaj land was
always cultivated and was never allowed to fallow; the Parauti land was allowed to fallow for a year
or two to recover its strength; the Chachar land had to be left uncultivated for three or four years
and Banjar land had to be left fallow for five years or more. Thirdly, the total produce of each land
was determined separately. Fourthly, the share of the state was fixed at one-third of the total
produce. Land revenue was paid in cash or in kind, but cash payment was preferred. Loans with
small interest were advanced to the cultivators. In case of famine, drought or another unexpected
calamity, remission was granted and even loans were advanced for purchase of seeds and
animals. The revenue collectors were asked to be friendly towards the cultivators and not to
oppress them on every account. As a result of these measures the revenue of the state greatly
increased, the cultivators became better off and the country became prosperous. The abundance
of food also made the life of the common man better and happier than before[66].
Judicial Administration (Judicial Reforms): Akbar set up various reforms in the administration of
justice. Previously to Akbar almost all the cases were decided according to the Islamic law. For the
first time, Hindu law was administered in deciding the cases where the parties Hindus, but Islamic
law continued to function where the parties involved were Muslims. The emperor was the highest
court of appeal. Capital punishment was given only in severe cases[67].
Social Reforms: Despite his multifarious activities Akbar found time to undertake several social
reform measures for wedding out the evils of both the Muslim and non-Muslim societies. His
principle of religious toleration did not, however, make him blind to certain evils in the Hindu
society. In 1563, the Pilgrim Tax, which was a great burden on the Hindus, was abolished. In
1564, Jaziya, a tax which was imposed on non-Muslims, was also abolished. Akbar tried to stop
the practice of Sati. Child marriage was discouraged and female-infanticide was forbidden. Widow-
marriage was encouraged. in 1582, an order was passed appointing a number of officers to
regulate the transactions of sale and purchase of a certain number listed articles. In the same year
(1582) a very important proclamation was made liberating all the slaves in the empire[68].
From the above account it is quite clear that Akbar was a great administrator and the
administrative machinery that he set up continued to function throughout the Mughul period.

SHIVAJI
Introduction of Shivaji: Shivaji was born in 1627. He was the son of Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai.
Shahji Bhonsle acted as the king maker in Ahammednagar. After its extinction, transferred his
service to Bijapur. Shivaji spent his childhood under the protection of a Brahmin official called
Dadaji Kondadev. While Jija bai built up the character of Shivaji, Kond Dev trained him in the art of
fighting and administration. Shivaji aimed to create an independent kingdom of his own right from
the beginning of his career. His primary aim was to carve out an independent kingdom for himself
in Maharashtra. At the age of 20 years he started his adventures on a wider scale. Many
courageous Maratha leader gathered round him. In 1643 Shivaji captured the fort of the singhgarh
from Bijapur and then gradually the forts of Chaken, Purandar, Varanati, Torna, Supa, Tikona,
Lohgarch, Rairi were taken over. Shivaji had won over many of his officers of Bijapur to his side by
bringing them. The conquest of Javli made him in disputed master. Shivaji came into conflict with
the Mughals first in 1657. Aurangazeb had attacked Bijapur, which sought his help Shivaji could
realize that it was in his interest also to check the power of the Mughals from penetrating in the
Deccan. Therefore he helped Bijapur and attacked south west territory of the Mughals. He looted
Junar and troubled the Mughals at several places. But when Bijapur made peace with the
Mughals, he also stopped raids on Mughals territory. With Aurangazeb away in the north, Shivaji
resumed his career of conquest at the expense of Bijapur. He captured Konkan. Bijapur now
decided to take stern action Afzalkhan who was a reputed commander of Bijapur was deputed for
his task in 1659. With a large army, He tried to terrify Shivaji by wholesale destruction of temples,
agriculture and populace with in his territories Afzalkhan assured Shivaji that if he would come to
meet him in person and agreed to accept the suzerainty of Bijapur he would so given the a
additional territory as Jagir. Shivaji got scant of Afzalkhan and decided the pay him in the some
coins. He agreed to meet Afzalkhan after a solemn promise of his personal safety. Shivaji went
prepared and murdered khan in cunning but daring manner, Shivaji put his leaderless army to rout
captured all goods and equipment including his artillery. Flushed with victory, the Maratha troops
overran the powerful fort of Panhala and poured in to south Konkan and Kolhapur districts making
extensive conquest. Shivaji’s exploits made him a legendary figure. His name passed from house
to house and was credited with magical powers. People flocked to him from the Maratha areas to
join his army. Meanwhile, Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of a Maratha power so
near the Mughal frontier. Aurangazeb instructed the new Mughal governor of Deccan, Shiasta
Khan to invade Shivaji dominion. At first the war went bodly for Shivaji Shaista Khan occupied
Poona and made it his headquarter. He sent army to capture Konkan from Shivaji. Mughal
secured their contest on north Konkan. Driven into a corner Shivaji made bold stroke.He infiltrated
in to the camp of Shaista Khan at Poona and at night attacked Khan, killing his son, and one of his
captains and wounding khan. This daring attack put the Khan in to disgrace.In anger Aurangazeb
transferred Shaista Khan to Bengal. Meanwhile Shivaji made another bold move. He attacked
Surat and looted it in to his hearts content, returning home laden with Treasure. After the failure of
Shaista Khan Aurangazeb deputed Raja Jai Singh of Amber to deal with Shivaji[69].
In 1670 AD Shivaji again started fighting against the Mughals and succeeded in capturing many
farts from among those which he had surrounded to by the treaty of Purandar. He conquered forts
like singhgarh, Purandar, Kalyan Mahuli etc. and successfully raided to the territories of the
Mughals in Deccan. He also plundered Surat in 1670 for the second time. Thus within a few years;
Shivaji captured many farts and territories from the Mughals and Bijapur. In 1674 Shivaji held his
coronation, assumed the title Chatrapathi and made Raigarh his capital.In 1677-78 AD Shivaji
attacked east Karnatak on the pretext of getting share of his fathers jagir from his brother. He then
conquered the forts of Jinji and vollore and the territory between rivers Thungabhadra and Kaveri
in Karnataka. The Karnatak expedition was the last major expedition of Shivaji. Shivaji died in
1680 shortly after his return the Karnatak expedition[70].
Shivaji Administration System
Shivaji had laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. His administrative system was
largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan state.Like all other medieval
rulers, Shivaji was a despot with all powers concentrated in his hands.He possessed all executive
and legislative power. ‘Shivaji’ was a great organizer and constructive civilian administrator. The
one of the novelty of Shivajis administration was the introduction of Maratha language as the state
language.

(i) Central Administration: The administration was divided into eight departments headed by
ministers who are sometimes called Ashta pradhan. The eight ministers were (1) Peshwa who
looked after the finances and general administration. (2) Sari-Naubat who was the Senapati. (3)
Majumdar looked after the accounts. (4) Waqai navis looked after the intelligence, post and
household affairs (5) Surnavis or Chitnis looked after official correspondence (6) Dabir looked after
foreign affairs (7) Nyayadhish looked after justice and (8) Pandit Rao looked after ecclesiastical
 affairs. The ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji. Many of these officers like Peshwa,
Majumdar, Waqai navis, Dabir and Surnavis had existed under the Deccani rulers also. All the
members of the astha pradhan except Pandit Rao and Nyaydhish were asked to lead military
campaigns. Under Shivaji these offices were neither hereditary nor permanent. They held the
office at the pleasure of the king. They were also frequently transferred. Each of the ashta pradhan
was assisted by eight assistants’ diwan, Majumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis; Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar
and Potnis.Chitnis dealt with all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal letters. The Fadnis
used to respond to the letters of commanders of the forts. The potnis looked after the income and
expenditure of the royal treasury[71].
(ii) Provincial and Local Administration: The provincial administration was also organized on the
Deccani and Mughal system.All the provincial units already existed under the Deccani rulers.
Shivaji reorganized and in certain cases renamed them. The provinces were known as Prants.
The Prants were under the charge of subedar. Over a number of Subedar there were Sarsubedar
to control and supervise the work of subedar. Smaller than prant were Tarfs which were headed
by a havaldar.Then there were Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of administration. At
the level of village, Kulkarni used to keep accounts and maintained records while Patil had legal
and policing power. At the level of Pargana, Deshpande used to keep account and maintain
records while Deshmukh had legal and policing powers. The Police officer in rural area was called
Faujdar and in urban area was called Kotwal. The Maratha polity did not have unified civilian-
cummilitary rank. Under the Marathas performance based Brahmin elites manned the central
bureaucracy and the local administration. In this capacity they were called Kamvishdar who
enjoyed wide powers of tax assessment and collection. They adjudicated cases, provided
information about local conditions and kept records. Later on, the British District collector was
modelled on this Maratha officer only[72].
III. Army: Cavalry and infantry constituted the primary part of the army of Shivaji. The paga
cavalrymen were called the bargirs. They were provided horses by the state while the silahdars
purchased their armies and horses themselves. The paga cavalry was well organized. Twenty five
horsemen formed a unit which was placed under a havildar. Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries
to the regular soldiers, though some time the chief received revenue grants strict disciplines was
maintained in the army. The plunder taken by each soldiers during compaign was strictly
accounted for, farts and security occupied an important place in the army organization of Shivaji.
Shivaji maintained a navy as well. Shivaji had 400 ships of different kind. The navy was divided in
to two parts and each part was commanded by darive Nayak and mai Nayak respectively.
10. Finance and Revenue: The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the system of Malik Ambar
land revenue; Trade Tax etc. were the primary source of the fixed income of Shivaji. But income from
these sources was not sufficient to meet the expenditure of the state. Therefore Shivaji collected the
chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the territory which was either under his enemies or under his own
influence. The chauth was 1/4 part of the income of the particular territory while the Sardeshmukhi was
1/10. Shivaji collected these taxes simply by force of his army. These taxes constituted primary source of
the income of Shivaji and after wards helped in the extension of the power and territory of the Marathas.
The revenue system of Shivaji was Rytowari in which the state kept direct contact with peasants. Shivaji
mostly avoided the system of assigning Jagir to his officers and whenever he assigned Jagir to them, the
right of collecting the revenue was kept with state officials.

UNIT – V

SOCIETY IN MEDIEVAL INDIAN SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE CONDITION OF WOMEN

Medieval India was not women’s age it is supposed to be the ‘dark age’ for them. Medieval India
saw many foreign conquests, which resulted in the decline in women’s status. When foreign
conquerors like Muslims invaded India they brought with them their own culture. For them women
was the sole property of her father, brother or husband and she does not have any will of her own.
This type of thinking also crept into the minds of Indian people and they also began to treat their
own women like this. One more reason for the decline in women’s status and freedom was that
original Indians wanted to shield their women folk from the barbarous Muslim invaders. As
polygamy was a norm for these invaders they picked up any women they wanted and kept her in
their “harems”. In order to protect them Indian women started using ‘Purdah’, (a veil), which covers
body. They were not allowed to move freely and this lead to the further deterioration of their status.
These problems related with women resulted in changed mindset of people. Now they began to
consider a girl as misery and a burden, which has to be shielded from the eyes of intruders and
needs extra care. Whereas a boy child will not need such extra care and instead will be helpful as
an earning hand. Thus a vicious circle started in which women was at the receiving end. All this
gave rise to some new evils such as Child Marriage, Sati, Jauhar and restriction on girl
education[73].
Sati: The ritual of dying at the funeral pyre of the husband is known as “Sati” or “Sahagaman”.
According to some of the Hindu scriptures women dying at the funeral pyre of her husband go
straight to heaven so it’s good to practice this ritual. Initially it was not obligatory for the women but
if she practiced such a custom she was highly respected by the society. Sati was considered to be
the better option then living as a widow as the plight of widows in Hindu society was even worse.
Some of the scriptures like ‘Medhatiti’ had different views it say that Sati is like committing suicide
so one should avoid this.
Jauhar: It is also more or less similar to Sati but it is a mass suicide. Jauhar was prevalent in the
Rajput societies. In this custom wives immolated themselves while their husband were still alive.
When people of Rajput clan became sure that they were going to die at the hands of their enemy
then all the women arrange a large pyre and set themselves afire, while their husband used to
fight the last decisive battle known as “Shaka”, with the enemy. Thus protecting the sanctity of the
women and the whole clan[74].
Child Marriage: It was a norm in medieval India. Girls were married off at theage of 8-10. They
were not allowed access to education and were treated as the material being. The plight of women
can be imagined by one of the shloka of Tulsidas where he writes [r1] “Dhol, gawar, shudra,
pashu, nari, ye sab tadan ke adhikari”. Meaning that animals, illiterates, lower castes and women
should be subjected to beating. Thus women were compared with animals and were married off at
an early age. The child marriage along with it brought some more problems such as increased
birth rate, poor health of women due to repeated child bearing and high mortality rate of women
and children.
Restriction on Widow Remarriage: The condition of widows in medieval India was very bad. They
were not treated as human beings and were subjected to a lot of restrictions. They were supposed
to live pious life after their husband died and were not allowed entry in any celebration. Their
presence in any good work was considered to be a bad omen. Sometimes heads of widows were
also shaved down. They were not allowed to remarry. Any woman remarrying was looked down by
the society. This cruelty on widows was one of the main reasons for the large number of women
committing Sati. In medieval India living as a Hindu widow was a sort of a curse.
Pardah System: The veil or the ‘Pardah’ system was widely prevalent in medieval Indian society. It
was used to protect the women folk from the eyes of foreign rulers who invaded India in medieval
period. But this system curtailed the freedom of women.
Girl Education: The girls of medieval India and especially Hindu society were not given formal
education. They were given education related to household chores. But a famous Indian
philosopher ‘Vatsyayana’ wrote that women were supposed to be perfect in sixty four arts which
included cooking, spinning, grinding, knowledge of medicine, recitation and many more. Though
these evils were present in medieval Indian society but they were mainly confined to Hindu
society. As compared to Hindu society other societies such as Buddhism, Jainism and Christians
were a bit lenient. Women in those societies enjoyed far more freedom. They had easy access to
education and were more liberal in their approach. According to these religions gender was not the
issue in attaining salvation. Any person whether a man or a woman is entitled to get the grace of
god. During the time of king Ashoka women took part in religious preaching. According to Hiuen
Tsang, the famous traveler of that time, Rajyashri, the sister of Harshavardhana was a
distinguished scholar of her time. Another such example is the daughter of king Ashoka,
Sanghmitra. She along with her brother Mahendra went to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism.The
status of women in Southern India was better than the North India. While in Northern India there
were not many women administrators, in Southern India we can find some names that made
women of that time proud. Priyaketaladevi, queen of Chalukya Vikramaditya ruled three villages.
Another women named Jakkiabbe used to rule seventy villages. In South India women had
representation in each and every field. Domingo Paes, famous Portuguese traveler testifies to it.
He has written in his account that in Vijaynagar kingdom women were present in eachand every
field. He says that women could wrestle, blow trumpet and handle sword with equal perfection.
Nuniz, another famous traveler to the South also agrees to it and says that women were employed
in writing accounts of expenses, recording the affairs of kingdom, which shows that they were
educated. There is no evidence of any public school in northern India but according to famous
historian Ibn Batuta there were 13 schools for girls and 24 for boys in Honavar[75].
Devadasis: ‘Devadasis’ means servant of God. In Southern India Devadasis custom was prevalent.
In Devadasis system girls were dedicated to temples in the name of gods and goddesses. These
Devadasis were supposed to live the life of celibacy. All the necessities of Devadasis were fulfilled
by the grants given to the temples. Devadasis used to spend their full life in worship of god and by
singing and dancing for the God. After some times Devadasis converted to Rajadasis (palace
dancers) prevalent in some tribes of South India, for example Yellamma cult.

SATI PRATHA IN INDIA

Sati literally means ‘a pure and virtuous (worthy) woman’. Sati Pratha or tradition of widow burning
at the funeral pyre of her husband has been a shameful social evil and an age old practice in
Indian society. A widow was burned either with her tacit consent (implied) or most of the times
forcefully by her in-laws after the death of her husband. This practice shows a dark and evil side of
Hindu society, especially of ancient and medieval India.

The practice of Sati or self-immolation by the widow was associated with a kind of virtue. The
‘virtue’ of this practice was defined by a religious logic that it was inauspicious for widow to live
after the death of her husband. A widow who agreed to self-immolate herself at the funeral pyre of
her husband was considered to be very virtuous and attained to the status of Sati Mata or Sati
Goddess. We can still find Temples of Sati Mata in some States of India such as in Rajasthan and
M P[76].
ORIGIN OF SATI PRATHA
The root of this inhuman practice lies in the patriarchal traditions of Hindu society where women
are always considered as subservient and inferior to men. Origin of sati pratha as follows[77]:
1. Mythological Story: about the origin of Sati Pratha says that Sati was the wife of Shiva and she self-
immolated herself in protest against her father who had disrespected Shiva. Though in this story, Sati
immolated herself while her husband, Shiva was still alive.
2. Historical Reality: the practice took a different form and women were being forced to die by sitting on
their husband’s funeral pyre. How this transformation took place is not clear from historical sources but
one thing is clear that the evil practice somehow became part of Hindu society. The earliest literature of
Hindus such as Vedas does not mention the practice of Sati.
3. According to Hindu Texts: It is only in the later Hindu texts such as Puranas, one finds the mention
of Sati. Furthermore, the practice was mainly associated with the so-called high castes (Brahmin and
Kshatriya) in the early history.
4. During the Muslim Period: According to one version it became fairly wide spread during the muslim
period when invasions and conquests played its role and it was considered necessary to preserve the
honor of Hindu women. However, there are evidences to show that the practice of Sati was also there in
western and southern India even before the advent of Muslims.
5. Customs and Rituals: Gradually, the practice was adopted by the so-called Lower Castes in their quest
to aspire for higher ranking in social order by emulating the customs and rituals of higher castes. The
practice of Sati was not, therefore, peculiar to one caste or one region of the country and we find
evidences across the spectrum of the contemporary Hindu society.
ELIMINATION OF SATI
Attempted In Muslims Period – As far as stopping or banning this evil practice is concerned, it was
tough a task as it had been given a religious sanction by the conservative religious pundits of the
time. But some enlightened Indian rulers had taken steps to curb the cruel practice; for instance,
Akbar attempted to restrict it, the Marathas had forbidden it in their dominions. However, the East
India Company, early in their rule over India, stays to its policy of non-interference into socio-
religious customs of the people of India.
British India: But in the early Nineteenth-century-British India, the English view about India’s
socio-religious aspects began to change. This change of view was mainly for two reasons. Firstly,
there was a genuine concern among some good-hearted English officials that the social conditions
especially of women were in urgent need of reforms; and secondly, the English rulers wanted to get
a moral sanction of their illegal and unethical exploitation of the native people by maintaining that it
was a moral duty and ‘Whiteman’s burden’ to civilize the uncivilized people of the country.
Therefore, the British began to depart from their earlier stand of non-interference. Some serious
efforts were made in 1813 when a Circular was issued which prohibited the burning of women in
all cases where the widows was below 16 years of age or pregnant or intoxicated or in any other
way coerced. But these measures proved inadequate and unsuccessful.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy – The real change occurred during the time of Governor-General Lord
William Bentinck when he took charge in 1828. He tried to tackle several social problems facing
the society such as abolition of Sati and suppression of infanticide and crushing the gangs
of Thugs. Several sane and educated Indians also began to question this inhuman practice of Sati despite
the opposition and pressure from the religious leaders. Prominent among them was Raja Ram Mohan
Roy. Roy is rightly considered to be the first leader of the Indian social enlightenment in the early
Nineteenth century. It was Raja Rammohan Roy who urged and pressed Bentinck to take
necessary steps and declare the practice of Sati illegal. Due to his great efforts and work through
publication of pamphlets and newspaper reports etc, he was able to awaken the conscience of the
masses. In December 1829, Regulation No- XVII was issued by the Governor-General declaring
the practice of Sati or burning or burying alive of widows illegal and punishable by the criminal
courts as culpable homicide. The Regulation of 1829 was initially applicable to Bengal Presidency
alone but in 1830 it was extended in different forms to Madras and Bombay Presidencies also[78].
Thus, after the Regulation of 1829, the inhuman practice of Sati was more or less abolished from
the customary practices of Hindu society; though opposition was made from some quarters of
orthodox Brahmins but overall the abolition proved successful.
In recent past one notable incidence came into light when in September 1987, in Rajasthan village
of Deorala, 17-year-old Roop Kanwar, a bride of eight months immolated herself on her husband’s
funeral pyre. Thousands were present at the venue. This shocking incident once again brought
into light the fact that still in the sub-conscious memory of traditional Hindu society people consider
the practice of Sati as some kind of virtuous act.
But apart from this infamous exception no other such event came into light anywhere in the
country. Therefore, it can be said that the inhuman practice now has no place in the modern
outlook of Twenty-first-century society of India.

UNTOUCHABILITY AND PROBLEMS IN INDIA

Untouchability is major problem of India. It is basically a rural problem. Its seeds are only found in
rural soils. Untouchability is an ancient concept traditionally. Indian society was broadly divided
into four groups such as Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. In the caste hierarchy the lowest
place was given to the Sudras and they were regarded as untouchables by the rest members of
Hindu Caste. Since untouchability is a very old concept, therefore, the untouchables were
identified by the different names in different periods[79].
In Vedic period – they were known as ‘Chandala’.
In Medieval age – they were addressed as ‘Achhuta’.
In the British period– they were known as ‘Exterior Caste’.
In the present time – they were generally known as the ‘Scheduled Caste’ by the Indian
Constitution.
Though the untouchables are theoretically considered as a part of Varna organisation, they are
closely linked with the Hindu Social Life. The presence of untouchables is very indispensable for
the smooth functioning of Hindu Society because they perform certain polluting occupations like
scavenging, removal of the dead cattle and so on.

MEANING AND DEFINATION OF UNTOUCHABILITY

It is extremely difficult to define untouchability. Therefore, it is usually defined in terms of
disabilities suffered by define untouchability those who are considered to be the untouchables.
Thus it may be said that suffering from all kinds of disabilities is the sign of untouchability.
Vradharita Smiriti says that persons belonging to different Non-Vedic religions or semi-religions
sects are to be treated as untouchables[80].
According to Manu Smritis: The people who follow the lowest kind of occupations include
scavenging, leather work, removal of the carrion etc, are to be regarded as untouchables.
According to Mahatma Gandhi: the father of nation says “Untouchability is the hate fullest
expression of Caste System and it is a crime against God and man”. Further he lovingly called the
untouchables as Harijan means the people of God.
According to G. S. Ghurye: Defines Untouchability as “ideas of purity whether occupational of
ceremonial or ceremonial, which are found to have been a practice of untouchability.
According to Dr. D. N. Majumdar: “Untouchables castes are those who suffer from various social
and political disabilities many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially enforced by higher
castes.”
According to K. M. Pannikar: The system of communal slave-holding contrasted with individual
owning slaves. No social or personal consideration was there to relax the rigors of the evil system.
The untouchables lived within their own system. Thus they formed a parallel society to Hindu
social system. They had the lowest ritual position in the society. They also had the lowest socio-
economic position in society. These exterior castes were a depressed community who were
subjected to all kinds of social and civic discriminations.
Thus, untouchables are those castes which are subject to all kinds of disabilities in every walk of
life such as social, economic, religious and political in other words, the persons who have no right
to enjoy any privilege, who do not touch the shadow of higher caste, who follow the lowest kind of
occupations, who have occupied the lowest place in the caste hierarchy and deprived from all
sorts of things are called to be the untouchables.

TYPES OF UNTOUCHABLES
1) Social untouchables: From the social point of view, the untouchables suffered following
disabilities[81].
1. i) Lower Social Status: Since social status was fixed for different castes, therefore, the untouchability
was placed at the lowest place in the caste hierarchy and enjoys lowest status in the society. Their social
status was just like a golden zero. Moreover, they were considered as the symbol of pollution by the
higher caste people. Consequently, the untouchables are deprived of all kind of commercial contacts.
2. ii) Educational untouchables: Traditionally, the untouchables were forbidden from receiving any
education. They were not entitled to acquire the knowledge of Vedas. Even if they were not permitted to
touch the religious books. The untouchables were not allowed to get education from the public
institution. Only recently they have given educational facilities.
iii) Disabilities relating to Social habits: Till recently, the untouchables are faced many problems in
various social habits like food, drink and social intercourse. They are not permitted to take food or
drink from the house of high caste people. They are eating only ‘Kachha’ foods which are
prepared by the ordinary things. In the social intercourse, they are also faced the same problem.
1. iv) Prohibition in the use of public places: In fact, the untouchables were not allowed to use village
wells, ponds, public hospitals, roads and so on. They were not permitted to live in those places where the
higher caste people reside. The untouchables were forced to live in the worst type of village slums.
Moreover, they were leading a life just like the domestic animals.
2) Economic untouchables: Economically, to the position of untouchable’s castes was very pitiable.
They were deprived from all kinds of economic privileges in the society following are the main
economic disabilities of untouchables.
1. i) No right to property: Traditionally, the untouchables were not allowed to have any land or property
of their own. They were prevented from entering in various types of enterprises. They were not permitted
to acquire wealth or to buy land in village. Even if, the untouchables have no right to sell their landed
property to any one. Moreover, they were deprived from all sorts of right to property.
2. ii) No right to choose occupation: In the past, the untouchables were not allowed to engage themselves
in occupations which were reserved fro the members of higher castes. They were compelled to struck to
their traditional occupations. They were largely engaged in agricultural and other associated works as
wage-earners. The untouchables were traditionally associated with such lower occupations like
scavenging, leather works, basket making and so on.
iii) Landless labourer: The untouchables were traditionally known as landless laborers because
they have no land in the village. They were leading a landless laborer life. Before the abolition of
zamidari system, their primary duty was to work for a landlord without any remuneration. Thus
their position was just like a slave and in certain circumstances worst than a slave. In this context,
Gandhiji has said that, “the untouchables performed the most essential service of society yet at
the same time they were the lowest paid ones. Only such amount of wages is given to them that
are necessary to unite, their cursed soul and their physical frames.
3) Religious untouchables: Though, the untouchables are known as the Hindus by religion, yet they
were not permitted to enter into the Hindu temple and pilgrimages nor were they allowed to use
public bathing Ghats. The untouchables were not allowed to study religious books. They were also
deprived from the Jajman of Brahmin priests. For example, a Brahmin never accepts to perform
the religious ceremony of an untouchable. Only recently, efforts have been made by the
Government for removing these religious disabilities by legislators.
4) Political untouchables: In the past, the untouchables were also deprived from all kinds of political
privileges. They were not allowed to participate in political administration and general election of
the traditional India. They were also not permitted to hold any public post. Only during the British
rule, they for the first time got the right to vote[82].
But, now-a-days, they have enjoy maximum political rights on the ground that some seats in
Parliament and State Assemblies are reserved constitutionally for them, but it is doubtful, weather
they can properly utilise this political rights without their economic development. It means without
their economic improvement, they cannot utilise the political rights which they have got.