GEOMETRIC

DESIGN OF
HIGHWAYS
CHAPTER 3
 MEMBERS:

Dema-angay, Moralidad, Bawang, Dianton,

Stella Mae Sheena Mariz Sheina Hazel Crystel Diane
 INTRODUCTION
The geometric design of a highway is the determination of layout and features
visible on the highway.

The main features considered for geometric design of highway are:

Cross section elements
The gradient
The intersection
The consideration of sight distance

The geometric design of highway is influenced by:

The characteristics of the vehicle
The behavior of the driver
The psychology of the driver Traffic characteristics
Traffic Volume
Traffic Speed
OUTLINE
Geometric Design for Highway
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
3.3.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
3.3.2 Stopping Sight Distance
3.3.3 Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design
3.3.4 Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
3.3.5 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design
3.3.6 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
3.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
3.4.1 Vehicle Cornering
3.4.2 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
3.4.3 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design
Highway design encompasses a variety of design
elements including the alignment required to provide

adequate stopping sight distances (SSD),

adequate passing sight distances on two-lane roads,
length of acceleration and deceleration lanes for on-
and off-ramps,
number of lanes required to provide adequate mobility,
and identification of the need for truck climbing lanes
on steep grades.
PRINCIPLES OF
HIGHWAY
ALIGNMENT
 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT-
One of the alignment problems in this figure corresponds roughly to x and z coordinates

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT-
The other corresponds to highway length (measured along some constant elevation) and y coordinates (elevation).
PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
1. Plan view (horizontal alignment)- which is roughly equivalent to the perspective of
an aerial photo of the highway.
2. Profile view (vertical alignment) - which gives the elevation of all points measured
along the length of the highway
 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

instead of using x and z coordinates, highway positioning and length are defined as
the distance along the highway (usually measured along the centerline of the
highway, on a horizontal, constant-elevation plane) from a specified point. This
distance is measured in terms of stations, with each station consisting of 100 ft of
highway alignment distance.

1. Example: 4250 ft. from the specified point of origin (0+00)

=42+50
= 42 stations and 50 ft.
Exercises:
230 ft. from the specified point of origin (0+00)
1876 ft. from the specified point of origin (0+00)
 VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
VERTICAL CURVES- are used to provide a smooth transition from one grade to another
 VERTICAL CURVES

G1 = initial tangent grade

PVC = initial point of the curve
PVI = intersection of initial and final grades
G2 = final tangent grade in percent
PVT = final point of the vertical curve
A = absolute value of the difference in
grades (initial minus final, usually expressed
in percent),
L = length of the curve in stations

Equal-tangent Vertical Curves- vertical curves are arranged such

that half of the curve length is positioned before the PVI and half
after.
VERTICAL CURVES

G1 = initial tangent grade

PVC = initial point of the curve
PVI = intersection of initial and final grades
G2 = final tangent grade in percent
PVT = final point of the vertical curve
A = absolute value of the difference in
grades (initial minus final, usually expressed
in percent),
L = length of the curve in stations
Vertical Curve Fundamentals

where:

y = roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning

of the vertical curve (the PVC) in stations or ft,
x = distance from the beginning of the vertical curve in
stations or ft,
a, b = coefficients defined below, and
c = elevation of the PVC (because x = 0 corresponds to
the PVC) in ft.
Vertical Curve Fundamentals
 PROBLEM 3.1
A 600-ft equal-tangent sag vertical
curve has the PVC at sta 170 + 00 and
Elevation 1000 ft. the intial grade is
-3.5% and the final grade is +0.5%.
Determine the stationing and
elevation of the PVI, the PVT, and the
lowest point on the curve.
PROBLEM 3.1

GIVEN:
G = - 3.5%
1

G = +0.5%
2

Stationing of the PVC= 170 + 00

Elevation of the PVC = 1000 ft

REQUIRED:
Stationing of the PVI = ?
Elevation of the PVI = ?
Stationing of the PVT = ?
Elevation of the PVT = ?
Lowest point of the curve (y)= ?
 PROBLEM 3.1

Stationing of the PVT = ?

Elevation of the PVT = ?
L = 600 ft

L/2
Stationing of the PVC = 170 + 00
Elevation of the PVC = 1000 ft -3. %
5% .5
+0
PROBLEM 3.2
An equal-tangent vertical curve is to be
constructed between grades of −2.0%
(initial) and +1.0% (final). The PVI is at station
110 + 00 and at elevation 420 ft. Due to a
street crossing the roadway, the elevation of
the roadway at station 112 + 00 must be at
424.5 ft. Design the curve.
PROBLEM 3.2

L
L/2 Stationing of the PVT = ?
Elevation of the PVT = ?
X
Stationing of the PVC = ?
Elevation of the PVC (c) = ?
G

%
1

.0
=

+1
-2
.0

=
%

2
G
Station 112 + 00
Elevation (y) = 424.5 ft
two
Stationing of the PVI = 110 + 00 stations

Elevation of the PVI = 420 ft

PROBLEM 3.2

GIVEN:
G = - 2.0%
1

G = +1.0%
2

Stationing of the PVI = 110 + 00

Elevation of the PVI = 420 ft
Elevation at station 112 + 00 (y) = 424.5 ft
x = 0.5L + 2
REQUIRED:
Stationing of the PVC = ?
Elevation of the PVC (c) = ?
Stationing of the PVT = ?
Elevation of the PVT = ?
Length of the curve (L)= ?
 OFFSETS FOR EQUAL-TANGENT VERTICAL CURVES

L = length of the curve in stations or ft measured in a constant

G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or ft/ft
elevation horizontal plane
G2 = final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or ft/ft
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve)
Y = offset at any distance x from the PVC in ft
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and
Ym = midcurve offset in ft
final grades)
Yf = offset at the end of the vertical curve in ft
PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the
x = distance from the PVC in ft
vertical curve (the point where the curve returns to the final
grade or, equivalently, the final tangent).
The properties of an equal-tangent parabola can be used to give:

A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1 − G2|) expressed in percent

Horizontal distance required to change the slope by 1%:

where:
K = value that is the horizontal distance, in ft, required to affect a 1% change in the
slope of the vertical curve,
L = length of curve in ft, and
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1 − G2|) expressed as a percentage.
Distance from the PVC to the high/low point:

Xhl = distance from the PVC to the high/low point in ft,:

EXAMPLE 3.4

A vertical curve crosses a 4-ft diameter pipe at right

angles. The pipe is located at station 110 + 85 and its
centerline is at elevation 1091.60 ft. The PVI of the
vertical curve is at station 110 + 00 and elevation
1098.4 ft. The vertical curve is equal tangent, 600 ft
long, and connects an initial grade of +1.20% and a
final grade of −1.08%. Using offsets, determine the
depth, below the surface of the curve, of the top of the
pipe and determine the station of the highest point on
the curve
GIVEN:
L = 600 ft
G1 = +1.20%
G2 = -1.08%
Diameter of Pipe = 4 ft
Sta. Of PVI = 110 + 00
Elev. Of PVI = 1098.4 ft
Sta. Of Pipe = 110 + 85
Elev. Of Pipe = 1091.60 ft

REQUIRED:
a. The depth, below the surface of the curve, of the
top of the pipe
b. Station of the highest point on the curve
 % G2 =
.20 -1.0
= +1 8%
G1

300 ft

= 600 ft
Stopping Sight Distance

Length of roadway that should be visible ahead of a driver to ensure

that the driver will be able to stop if there is an object in his path.

An appropriate level of safety is usually defined as that level of

safety that gives drivers sufficient sight distance to allow them to
safely stop their vehicles to avoid collisions with objects obstructing
their forward motion
Braking Distance
is the distance covered to reduce speed from an initial speed to a
final speed.
Braking Reaction Distance
is the distance measured throughout the duration of the brake
reaction time.
Formula :
Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

The length of curve is the critical element in providing sufficient

SSD on a vertical curve.

Longer curve lengths provide more SSD, all else being equal, but
are more costly to construct.
1

Shorter curve lengths are less expensive to construct but may not
provide adequate SSD due to more rapid changes in slope.
Forrmula :
EXAMPLE 3.5 DESIGN SPEED AND CREST VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN

A highway is being designed to AASHTO guidelines with a 70-mi/h design speed, and at one section, an equal-
tangent vertical curve must be designed to connect grades of +1.0% and −2.0%. Determine the minimum length of
curve necessary to meet SSD requirements.

GIVEN:
G = + 1.0%
1

G = - 2.0%
2

SSD = 730 ft.

REQUIRED:
Lm = ?

FORMULA:
A x (SSD)
2

Lm =
2158
 GIVEN:
G1 = + 1.0% SOLUTION:
G = - 2.0%
2
A=IG -G I
1 2
SSD = 730 ft.

REQUIRED: A = I1% - (-2%)I

Lm = ?
A = 3%
FORMULA: A x (SSD)
2

A x (SSD)
2
Lm =
Lm =
2158 2158
2
PVI
(3%) x (730 ft.)
Lm =
G
0%

2158
2
1.

=
+

-2
=

.0
%
1
G

PVC PVT
Lm
Lm = 740.82 ft.
The advantage of this assumption is that the relationship between A and Lm is linear,
and Eq. 3.10 can be used to give Lm = KA

L
K=
A
Lm
K=
A
2
A (SSD)
Lm =
2158
Lm (SSD) 2

=
A 2158

(SSD) 2

K=
2158
ICE
BREAKER
EXAMPLE 3.7 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AND CREST VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN

If the grades in Example 3.5 intersect at station 100 + 00, determine the stationing of the PVC,
PVT, and curve high point for the minimum curve length based on SSD requirements.

GIVEN: PVI REQUIRED:

Sta. 100+00

a. Station of PVC

G
0%

2
b. Station of PVT
1.

=
+

-2
Y c. Station of Highest Point (Y)
=

.0
%
1
G

Xhl
PVC 370.5 ft. PVT
370.5 ft.

741 ft.
 GIVEN:
SOLUTION: PVI
Sta.
a. Sta. PVC = Sta. PVI - L/2
100+00
Sta. PVC = (100+00) - (370.5 Ft.)

Sta. PVC = (100+00) - (3+70.5) Y

Sta. PVC = 96+29.5 Sta. of PVC= ?

PVC PVT
L/2 = 370.5 ft.
 GIVEN:
SOLUTION: PVI
Sta.
b. Sta. PVT = Sta. PVI + L/2 100+00
Sta. PVT = (100+00) + (370.5 Ft.)

Sta. PVT = (100+00) + (3+70.5) Y

Sta. of PVT= ?
Sta. PVT = 103+70.5
PVC PVT
L/2 = 370.5 ft.
 GIVEN: K = 247 (from table 3.2)

SOLUTION: PVI
c. Xhl = K ( G 1 )
Xhl = (247)(1%)

G
0%

2
1.

=
Xhl = 247 ft. Sta. Y = ?

-2
Y

.0
Sta. Y = Sta. PVC + Xhl

%
1
G
Sta. Y = (96+29.5) + (247 ft.) Sta. 96+29.5
Xhl
Sta. Y = (96+29.5) + (2+47) PVC PVT
370.5 ft.
Sta. Y = 98+76.5
3.3.4 Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design

Sag vertical curve design differs from crest vertical curve design in
the sense that sight distance is governed by nighttime conditions
because in daylight, sight distance on a sag vertical curve is
unrestricted.

the critical concern for sag vertical curve design is the length of
roadway illuminated by the vehicle headlights, which is a function
of the height of the headlight above the roadway and the inclined
angle of the headlight beam, relative to the horizontal plane of the
car.
Forrmula :
3.3.5 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

Passing Sight Distance (PSD) is the minimum sight distance that is

required on a highway, generally a two-lane, two-directional one,
that will allow a driver to pass another vehicle without colliding
with a vehicle in the opposing lane. This distance also allows the
driver to abort the passing maneuver if desired.

Passing sight distance is a factor only in crest vertical curve

design because, for sag curves, the sight distance is unobstructed
looking up or down the grade, and at night, the headlights of
oncoming or opposing vehicles will be seen.
 PVI

PVC PVT

H1 H2

S or PSD = Passing sight distance in ft

H1 = height of passing driver’s eye above roadway surface in ft
H2 = height of opposing driver's eye above roadway surface in ft
L = length of the curve in ft
Since H1 = H2 = 3.5 ft, therefore; Is is typically assumed that L > PSD, so;

Lm = minimum length of vertical curve in ft,

A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1−G2|), expressed as a percentage
K = horizontal distance, in ft, required to effect a 1% change in the slope
PSD = passing sight distance in ft
Four Main Distance Components of PSD (AASHTO, 2018)

1. The initial maneuver distance (which includes the driver’s

perception/reaction time and the time it takes to bring the vehicle
from its trailing speed to the point of encroachment on the left lane).
2. The distance that the passing vehicle traverses while occupying
the left lane.
3. The clearance length between the passing and opposing vehicles
at the end of the passing maneuver
4. The distance traversed by the opposing vehicle during two-thirds
of the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.

Thus, the sum of these four distances gives the required passing
sight distance (PSD).
Table 3.4 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance
The minimum distances needed to
pass (PSDs) at various design speeds,
along with the corresponding K-values.
Notice that the K-values in this table
are much higher than those required
for SSD. As a result, designing a crest
curve to provide adequate passing
sight distance is often an expensive
proposition (due to the length of curve
required).

*Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the

length of curve per percent algebraic
difference in intersecting grades (A): K
= L/A. ength
EXAMPLE 3.12 VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN WITH PASSING
SIGHT DISTANCE

An equal-tangent crest vertical curve is 1000 ft long

and connects a +2.5% and a -1.5% grade. If the
design speed of the roadway is 55 mi/h, does this
curve have adequate passing sight distance?
EXAMPLE 3.12 VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN WITH PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

Given:
L = 1000 ft
G1 = +2.5%
G2 = -1.5%
Speed = 55 mi/h

Solution:
From the table, at 55 mi/h, K = 289, Alternatively, solving for K;
solving for L; K = L /A
L=K×A K = 1000 / |2.5%-(-1.5%)|
L = 289 × |2.5% - (-1.5%)| K = 1000 / 4
L = 289 × 4 K = 250
L = 1156 ft *Since the K-value of 250 for the existing curve
design is less than 289, this curve does not
*Since the curve is only 1000 ft long, it is not long
provide adequate PSD for a 55-mi/h design
enough to provide adequate passing sight distance.
speed.
3.3.6 UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE AND SAG VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN

S = sight distance in ft, Hc= clearance height of overpass structure

G1= initial roadway grade in percent or ft/ft, above roadway in ft,
H1= height of driver’s eye in ft, PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final
G2= final roadway grade in percent or ft/ft, point of the vertical curve (the point where
H2= height of object in ft, the curve returns to the final grade or,
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of equivalently, the final tangent).
the curve), and L = length of the curve in ft
3.3.6 UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE AND SAG VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN

FORMULA:

for S < L for S > L

where
L m= minimum length of vertical curve in ft,
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1−G2|),
expressed as a percentage
3.3.6 UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE AND SAG VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN

Current AASHTO design guidelines use a driver eye height, H1 , of 8 ft for a truck
driver, and an object height, H2 , of 2 ft for the taillights of a vehicle.

S = SSD
for SSD < L for SSD > L

SSD = stopping sight distance in ft, and other terms are as defined previously

Maximum vehicle heights as regulated by state laws range from 13.5 to 14.5 ft. AASHTO recommends
a minimum structure clearance height of 14.5 ft and a desirable clearance height of 16.5 ft.
AASHTO also recommends that clearance heights be no less than 1 ft greater than the maximum
allowable vehicle height.
3.3.6 UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE AND SAG VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN

EXAMPLE 3.13
An equal-tangent sag curve has an initial grade of −4.0%, a final grade of +3.0%,
and a length of 1270 ft. An overpass is being placed directly over the PVI of this
curve. At what height above the roadway should the bottom of this sign be placed?

L = 1270 ft GIVEN:
L/2 = 635 ft L = 1270 ft
LINE OF SIGHT
G1 = -4.0%
Hc
G2 = +3.0%
REQUIRED:
G

%
HC= ?
1

.0
=

+3
-4
.0

=
%

2
G

PVI 2
3.3.6 UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE AND SAG VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN

SOLUTION:
L for SSD < L
K=
A 730 ft < 1270 ft
1270 ft
K=
-4.0% - +3.0%
K = 181. 4 2
A (SSD)
Hc = +5
800L
For a 70-mi/h design speed, 2
the required SSD is 730 ft
7 (730)
Hc = +5
(Table 3.3) 800(1270)

Hc = 8.67 ft
Thus, the bottom of the overpass should be placed at least 14.5 ft
above the roadway surface (at the PVI), but desirably at a height of
16.5 ft according to AASHTO
3.4 HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT
3.4.1 Vehicle Cornering
e = 100 tan α
EXAMPLE 3.14 SUPERELEVATION ON HORIZONTAL CURVES

A roadway is being designed for a speed of 70

mi/h. At one horizontal curve, it is known that
the superelevation is 8.0% and the
coefficient of side friction is 0.10. Determine
the minimum radius of curve (measured to
the traveled path) that will provide for safe
vehicle operation.
EXAMPLE 3.14 SUPERELEVATION ON HORIZONTAL CURVES

Given:
V = 70 mi/h (5280 ft/1 mi)(1 h/3600 s) = 70(5280/3600) ft/s = 70(1.467) ft/s
e = 8%
fs = 0.10

Solution:

(70 × 1.467)²
Rv = 32.2 [0.10 + (8%/100)] = 1819.40 ft
3.4.2 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
 HORIZONTAL
Elements of a simple curve
Elements of a simple circular horizontal curve
R = radius, usually measured to the centerline of the road in ft,
PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the horizontal curve),
∆ = central angle of the curve in degrees,
PI = point of tangent intersection,
T = tangent length in ft,
E = external distance in ft,
PT = point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal curve), and
M = middle ordinate in ft, L = length of curve in ft

FORMULA
EXAMPLE 3.15 STATIONING ON HORIZONTAL Sta. 103 + 00
CURVES PI

A horizontal curve is designed with a 2000-ft

.
ft
radius. The curve has a tangent length of 400 ft

0
40
and the PI is at station 103 + 00. Determine the

=
T
stationing of the PT. L Sta. of PT = ?

PC PT
GIVEN: R = 2000 ft.
T = 400 ft.

ft.
Sta. of PI = 103+00

0
=2

00
00
REQUIRED:

=2
0

R
ft.
2 2

Sta. of PT = ?
SOLUTION:
Sta. 103 + 00 a. Sta. PC = Sta. PI - T Sta. PT = Sta. PC + L
PI
Sta. PC = (103+00) - (400 ft.) Sta. PT = (99+00) + (789.58 ft.)

Sta. PC = (103+00) - (4+00) Sta. PT = (99+00) + (7+89.58)

.
ft
0

Sta. PT = 106+89.58
40

Sta. PC = 99+00
=
T

L Sta. of PT = ?
T = R tan
2
Sta. PT = 106+89.58
PC PT 400 = 2000 tan
2
= 22.62 °
π
ft.

L= R
R

180
0
=2

00

π °
00

L= ( 2000)(22.62° )
=2
0

180
R
ft.

2 2
L = 789.58 ft.
3.4.3 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AND HORIZONTAL CURVE DESIGN
R = radius measured to the centerline of the road in ft,
Ms = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate
stopping sight distance (SSD) in ft.
Rv = radius to the vehicle’s traveled path in ft,
SSD = stopping sight distance in ft,
PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the
horizontal curve)
Δ = central angle of the curve in degrees,
Δs = angle (in degrees) subtended by an arc equal in
length to the required stopping sight distance (SSD),
PT = point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal
curve).
L = length of curve in ft

FORMULA:
3.4.3 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AND HORIZONTAL CURVE DESIGN

EXAMPLE 3.16
A horizontal curve on a four-lane highway (two lanes each direction with
no median) has a superelevation of 6% and a central angle of 40 degrees.
The PT of the curve is at station 322 + 50 and the PI is at 320 + 08. The
road has 10-ft lanes and 8-ft shoulders on both sides with high retaining
walls going up immediately next to the shoulders. What is the highest
safe speed of this curve (highest in 5 mi/h increments) and what is the
station of the PC?
3.4.3 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AND HORIZONTAL CURVE DESIGN
EXAMPLE 3.16 Superelevation = 6% GIVEN:
L
STA of PT = 322+50
STA of PI = 320+08
SSD
Superelevation = 6%
= 40°
shoulder width = 8 ft
inside lane width = 10 ft

Ms

PT
PC SIGHT
322+50
10 ft OBSTRUCTION

Rv
PC PT
R = 40° 322+50
8 ft

PI
320+08
3.4.3 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AND HORIZONTAL CURVE DESIGN
SOLUTION:
T = PI - PC T = PI - PC
T = (320+08) - PC Eq. 1 T = (320+08) - (317+44.41)
L = PT - PC T = 263.59 ft
L = (322+50) - PC Eq. 2
T
R=
SOLVING FOR STA OF PC tan
2
T L 263.59 ft
R= R= R=
tan 40
tan
2 180 2
T L R = 724.21 ft
=
tan
2 180 10
Rv = R - 10 -
(320+08) - PC (322+50) - PC 2
= R = 724.21 ft - 10 - 5
40
tan (40) R = 709.21 ft
2 180

STA OF PC = 317+44.41
3.4.3 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AND HORIZONTAL CURVE DESIGN
SOLUTION: Consider the SSD required at 40 mi/h.
superelevation of 6%, at 45 mi/h a SSD = 305 ft
radius of 643 ft is needed; and at 50 MS= R v 1 - cos 90SSD
mi/h a radius of 833 ft is needed Rv
709.21 > 643
90(305ft)
833 > 709.21 MS= 709.21 ft 1 - cos
(709.21ft)
highest design speed for centripetal MS= 16.33 ft
force is 45 mi/h
Consider the SSD required at 35 mi/h.
SSD = 250 ft
SOLVING FOR THE ADEQUATE SIGHT
DISTANCE MS= R v 1 - cos 90SSD
10 Rv
MS = 8 +
2 90(250ft)
MS= 13 ft MS= 709.21 ft 1 - cos
(709.21ft)
M S= 10.99 ft

Thus, 35 mi/h (the highest safe speed for sight distance) is the lower
of the two speeds and is the highest safe speed for this curve.
THANK
YOU!