HIGHWAY ENGINEERING-I

Chapter 5

Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Javid

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
University of Nizwa, Oman
 2

Alignment of Highway
(Vertical Alignment)
 Learning Outcomes
 Identify the locations for highway, geometric
elements, and alignments from topography

 Design of highway geometry and traffic

junctions manually and using computer
software skill.

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Vertical Alignment

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 Vertical Alignment
 Roadway vertical alignment is controlled by following factors:
• Design speed
• Topography
• Traffic volumes and composition
• Highway functional classification
• Safety
• Sight distance
• Typical sections
• Horizontal alignment
• Climate
• Vertical clearances
• Drainage
• Economics
• Aesthetics

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 Vertical Alignment
 In general, the designer should consider the following aspects:
• In rolling or mountainous terrain and developed areas,
significantly more complicated construction techniques must be
employed to achieve compatibility between the road alignment and
the surrounding ground.
• Introducing vertical curves to minimize the disruption to the
existing environment may result in sight distance or clearance
issues and may require truck climbing lanes for higher-speed
facilities.
• Where a highway crosses a waterway the profile of the highway
must be consistent with the design flood frequency and elevation.
• The roadway elevation must provide sufficient room for
construction of culverts and other components of the drainage
system.
• When a highway is located where natural resources exist the
vertical alignment should be designed to minimize impacts.
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 Vertical Alignment
• Vertical alignment should be properly coordinated with the
natural topography, available right-of-way, utilities, roadside
development, and natural and man-made drainage patterns.
• Vehicle weight and the steepness of the roadway grade have a
direct relationship on the ability of the driver to maintain
uniform speed. Flatter grades should be used where possible.

• On a long ascending grade it is preferable to place the steepest

grade at the bottom and flatten the grade near the top.

• Maximum grade recommendations are presented for the area

types and vary depending upon the terrain in which the facility is
located.

• Where pedestrian or bicycle facilities follow a roadway

alignment, these facilities should follow the prevailing grade of
the adjacent roadway.
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 Vertical Alignment

Reduced
Speed

Increased
Speed

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 Vertical curves
 Curves exist in vertical plane are called as
vertical curves.
 Vertical curves need to be inserted at peaks and
troughs on highways to smooth out gradient
changes and provide adequate sight lines.
 Generally, the simple parabola curve is used as
the rate of change of gradient.
 Function of each curve is to provide gradual
change in grade from the initial (back) tangent
to the grade of second (forward)tangent.

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Profiles
Curve a: Crest Vertical Curve (concave downward)
Curve b: Sag Vertical Curve (concave upward)

Tangents: Constant Grade (Slope)

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Types of Vertical Curves

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 Factors Govern the Design of Vertical Curve
 Balancing and minimizing the volume of cut
material against fill.
 Maintaining adequate drainage.
 Not exceeding maximum specified grades,
 Meeting with fixed elevations such as
intersections with other roads and railway
crossing.
 Grades also provide sufficient sight distance for
safe vehicle operation.
 Grades should follow the natural contours.
 Grades should satisfy the comfort criteria
(comfort of vehicle operation).

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13
Equal-Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve

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Terms
BVC: Beginning of Vertical Curve aka PVC
V: Vertex aka PVI
EVC: End of Vertical Curve aka PVT
g1: percent grade of back tangent
g2: percent grade of forward tangent
L: curve length (horizontal distance) in feet or stations
x: horizontal distance from any point on the curve to the BVC
r: rate of change of grade

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Equations
r = (g2 – g1)/L
where:
g2 & g1 - in percent (%)
L – in stations
and
Y = YBVC + g1x + (r/2)x2
where:
YBVC – elevation of the BVC in feet

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 Example: Equal-Tangent Vertical Curve
Given the information show below, compute and tabulate the
curve for stakeout at full 100’ stations.

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Solution
L = STAEVC – STABVC
L = 4970 – 4370 = 600’
or 6 full stations
r = (g2 – g1) / L
r = (-2.4 – 3) / 6
r = -0.90
r/2 = -0.45 % per station
STABVC = STAVertex – L / 2 = 4670 – 600/2 = 4370= STA 43 + 70
STAEVC = STAVertex + L / 2 = 4670 + 600/2 = 4970= STA 49 + 70
ElevBVC = Elevvertex – g1 (L/2) = 853.48 – 3.00 (3) = 844.48’ L is equal 6 full
stations
ElevEVC = Elevvertex – g2 (L/2) = 853.48 – 2.40 (3) = 846.28’

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Solution (continued)

r/2 = -0.45 % per station

Elevx = ElevBVC + g1x + (r/2)x2
Elev 44 + 00 = 844.48 + 3.00(0.30) –0.45(0.30)2 = 845.34’
Elev 45 + 00 = 844.48 + 3.00(1.30) –0.45(1.30)2 = 847.62’
Elev 46 + 00 = 844.48 + 3.00(2.30) –0.45(2.30)2 = 849.00’
etc.
Elev 49 + 00 = 844.48 + 3.00(5.30) –0.45(5.30)2 = 847.74’
Elev 49 + 70 = 844.48 + 3.00(6.00) –0.45(6.00)2 = 846.28’ (CHECKS)

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Solution (continued)
x Curve
(station (r/ Elevatio
Station s) g1x 2)x2 n
43 + 70 0.0 0.00 0.00 844.48
BVC
44 + 00 30 .90 -0.04 845.34
ft=0.3
45 + 00 130 3.90 -0.76 847.62
ft=1.3
46 + 00 230 6.90 -2.38 849.00
ft=2.3
47 + 00 330 9.90 -4.90 849.48
Y = Y + g x + (r/2)xft=3.3
x BVC 1 , Put ‘x’ in stations
2
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High and Low Points on Vertical Curves
Sag Curves:
Low Point defines location of catch basin for drainage.

Crest Curves:
High Point defines limits of drainage area for roadways.
Also used to determine or set elevations based on minimum clearance
requirements.
high / low pt.  x  K G1
L
K
A
A  G2  G1
L length of curve in ft 21
Example: High Point on a Crest Vertical Curve

A   2.4  3.0 5.4%

600
K 111 .11 ft
5. 4
x 3 *111 .11 333.33 ft or 3.33 stations

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Example: Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed
Point
Design a equal-tangent vertical curve to meet a railroad crossing
which exists at STA 53 + 50 and elevation 1271.20’. The back
grade of -4% meets the forward grade of +3.8% at PVI STA 52 + 00
with elevation 1261.50.

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Solution:
L L L
x   (5350  5200)   150 '   1.5stations
2 2 2
r
y  yBVC  g1 x  x 2
2
g  g1
r 2
L
 L
YBVC 1261.50  4.00  
 2
L 
g1 x  4.00 x  4.00   1.5 
2 
3.80  4.00
r
L
2
r 2 3.80  4.00  L 
x    1.5 
2 2L 2 

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  L
     L    3.80  4.00  L  
2

1271.20  1261.50  4.00       4.00   1.5       1.5  

  2   2    2L 2  
0.975L2  9.85L  8.775 0
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
a 0.975
b  9.85
c 8.775
L 9.1152stations 911.52 '

Check by substituting x = [(9.1152/2)+1.5] = 6.0576 stations into the

elevation equation to see if it matches a value of 1271.20’

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 Curve
Station x (stations) g1x (r/2 )x2 Elevation
47 + 44.24 0.0 0.0 0.0 1279.7304
BVC
48 + 00 0.5576 -2.2304 0.1336 1277.6336
49 + 00 1.5576 -6.2304 1.0432 1274.5432
50 + 00 2.5576 - 2.8127 1272.3127
10.230
4
51 + 00 3.5576 - 5.4423 1270.9423
14.230
4
52 + 00 4.5576 - 8.9318 1270.4318
18.230
4
53g + 00 5.5576 - 13.281 1270.7813
1 = -4.0, r/2 = 0.43, Elevation of BVC = 1261.50+4(9.1152/2) = 1279.7304
22.230 3
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4
 Vertical Alignment-Grades
 In addition to the maximum grade, the designer must consider the
length of the grade. The gradient in combination with its length will
determine the truck speed reduction on upgrades.

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Vertical Alignment-Grades

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Vertical Alignment-Grades

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Vertical Alignment –Sight Distance

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Vertical Alignment – Sight Distance

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 Vertical Alignment-Curves
 K-Value (defines vertical curvature)
• The number of horizontal feet needed for a 1%
change in slope

L
K
A

A  G2  G1
L length of curve in ft

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 Crest Vertical Curves
SSD

PVI
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1

h2
h1
L

For SSD < L For SSD > L

L
ASSD 
2

L 2SSD 

200 h1  h2  2


100 2h1  2h2 
2
A
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 Crest Vertical Curves
 Assumptions for design
• h1 = driver’s eye height = 3.5 ft.
• h2 = tail light height = 2.0 ft.

 Simplified Equations

For SSD < L For SSD > L

ASSD
2 2158
L L 2SSD 
2158 A

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 Problem
 A +3.9% grade intersects a -1.9% grade at
station 20+50.00 and elevation of 1005.00 ft.
• Determine the minimum length of the crest vertical
curve for a design speed of 50 mph.
• Calculate the location of the PVC and the
elevation of the middle point of the curve.

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Problem

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 Sag VC - Design Criteria
 Headlight sight distance
 Rider comfort
 Drainage control
 Appearance

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 Sag Vertical Curves
Light Beam Distance (SSD)

G1
headlight beam (diverging from LOS by β degrees) G2

PVC PVT

h1 PVI
h2=0

For SSD < L For SSD > L

ASSD 
2
200h1  SSD tan  
L L 2SSD 
200h1  S tan   A
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 Sag Vertical Curves
 Assumptions for design
• h1 = headlight height = 2.0 ft.
• β = 1 degree

 Simplified Equations

For SSD < L For SSD > L

ASSD   400  3.5SSD 

2
L L 2SSD   
400  3.5SSD   A 

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 Problem
 A section of a two-lane rural highway consists of a
-3.0% grade intersecting a +2% grade. The speed
limit on the highway is 35 mph. The height of the
headlights of an average car is 2 ft with a beam
angle of 1 degree. Determine the length of sag
vertical curve that joins the two grades, considering
a safe stopping maneuver. Make any necessary
assumptions.

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Problem

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Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve

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Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve

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 Vertical & Horizontal Alignment
 Horizontal and vertical alignments should be designed concurrently.
Their designs complement each other and poorly designed
combinations can reduce the quality of both.
 Coordinate the horizontal and vertical alignment to obtain safety,
uniform speed, pleasing appearance, and efficient traffic operation.
Coordination can be achieved by plotting the location of the
horizontal curves on the working profile to help visualize the highway
in three dimensions.
 The following general controls should be considered in balancing
horizontal and vertical alignments:
• Balance curvature and grades.
• Vertical curvature superimposed on horizontal curvature generally
results in a more pleasing facility. Successive changes in profile
not in combination with horizontal curvature may result in a series
of dips not visible to the driver.

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 Vertical & Horizontal Alignment
 A horizontal curve should not begin or end at or near the top of a crest
vertical curve. This condition can be unsafe, especially at night, if the
driver does not recognize the beginning or ending of the horizontal
curve.
 Curvature in the horizontal plane should be accompanied by
comparable length of curvature in the vertical plane.
 Ideally the vertices of horizontal curves (PI) and vertical curves (PVI)
should coincide.
 Horizontal curvature should lead vertical curvature. i.e., the horizontal
curve should be longer than the vertical curve and the PVT and PC
should not be at the same point.
 Horizontal curvature and profile should be as flat as feasible at
intersections where sight distance along both roads is important and
vehicles may have to slow or stop.
 Avoidance of a sharp horizontal curve at or near the low point of a
pronounced sag vertical curve is important.
 Further, vehicular speeds, particularly of trucks, often are high at the
bottom of grades and erratic operation may result, especially at night.
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Vertical & Horizontal Alignment

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Vertical & Horizontal Alignment

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Vertical & Horizontal Alignment

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Vertical & Horizontal Alignment

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 Controls and Criteria (1)
 Design Vehicles
• Passenger cars, buses, trucks, RVs
• Physical characteristics: weight, dimensions
• Establish intersection radius, pavement markings
 Vehicle Performance
• Operating characteristics: accel/decel
• Impacts air quality, noise, land use

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 Controls and Criteria (2)
 Driver
• Information handling
• Reaction time
• Time to perceive + react to a hazard in vehicle’s path
• Expected/unexpected
• Speed
• Driver errors

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 Controls and Criteria (3)
 Traffic
• Composition and volume
• Average daily traffic (ADT) is not adequate
• Design hourly volume (DHV)
• 30th-highest hourly volume (30HV) in one year
• K-factor (% of ADT; 8~12% urban, 12~18% rural)
• Speed
• Operating Speed (typically the 85th percentile speed)
• Free-flow Speed (close to zero density)
• Running Speed (actual speed)
• Design Speed (as high as practical)
• Target Speed
• Posted Speed
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 Controls and Criteria (4)
 Capacity
• Maximum hourly flow rate (per lane) under prevailing
conditions
• Determines adequacy of existing roadways
• Helps select roadway type
• Helps define needs
• Design level of service
(LOS)

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