Chapter 3

Geometric Design of Highways

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Video:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ns_SjirbOlA

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Objective to design highways that are safe for:

 Wide variety of vehicle performance

 Wide variety of human performance

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PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

 Converts a 3-D problem into two 2-D problems

Figure 2.1 Highway alignment in three-dimensions. 4

 Highway positioning defined by
distance along a horizontal plane 
 Stationing - with a station being
100ft or 1km
 If a point is 4250ft (1295.3m)
from origin, it is station:
42 + 50
1 + 295.300

Figure 2.2a Highway alignment in two-dimensional views.

5
Figure 2.2b Highway alignment in two-dimensional views.
6
DCA Engineering Software
Geometric Design: Background

• Refers to physical proportioning of facilities

• Three elements of geometric design
1. Cross section
2. Vertical alignment
3. Horizontal alignment
• Super-elevation

7
2.1 Cross Section

8
2.1 Cross-Section Design Features of a roadway which forms its
effective width
• Mild slope in pavement on
either side of centerline to
facilitate removal of water:
normal crown.
• Shoulders provided at either
end for emergency situations
• Barriers may be used at
median or end of clear zone
• May provide for bus-lane or Figure 2.3a Cross section

rail-transit way

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2.1 Cross-Section Design: Elements

Figure 2.3b Cross section

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2.1 Cross-Section Design: Elements

Median = 1.2– 2.4 m

0.6 – 3.6 m 2.7–3.6 m

1.5–2% 2–6%

Ditch /
curb & gutter /
paved shoulder with berms

Figure 2.3c Cross section

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2.1 Cross-Section Design: Elements

Two lane h/way cross-section,

with ditches

Two lane h/way cross-section,

with curbed

Figure 2.3d Cross section 12

2.1 Cross-Section Design: Elements

Divided h/way cross-section,

depressed median with ditches

Divided h/way cross-section,

raised median with curbed

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Figure 2.3e Cross section
2.2 Vertical Alignment

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Video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELzTygJbZYE

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2.2 Vertical Alignment

Figure 2.4a: Vertical alignment of street

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2.2 Vertical Alignment

Figure 2.4b: Vertical alignment 17

2.2 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Equal tangent vertical curves

Figure 2.5 Types of vertical curves. 18

2.2 Vertical Alignment
G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or m/m (this grade is also
referred to as the initial tangent grade, viewing Fig. 2.5 from left to
right),
G2 = final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or m/m,
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (initial minus final,
usually expressed in percent),
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve),
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades),
PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical
curve (the point where the curve returns to the final grade or,
equivalently, the final tangent), and
L = length of the curve in stations m measured in a constant- elevation
horizontal plane. 19
2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
The general form of the parabolic equation, as applied to vertical curves, is

2
y = ax + bx + c (2.1)

Where:
y = roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning of the vertical
curve (the PVC) in stations or m,
x = distance from the beginning of the vertical curve in stations or m
a, b = coefficients defined below, and
c = elevation of the PVC (because x = 0 corresponds to the PVC) in
m. 20
2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
In defining a and b, note that the first derivative of Eq. 3.1 gives the slope and is

dy
= 2ax + b
dx (2.2)

At the PVC, x = 0, so, using Eq. 3.2,

dy
b = = G1 (2.3)
dx

where G1 is the initial slope in m/m, as defined in Fig. 2.3.

21
2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
Also note that the second derivative of Eq. 2.1 is the rate of change of slope
and is
d2y
2
= 2a (2.4)
dx

However, the average rate of change of slope, by observation of Fig.

2.3, can also be written as
𝑑 𝑦 𝐺2 − 𝐺1
2
(2.5)
=
𝑑𝑥
2
𝐿

Equating Eqs. 2.4 and 2.5 gives

𝐺2 − 𝐺1 (2.6)
𝑎=
2𝐿
Watch units for "a" and "b" 22
Relationships
At   the   PVC :   𝑥=0      and      𝑌 =𝑐
𝑑𝑌
At  the  PVC :   𝑥=0      and      =𝑏=𝐺1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑌
2
𝐺2 − 𝐺1 𝐺2 − 𝐺1
Anywhere:    =2 𝑎= ⇒ 𝑎=
𝑑𝑥
2
𝐿 2𝐿
PVI
G1 δ
PVC G2
PVT
L/2

L
x
23
Example 1

A 200 m equal tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at

station 3+700.000 and elevation 321 m. The initial grade is
-3.5% and the final grade is +0.5%. Determine the
elevation and stationing of PVI, PVT, and the lowest point
of the curve.

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25
26
27
Example 2

• An equal tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between

grades of -2.0% (initial) and +1.0% (final). The PVI is at
station11+000.000 and at elevation 420 m. Due to a street
crossing the roadway, the elevation of the roadway at station
11+071.000 must be at 421.5 m. Design the curve.

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29
30
31
32
Student Exercise
A 200 m equal tangent crest vertical curve has a PVC station of
100+00 at 300 m elevation. The initial grade is 2.0 percent and the
final grade is -4.5 percent. Determine the elevation and stationing
of PVI, PVT, and the high point of the curve.

PVI

2 .0% PVT
G1=
G=
2 - 4.
5%
PVC: STA 100+00
ELEV 300 m

33
2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
Additional equations:

Figure 2.6 Offsets for equal tangent vertical curves. 34

2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or m/m (this grade is also referred to as
the initial tangent grade, viewing Fig. 2.6 from left to right),
G2 = final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or m/m,
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve),
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades),
PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical curve (the
point where the curve returns to the final grade or, equivalently, the final
tangent),
L = length of the curve in stations or m measured in a constant-elevation
horizontal plane,
x= distance from the PVC in m,
Y= offset at any distance x from the PVC in m,
Ym = midcurve offset in m, and
Yf = offset at the end of the vertical curve in m. 35
2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
Referring to the elements shown in Fig. 2.6, the properties of
an equal tangent parabola can be used to give

A
Y = x2 (2.7)
200 L

Where:
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1 - G2|) expressed in percent

Other terms are as defined in Fig. 2.6.

Note that in this equation, 200 is used in the denominator instead of 2
because A is expressed in percent instead of m/m
(this division by 100 also applies to Eq. 2.8 and 2.9 below).
36
2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
It follows from Fig. 2.4 that:

AL (2.8)
Ym =
800

and
AL (2.9)
Yf =
200

37
 2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
The K-value defined as (with L in m and A in percent),

L
K = (2.10)
A

Where:

K = value that is the horizontal distance, in m,

required to affect a 1% change in the slope of the vertical curve,
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1  G2| expressed in percent), and
L = length of curve in m.

38
2.2.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
High/point low point,

𝑥h𝑙  = 𝐾 ×|𝐺1| (2.11)

xhl = distance from the PVC to the high/low point in m,

K = value that is the horizontal distance, in m, required to affect a 1%
change in the slope of the vertical curve, and
G1 = initial grade in percent.
39
Example 3
A vertical curve crosses a 1 m diameter pipe at right angles. The
pipe is located at station 11 + 025.000 and its centerline is at
elevation 1091.60 m. The PVI of the vertical curve is at station 11
+ 000.000 and elevation 1095.20 m. The vertical curve is 150 m
long, and connects an initial grade of +1.20% and a final grade of
-1.08 %. Using offsets, determine the depth below the surface of
the curve to the top of the pipe, and determine the station of the
highest point on the curve.

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42
2.2.2 Sight Distance / Stopping Sight
Distance
• Design to provide for adequate sight distances
• To perceive dangerous situation ahead
• To take preventive action
• Stopping sight distance
 The sum of the distance the vehicle travels from the driver’s first
possible sighting of the hazard to the instant the brake is
touched, plus the distance required to stop after brake
activation.
• Passing sight distance
 The minimum sight distance for vehicle passing on two lane
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2.2.2 Sight Distance
• On crests/sags, the vertical curvature of facility causes sight
restrictions

Figure 2.7: Sight distance / stopping sight distance at Vertical alignment

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2.2.2 Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance  
(2.12)
𝑉 12
SSD  =   + 𝑉 1 ×𝑡 𝑟

Where:
(( ) )
2𝑔
𝑎
𝑔
±𝐺

SSD = stopping sight distance in m,

a = deceleration rate in m/s2,
V1 = initial vehicle speed in m/s,
g = gravitational constant in m/s2,
tr = perception/reaction time in sec, and
G = roadway grade (+ for uphill and – for downhill) in percent/100.
With a = 3.4 m/s2, tr =2.5s, the application of Eq. 2.12
45
(assuming G = 0) produces the stopping sight distances presented in Table 2.1.
2.2.2 Sight Distance
Table 2.1 Stopping Sight Distance when G=0
US Customary Metric

Stopping sight distance Stopping sight distance

Brake Braking Brake Braking
Design
Design speed reaction distance on reaction distance on
speed
(mi/h) distance level Calculated Design distance level Calculated Design
(km/h)
(ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (m) (m) (m) (m)

15 55.1 21.6 76.7 80 20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20

20 73.5 38.4 111.9 115 30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35
25 91.9 60.0 151.9 155 40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50
30 110.3 86.4 196.7 200 50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65
35 128.6 117.6 246.2 250 60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85
40 147.0 153.6 300.6 305 70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105
45 165.4 194.4 359.8 360 80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130
50 183.8 240.0 423.8 425 90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160
55 202.1 290.3 492.4 495 100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185
60 220.5 345.5 566.0 570 110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220
65 238.9 405.5 644.4 645 120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250
70 257.3 470.3 727.6 730 130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285
75 275.6 539.9 815.5 820          
80 294.0 614.3 908.3 910          
Note: Brake reaction distance is based on a time of 2.5 sec; deceleration rate of
11.2 ft/s2 (3.4 m/s2) is used to determine calculated stopping sight distance.
46
2.2.2 Sight Distance for Crest Vertical Curve
In this figure,
The case of designing a crest vertical curve for adequate stopping sight
distance is illustrated as below: S = sight distance in m,
h1 = height of driver’s eye above roadway
surface in m,
h2 = height of object above roadway surface
in m,
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial
point of the curve),
PVI = point of vertical intersection
(intersection of initial and final
grades),
PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the
final point of the vertical curve
Figure 2.8: Stopping sight distance considerations for crest vertical curves.
(the point where the curve returns
to the final grade or, equivalently,
the final tangent), and
L = length of the curve in m.
47
2.2.2 Sight Distance for Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum length of curve satisfying a given sight distance requirement

PVI
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1

h2
h1

For S < L For S > L

200 ( √ h 1+ √ h 2)
2
2
𝐴 ( 𝑆) 𝐿𝑚=2 ( 𝑆 ) −
𝐿𝑚= 2
(2.13)
𝐴
(2.14)

200 ( √ h1 + √ h2 ) 48
2.2.2 Sight Distance for Crest Vertical Curves
• Assumptions for design
• h1 = driver’s eye height = 1.07 m
• h2 = object height = 0.15 m (SSD) = 1.30 m (PSD)

• Simplified Equations
For L > SSD For SSD > L

658
𝐿𝑚=𝐴¿¿ (2.15)
𝐿𝑚=2 ( 𝑆𝑆𝐷 ) −
𝐴
(2.16)

49
 𝑉 12
• If G≠0, should apply SSD  =   + 𝑉,1 but
×𝑡 𝑟 due to difficulties to
2𝑔 (( ) )
𝑎
𝑔
±𝐺

estimate where the vehicle began to brake, many agencies ignore the effect of grade
completely while other assume G = 0 for grades less than 3%.

• Note: Tables 2.1 assume G = 0.

 Difficult to get exact effect of grade unless you know exactly where on the curve the
brakes were applied.
 Assuming initial or final could be too conservative or too risky.
 Practices vary, but most agencies do not correct if G < 3%, then may add a fixed-
distance correction
50
Assuming L > SSD instead of SSD > L.
 If SSD > L the relationship between A and Lm is not linear so K-
values cannot be used in the L = KA formula.
 At low values of A, it is possible to get negative minimum curve
lengths.
 L > SSD is a good one because, in many cases,
 L is greater than SSD and
 when it is not (SSD > L), the use of the L > SSD formula gives
longer curve lengths and thus the error is on the conservative,
safe side.

51
Where:
 
K= horizontal distance, in m, required to affect a 1% change in the
slope, and is defined as

For L > S Metric

𝑆𝑆𝐷 2(2.18)
𝐿𝑚=𝐾𝐴 (2.17) rearranged
𝐾=
658

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Table 2.2 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping
Sight Distance

US Customary Metric

Rate of vertical curvature, Ka Rate of vertical curvature, Ka

Design speed Stopping sight Design speed Stopping sight
(mi/h) distance (ft) (km/h) distance (m)
Calculated Design Calculated Design

15 80 3.0 3 20 20 0.6 1
20 115 6.1 7 30 35 1.9 2
25 155 11.1 12 40 50 3.8 4
30 200 18.5 19 50 65 6.4 7
35 250 29.0 29 60 85 11.0 11
40 305 43.1 44 70 105 16.8 17
45 360 60.1 61 80 130 25.7 26
50 425 83.7 84 90 160 38.9 39
55 495 113.5 114 100 185 52.0 52
60 570 150.6 151 110 220 73.6 74
65 645 192.8 193 120 250 95.0 95
70 730 246.9 247 130 285 123.4 124
75 820 311.6 312        
80 910 383.7 384        
a
Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersecting grades (A). K = L/A

53
Example 4
A highway is being designed to AASHTO guidelines with a 120km/h
design speed. At one section, an equal tangent vertical curve must be
designed to connect grades of +1.0% and -2.0%. Determine the length
of curve required assuming provisions are to be made for SSD.

54
55
Example 5
Solve Example 4 using the K-value

Solution:
4

56
Example 5
If the grades in Example 4 (previous example) intersect at station
3+000.000, determine the stationing of the PVC, PVT, and curve high
point for the minimum curve length based on SSD requirements.

57
58
2.2.2 Sight Distance for Sag Vertical Curves

Light Beam Distance (S)

G1
headlight beam (diverging from LOS by β degrees) G2
β
PVC PVT

h1 PVI
h2=0

L
For S < L For S > L
2
𝐴 (𝑆) 200 ( h 1+ S tan 𝛽 )
𝐿= (2.20) 𝐿=2 ( 𝑆 ) − (2.21)
200 ( h1 +𝑆 tan 𝛽 ) 𝐴
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2.2.2 Sight Distance for Sag Vertical Curves
In this figure,
S = sight distance in m,
h= height of headlight in m,
= inclined angle of headlight beam in degrees,
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve),
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final
grades),
PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical
curve (the point where the curve returns to the final grade or,
equivalently, the final tangent), and
L= length of the curve in m.
60
2.2.2 Sight Distance for Sag Vertical Curves
For S < L For S > L
𝐴 𝑆2
𝐿𝑚 = (2.22) 200 ( 𝐻 + 𝑆 tan β ) (2.23)
200 ( 𝐻 +𝑆 tan β ) 𝐿𝑚 =2 𝑆 −
𝐴
Where:
Lm = minimum length of vertical curve in m

• Assumptions for design Where:

• h1 = headlight height = 0.6 m K = horizontal distance, in m,
required to affect a 1%
• β = 1 degree change in the slope.

• Simplified Equations
For SSD < L For SSD > L For SSD < L
2
𝐴 ( 𝑆𝑆𝐷 ) (2.24) 𝑆𝑆𝐷 2 (2.26)
𝐿=
120+3.5 ( 𝑆𝑆𝐷 ) 𝐿=2 ( 𝑆𝑆𝐷 ) − (
120+3.5 ( 𝑆𝑆𝐷
𝐴 )
)
(2.25) 𝐾=
120+3.5 ( 𝑆𝑆𝐷 61)
Table 2.3 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves Based on Stopping
Sight Distance
US Customary Metric

Stopping Rate of vertical curvature, Ka Rate of vertical curvature, Ka

Design speed Design speed Stopping sight
sight distance
(mi/h) (km/h) distance (m)
(ft) Calculated Design Calculated Design

15 80 9.4 10 20 20 2.1 3
20 115 16.5 17 30 35 5.1 6
25 155 25.5 26 40 50 8.5 9
30 200 36.4 37 50 65 12.2 13
35 250 49.0 49 60 85 17.3 18
40 305 63.4 64 70 105 22.6 23
45 360 78.1 79 80 130 29.4 30
50 425 95.7 96 90 160 37.6 38
55 495 114.9 115 100 185 44.6 45
60 570 135.7 136 110 220 54.4 55
65 645 156.5 157 120 250 62.8 63
70 730 180.3 181 130 285 72.7 73
75 820 205.6 206        
80 910 231.0 231        

a
Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersecting grades (A). K = L/A

62
 EXAMPLE 6
An existing tunnel needs to be
connected to a newly constructed
bridge with sag and crest vertical
curves. The profile view of the
tunnel and bridge is shown in Fig. Station 0+310.000 PVTc
A3.8. Develop a vertical alignment
to connect the tunnel and bridge by 42 m

determining the highest possible

30m
common design speed for the sag
and crest (equal tangent) vertical Station 0+000.000 PVCs
curves needed. Compute the
Figure A3.8: Profile view (vertical-alignment diagram)
stationing and elevations of PVC,
PVI, and PVT curve points.
63
64
2.2 and 2.3

65
 EXAMPLE 7

Station 0+310.000 PVTc

42m
30 m

Consider the conditions described in Example 6. Suppose a design speed of

only 60km/h is needed. Determine the lengths of curves required to connect
the bridge and tunnel while keeping the connecting grade as small as possible.
66
6

2.2 2.3

67
68
2.2.3 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

• Passing sight distance is a factor only in crest vertical curve

design.
• Not for sag curves because the sight distance is unobstructed
looking up or down the grade, and, at night, the headlights
of oncoming or opposing vehicles will be noticed.

69
2.2.3 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

Passing sight distance (PSD) used for

design is assumed to consist of four
distances;
1) the initial maneuver distance (which
includes drivers' perception/reaction
time and the time it takes to bring the
vehicle from its trailing speed to the
point of encroachment on the left lane),
2) the distance that the passing vehicle
traverses while occupying the left lane,
3) the clearance length between the
passing and opposing vehicles at the
end of the passing maneuver, and
4) the distance traversed by an opposing
vehicle during two-thirds of the time
the passing vehicle occupies the left
lane. 70
2.2.3 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

71
2.2.3 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

 K-values can be computed by assuming L > SSD, which

 H1, remain at 1080 mm,
 H2 is also be set to 1080 mm – height of oncoming car.
Metric

For PSD < L 𝐴× PS D2 (2.26)

𝐿𝑚 =
864
864 (2.27)
For PSD > L 𝐿𝑚 =2 × PSD −
𝐴
Where:
2
For PSD < L PS D (2.28)
K = horizontal distance, in m,
𝐾= required to affect a 1%

864 change in the slope.

72
2.2.3 Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design

Table 2.4 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Passing Sight Distance
US Customary Metric

Design speed Passing sight Rate of vertical Design speed Passing sight distance Rate of vertical
(mi/h) distance (ft) curvature, Ka design (km/h) (m) curvature, Ka design

20 710 180 30 200 46

25 900 289 40 270 84
30 1090 424 50 345 138
35 1280 585 60 410 195
40 1470 772 70 485 272
45 1625 943 80 540 338
50 1835 1203 90 615 438
55 1985 1407 100 670 520
60 2135 1628 110 730 617
65 2285 1865 120 775 695
70 2480 2197 130 815 769
75 2580 2377      
80 2680 2565      

Note: a Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersecting grades (A). K = L/A
73
Example 8
An equal-tangent crest vertical curve is 480 m long and connects a
+2.0% and a -1.5% grade. If the design speed of the roadway is 80
km/h, does this curve have adequate passing-sight distance?

Solution: From Table 2.4 at 80km/h, K = 338

L= KA
= 338 x 3.5 = 1183 m

Because the curve is only 480 m long it is not long enough to provide
adequate passing-sight distance. 74
75
2.2.4 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
In this figure,
S= sight distance in m,
A= algebraic difference in grades in
percent,
H1 = height of driver’s eye in m,
H2 = height of object in m,
Hc = clearance height of overpass structure
above roadway in m,
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point
of the curve),
PVT = point of vertical tangent (the final point of
the curve),
G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or
m/m, Figure 2.9 Stopping sight distance
G2 = final roadway grade in percent or m/m, considerations for underpass sag curves.
and
L= length of the curve in m.

76
2.2.4 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design

Minimum length of sag curve for a required sight distance and

clearance height is
For S < L 2
𝐴𝑆
𝐿𝑚 =

( (
800 𝐻 𝑐 −
𝐻 1+ 𝐻 2
2 )) (2.29)

For S > L

𝐿𝑚 =2 𝑆 −
( (
800 𝐻 𝑐 −
𝐻1+ 𝐻2
2 )) (2.30)
𝐴

Where:
Lm = minimum length of vertical curve in m, and other terms as defined in Fig. 2.9.
77
2.2.4 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
 With a driver eye height, H1, of 2.4 m for a truck driver, and an object
height,
 
 H2, of 600 mm for the taillights of a vehicle.
 
 Substituting these values for H1 and H2, and S = SSD into Eqs. 2.29
and 2.30 gives
Metric
𝐴 ×SS D 2 (2.31)
For SSD < L 𝐿=
800 ( 𝐻 𝑐 −1.5 )

For SSD > L 800 ( 𝐻 𝑐 − 1.5 ) (2.32)

𝐿=2 ×SSD −
𝐴 78
2.2.4 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design

 
 Minimum clearance 4.4 m
 Desirable clearance 5.0 m.
 must be at least 300 mm greater than the maximum allowable vehicle
height.

79
Example 9
An equal-tangent sag has an initial grade of -4.0%, a final grade of
+3.0%, and a length of 385m. An overhead guide sign is being placed
directly over the PVI of this curve. At what height above the roadway
should the bottom of this sign be placed?

80
81
82
Student Exercise

An overpass is being built over the PVI of an

existing equal-tangent sag curve. The sag curve
has a 120 km/h design speed, and G1 = 6%, G2 =
+3%. Determine the minimum necessary clearance
height of the overpass, and the resultant elevation
of the bottom of the overpass over the PVI. (Ignore
the cross-sectional width of the overpass.)
 
83
2.3 Horizontal Alignment

84
Video:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5I2k3afOrq8

85
2.3 Horizontal Alignment

86
2.3 Horizontal Alignment
Objective: Represents the projection of the
Geometry of directional transition to highway, railway, etc. on a horizontal
ensure: plane
Safety Tangents:
Comfort straight-line segments
Circular curves
Transition curves
Primary challenge
Superelevation
Transition between two directions
Horizontal curves

87
2.3 Horizontal Alignment
• Consists of horizontal
tangents, circular
curves, and possibly
transition curves
• Horizontal tangents are
describe in term of their
length (stationing) and
direction (bearing /
azimuths)

88
2.3Horizontal Curves
• Simple Curves • Reversed curve

• Spiral Curve (broken-back

curve)
• Compound Curve

Figure 2.10: Types of Horizontal Alignment 89

2.3Horizontal Alignment

• 2 straight lines intersect at PI can be connected by infinite

number of circular curves. Defined by radius R or by its degree of
curve D
• Arc definition (preferred by highway engineers) is equal to the
central angle (in degrees) subtended by an arc of 30.48 m
• The R and D are related by

30.48 𝐷 1746.38
=( )    or   𝐷=               (2.33)
2 𝜋 𝑅 360 𝑅

90
2.3Horizontal Alignment
• Chord definition
(railway design) for the
degree of curve, which
is equal to the angle
subtended by a chord
of 30.48m
• The R and D are related by
𝐷 15.24
sin(¿ )=         ¿
2 𝑅
• Length of curve, 30.48 Δ
𝐿=           
(2.34)
𝐷
91
2.3Horizontal Alignment
Vehicle Cornering : Superelevation – (for vehicle cornering)
 Superelevated section of a
highway offsets the tendency
of the vehicle to slide outward
 Necessary to establish proper
relation with superelevation and
side friction, design speed and
curvature

 When moves in a circular path, a vehicle is forced radially outward by

centrifugal force. To counteract this force, the vehicle weight
component creates side friction between road surface and tires. 92
2.3Horizontal Alignment In this figure,
Rv = radius defined to the vehicle’s traveled
path in m,
Vehicle Cornering α= angle of incline in degrees,
e= number of vertical m of rise per 100 m
of horizontal distance,
W= weight of the vehicle in N,
Wn = vehicle weight normal to the roadway
surface in N,
Wp = vehicle weight parallel to the roadway
surface in N,
Ff = side frictional force (centripetal, N),
Fc = centripetal force (lateral acceleration
mass, in N),
Fcp = centripetal force acting parallel to the
roadway surface in N, and
Fcn = centripetal force acting normal to the
roadway surface in N.
93
2.3Horizontal Alignment
Basic equations:
Wp + Ff = Fcp (2.35)

From basic physics this equation can be written as [with Ff = fs(Wn + Fcn)]

( )
2 2
𝑊𝑉 𝑊𝑉
𝑊 sin 𝛼  +  𝑓 𝑠 𝑊 cos 𝛼  + 
𝑔 𝑅𝑣
sin 𝛼  = 
𝑔 𝑅𝑣
(2.36)
cos 𝛼

Where:
fs = coefficient of side friction, and is unitless,
g = gravitational constant in m/s2,
V = vehicle speed in m/s, and other terms as defined in Fig 3.12
94
2.3Horizontal Alignment
 
Dividing both sides of Eq. 2.36 by W cos gives
 

𝑉2 (2.37)
tan 𝛼+ 𝑓 𝑠= ( 1 − 𝑓 𝑠 tan 𝛼 )
𝑔 𝑅𝑣

The term tan α is referred to as the superelevation of the curve

(banking), and can be expressed in percent, and is denoted e
(e = 100 tan α ).
 
The term "fs tan α "in Eq. 2.37 is conservatively set equal to zero for
practical applications due to the small values that fs and α typically
assume.
 
95
2.3Horizontal Alignment
With e = 100 tan α, Eq. 3.33 can be arranged such that

𝑉2 (2.38)
𝑅𝑣 =
(
𝑔 𝑓 𝑠+
𝑒
100 )
See Table 3.5 for computed values. Get fs from Table 3.5 or use (where V is km/hr)

fs = 0.190 – V/1000 for V ≤ 80.5 km/h

or fs = 0.140 – 2(V – 50 )/1000 for V > 80.5 km/h

96
 US Customary Metric
Design Limiting Calculated Rounded Design Limiting Calculated Rounded
Speed Maximum e Values of Total Radius, R v Radius, R v Speed Maximum e Values of Total Radius, R v Radius, R v
mi/h) (%) fs (e /100 + f s ) (ft) (ft) (km/h) (%) fs (e /100 + f s ) (m) (m)
15 4.0 0.175 0.215 70.0 70 20 4.0 0.18 0.22 14.3 15
20 4.0 0.170 0.210 127.4 125 30 4.0 0.17 0.21 33.7 35
25 4.0 0.165 0.205 203.9 205 40 4.0 0.17 0.21 60.0 60
30 4.0 0.160 0.200 301.0 300 50 4.0 0.16 0.20 98.4 100
35 4.0 0.155 0.195 420.2 420 60 4.0 0.15 0.19 149.1 150
40 4.0 0.150 0.190 563.3 565 70 4.0 0.14 0.18 214.2 215
45 4.0 0.145 0.185 732.2 730 80 4.0 0.14 0.18 279.8 280
50 4.0 0.140 0.180 929.0 930 90 4.0 0.13 0.17 375.0 375
55 4.0 0.130 0.170 1190.2 1190 100 4.0 0.12 0.16 491.9 490
60 4.0 0.120 0.160 1505.0 1505
15 6.0 0.175 0.235 64.0 65 20 6.0 0.18 0.24 13.1 15
20 6.0 0.170 0.230 116.3 115 30 6.0 0.17 0.23 30.8 30
25 6.0 0.165 0.225 185.8 185 40 6.0 0.17 0.23 54.7 55
30 6.0 0.160 0.220 273.6 275 50 6.0 0.16 0.22 89.4 90
35 6.0 0.155 0.215 381.1 380 60 6.0 0.15 0.21 134.9 135
40 6.0 0.150 0.210 509.6 510 70 6.0 0.14 0.20 192.8 195
45 6.0 0.145 0.205 660.7 660 80 6.0 0.14 0.20 251.8 250
50 6.0 0.140 0.200 836.1 835 90 6.0 0.13 0.19 335.5 335
55 6.0 0.130 0.190 1065.0 1065 100 6.0 0.12 0.18 437.2 435
60 6.0 0.120 0.180 1337.8 1340 110 6.0 0.11 0.17 560.2 560
65 6.0 0.110 0.170 1662.4 1660 120 6.0 0.09 0.15 755.5 755
70 6.0 0.100 0.160 2048.5 2050 130 6.0 0.08 0.14 950.0 950
75 6.0 0.090 0.150 2508.4 2510
80 6.0 0.080 0.140 3057.8 3060
15 8.0 0.175 0.255 59.0 60 20 8.0 0.18 0.28 12.1 10
20 8.0 0.170 0.250 107.0 105 30 8.0 0.17 0.25 28.3 30
25 8.0 0.185 0.245 170.8 170 40 8.0 0.17 0.25 50.4 50
30 8.0 0.160 0.240 250.8 250 50 8.0 0.16 0.24 82.0 80
35 8.0 0.155 0.235 348.7 350 60 8.0 0.15 0.23 123.2 125
40 8.0 0.150 0.230 465.3 465 70 8.0 0.14 0.22 175.3 175
45 8.0 0.145 0.225 502.0 500 80 8.0 0.14 0.22 228.9 230
50 8.0 0.140 0.220 760.1 760 90 8.0 0.13 0.21 303.6 305
55 8.0 0.130 0.210 963.5 965 100 8.0 0.12 0.20 393.5 395
60 8.0 0.120 0.200 1204.0 1205 110 8.0 0.11 0.19 501.2 500
65 8.0 0.110 0.190 1487.4 1485 120 8.0 0.09 0.17 666.6 665
70 8.0 0.100 0.180 1820.9 1820 130 8.0 0.08 0.18 831.3 830
75 8.0 0.090 0.170 2213.3 2215
80 8.0 0.080 0.160 2675.6 2675
15 10.0 0.175 0.275 54.7 55 20 10.0 0.18 0.28 11.2 10
20 10.0 0.170 0.270 99.1 100 30 10.0 0.17 0.27 26.2 25
25 10.0 0.165 0.265 157.8 160 40 10.0 0.17 0.27 46.6 45
30 10.0 0.160 0.280 231.5 230 50 10.0 0.16 0.26 75.7 75
35 10.0 0.155 0.255 321.3 320 60 10.0 0.15 0.25 113.3 115
40 10.0 0.150 0.250 428.1 430 70 10.0 0.14 0.24 160.7 160
45 10.0 0.145 0.245 552.9 555 80 10.0 0.14 0.24 209.9 210
97
50 10.0 0.140 0.240 696.8 695 90 10.0 0.13 0.23 277.2 275
55 10.0 0.130 0.230 879.7 880 100 10.0 0.12 0.22 357.7 360
2.3Horizontal Alignment
 Degree of curve, which is defined as the angle subtended by a 30.5-m arc
along the horizontal curve.
 Used to measure of the sharpness of the curve.
 The degree of curve is directly related to the radius of the horizontal
curve by
Metric

𝐷=
30.5 (180
π )=
5490 (2.39)
𝑅 π 𝑅

Where:
D = degree of curve (angle subtended by a 30.5 m arc along the
horizontal curve, and
Other terms as defined in Fig 2.11 with (180/) converting from radians
98
to degrees.
2.3Horizontal Alignment
In this figure,
R= radius, usually measured to the centerline of the
road, in m,
Δ= central angle of the curve in degrees,
PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the
horizontal curve),
PI = point of tangent intersection,
PT = point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal
curve),
T= tangent length in m,
M= middle ordinate in m,
E= external distance in m, and
L= length of curve in m.

Figure 2.11 Elements of a simple circular horizontal curve 99

 
2.3Horizontal Alignment
Geometric and trigonometric analyses of Fig. 2.11 reveal the following
relationships:


T = R tan (2.40)
2

𝐸= 𝑅 ( 1
cos ( Δ / 2 ) )
−1    (2.41)

(
𝑀 = 𝑅 1− cos
Δ
2
   ) (2.42)

 (2.43)
L = R
180 100
Example
A roadway is being designed for a speed of 110 km/h. At one horizontal
curve it is known that the super-elevation is 8.00% and the coefficient
of side friction is 0.10. Determine the minimum radius of curve
(measured to the traveled path) that will provide safe vehicle
operation.

Solution:

101
Example
A horizontal curve is designed with a 725 m radius. The curve has a
tangent length of 140 m and the PI is at station 3+103.000. Determine
the stationing of the PT.
Solution:

Convert radian to degree:

Value in radian x 180/π

102
103
2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve design

104
 2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve design

In this figure,
L= length of curve in m,
SSD = stopping sight distance in m,
Δ s= central angle (in degrees) subtended
by a curve whose arc is the stopping
sight distance (SSD) and radius is Rv,
and
Ms = middle ordinate necessary to provide
adequate stopping sight distance
(SSD) in m.
 
Figure2.12 Stopping sight distance considerations for horizontal curves.
105
2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve design
Assuming that the length of the horizontal curve exceeds the required
SSD (as shown in Fig 2.11), gives
 (2.44)
SSD = Rv  s
180
Rearranging terms,
180 𝑆𝑆𝐷 (2.45)
Δ s  = 
𝜋 Rv

Substituting this into the general equation for the middle ordinate of a
simple horizontal curve (Eq. 2.42) to get an expression for Ms (the middle
ordinate necessary to provide adequate stopping sight distance as shown
in Fig. 2.12), gives
106
2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve design

(
𝑀 𝑠 =𝑅𝑣 1 − cos
90 SSD
π 𝑅𝑣
  
) (2.46)

Solving Eq. 2,46 for SSD gives

SSD  = 
π 𝑅𝑣
90 [ (
cos
−1 𝑅 𝑣 − 𝑀 𝑠
𝑅𝑣 )]    (2.47)

Note that Eqs. 2.44 to 2.47 can also be applied directly to determine sight
distance requirements for passing (PSD).

107
 US Customary M etric
Design Limiting Calculated Rounded Design Limiting Calculated Rounded
Speed Maximum e Values of Total Radius, R v Radius, R v Speed Maximum e Values of Total Radius, R v Radius, R v
(mi/h) (%) fs (e /100 + f s ) (ft) (ft) (km/h) (%) fs (e /100 + f s ) (m) (m)
15 4.0 0.175 0.215 70.0 70 20 4.0 0.18 0.22 14.3 15
20 4.0 0.170 0.210 127.4 125 30 4.0 0.17 0.21 33.7 35
25 4.0 0.165 0.205 203.9 205 40 4.0 0.17 0.21 60.0 60
30 4.0 0.160 0.200 301.0 300 50 4.0 0.16 0.20 98.4 100
35 4.0 0.155 0.195 420.2 420 60 4.0 0.15 0.19 149.1 150
40 4.0 0.150 0.190 563.3 565 70 4.0 0.14 0.18 214.2 215
45 4.0 0.145 0.185 732.2 730 80 4.0 0.14 0.18 279.8 280
50 4.0 0.140 0.180 929.0 930 90 4.0 0.13 0.17 375.0 375
55 4.0 0.130 0.170 1190.2 1190 100 4.0 0.12 0.16 491.9 490
60 4.0 0.120 0.160 1505.0 1505
15 6.0 0.175 0.235 64.0 65 20 6.0 0.18 0.24 13.1 15
20 6.0 0.170 0.230 116.3 115 30 6.0 0.17 0.23 30.8 30
25 6.0 0.165 0.225 185.8 185 40 6.0 0.17 0.23 54.7 55
30 6.0 0.160 0.220 273.6 275 50 6.0 0.16 0.22 89.4 90
35 6.0 0.155 0.215 381.1 380 60 6.0 0.15 0.21 134.9 135
40 6.0 0.150 0.210 509.6 510 70 6.0 0.14 0.20 192.8 195
45 6.0 0.145 0.205 660.7 660 80 6.0 0.14 0.20 251.8 250
50 6.0 0.140 0.200 836.1 835 90 6.0 0.13 0.19 335.5 335
55 6.0 0.130 0.190 1065.0 1065 100 6.0 0.12 0.18 437.2 435
60 6.0 0.120 0.180 1337.8 1340 110 6.0 0.11 0.17 560.2 560
65 6.0 0.110 0.170 1662.4 1660 120 6.0 0.09 0.15 755.5 755
70 6.0 0.100 0.160 2048.5 2050 130 6.0 0.08 0.14 950.0 950
75 6.0 0.090 0.150 2508.4 2510
80 6.0 0.080 0.140 3057.8 3060
15 8.0 0.175 0.255 59.0 60 20 8.0 0.18 0.28 12.1 10
20 8.0 0.170 0.250 107.0 105 30 8.0 0.17 0.25 28.3 30
25 8.0 0.185 0.245 170.8 170 40 8.0 0.17 0.25 50.4 50
30 8.0 0.160 0.240 250.8 250 50 8.0 0.16 0.24 82.0 80
35 8.0 0.155 0.235 348.7 350 60 8.0 0.15 0.23 123.2 125
40 8.0 0.150 0.230 465.3 465 70 8.0 0.14 0.22 175.3 175
45 8.0 0.145 0.225 502.0 500 80 8.0 0.14 0.22 228.9 230
50 8.0 0.140 0.220 760.1 760 90 8.0 0.13 0.21 303.6 305
55 8.0 0.130 0.210 963.5 965 100 8.0 0.12 0.20 393.5 395
60 8.0 0.120 0.200 1204.0 1205 110 8.0 0.11 0.19 501.2 500
65 8.0 0.110 0.190 1487.4 1485 120 8.0 0.09 0.17 666.6 665
70 8.0 0.100 0.180 1820.9 1820 130 8.0 0.08 0.18 831.3 830
75 8.0 0.090 0.170 2213.3 2215
80 8.0 0.080 0.160 2675.6 2675
15 10.0 0.175 0.275 54.7 55 20 10.0 0.18 0.28 11.2 10
20 10.0 0.170 0.270 99.1 100 30 10.0 0.17 0.27 26.2 25
25 10.0 0.165 0.265 157.8 160 40 10.0 0.17 0.27 46.6 45
30 10.0 0.160 0.280 231.5 230 50 10.0 0.16 0.26 75.7 75
35 10.0 0.155 0.255 321.3 320 60 10.0 0.15 0.25 113.3 115
40 10.0 0.150 0.250 428.1 430 70 10.0 0.14 0.24 160.7 160
45 10.0 0.145 0.245 552.9 555 80 10.0 0.14 0.24 209.9 210
50 10.0 0.140 0.240 696.8 695 90 10.0 0.13 0.23 277.2 275
55 10.0 0.130 0.230 879.7 880 100 10.0 0.12 0.22 357.7 360
60 10.0 0.120 0.220 1094.6 1095 110 10.0 0.11 0.21 453.5 455
65 10.0 0.110 0.210 1345.8 1345 120 10.0 0.09 0.19 596.5 595
70 10.0 0.100 0.200 1838.8 1840 130 10.0 0.08 0.18 738.9 740
75 10.0 0.090 0.190 1980.3 1980
80 10.0 0.080 0.180 2378.3 2380
15 12.0 0.175 0.295 51.0 50 20 12.0 0.18 0.30 10.5 10
20 12.0 0.170 0.290 92.3 90 30 12.0 0.17 0.29 24.4 25
25 12.0 0.165 0.285 146.7 145 40 12.0 0.17 0.29 43.4 45
30 12.0 0.160 0.280 215.0 215 50 12.0 0.16 0.28 70.3 108 70
35 12.0 0.155 0.275 298.0 300 60 12.0 0.15 0.27 104.9 105
40 12.0 0.150 0.270 396.4 395 70 12.0 0.14 0.26 148.3 150
Example
A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is designed with a 610 m
radius, 3.6m lanes, and a 100km/h design speed. Determine the
distance that must be cleared from the inside edge of the inside lane to
provide a sufficient stopping sight distance.

Refer Table 2.1 or next slide

109
Table 2.1 Stopping Sight Distance when G=0

110
2.3.2 Super-elevation and Horizontal Curve design

111
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5gYALaNc2BU

112
2.3.2 Superelevation and Horizontal Curve design
• A – normal crown
• E – fully elevated
• B – intermediate condition
(OE same
level as nc)
• C – OE-CL-IE aligned at nc
• Nc milder than the design
elevation rate, x-section
must be further rotate to
reach full e at pt E, with
intermediate slope at PC (i.e
pt D)
• Distance AB – tangent runoff
• Distance BE – superelevation
runoff

113
2.3.2 Superelevation and Horizontal Curve design
• Super-elevation runoff length

114
2.4 Combined Vertical and Horizontal
Alignment

115
2.4 Combined Vertical and Horizontal Alignment
Alignment Design
• The process of selecting, designing and locating the final alignment of
a facility
• Need
• Collection and study of topographic map/surveys
• Identifying possible alignments
• Preliminary selection of preferred alignment
• Surveying and mapping of corridor
• Design of final alignment
• Accounting for economic, legal and environmental constraint

116
2.4 Combined Vertical and Horizontal Alignment
Alignment Design
• Horizontal
and vertical
design should
be integrated

117
Example
4+600.000
A two-lane highway (two 3.6 m lanes) 4+160.000
has a posted speed limit of 80 km/h, 6m
and, on one section, has both
horizontal and vertical curves. A recent
daytime accident (driver traveling
eastbound and striking a stationary
roadway object) resulted in a fatality
and a lawsuit alleging that the 80-km/h
posted speed limit was an unsafe
speed for the curves in question and a
4+290.000
major cause of the accident. Evaluate 4+140.000
and comment on the roadway design.
4+215.000

118
119
120
121
Videos
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lx06ss7ZSKU

122
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9XIjqdk69O4&t=276s

123
Thank you

124