I3691CA-ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS I

Dr. John Adebisi

IEEE, Senior Member, R. Engr.
Course Coordinator
Course Contents

• Review of Semiconductor theory: diodes construction, diode applications (including power

supplies);

• Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs): structure, operation, biasing and ac modelling;

• Field Effect Transistors (FET): structure, operation, biasing and introduction to amplification and
switching

• OP-Amps: internal structure, ideal and practical op-amps, specifications, and basic applications;
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

❑ invented by a team of three scientists at Bell Laboratories, USA in 1947

❑ first transistor was not a bipolar junction device

❑ Revolutionized and still continuing in 21st century

❑ Used in Complex electronic devices and systems in use today

❑ Today developments are the results from early semiconductor transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

There are two basic types of transistors :

(1) the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
(2) the field-effect transistor (FET) which is covered later

The bipolar junction transistor has two (2) broad areas of electronics :
(1) as a linear amplifier to boost an electrical signal and
(2) as an electronic switch.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Basically, the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of two back-to back P-N junctions
manufactured in a single piece of a semiconductor crystal.

These two junctions give rise to three regions called emitter, base and collector.

In diagram, its sandwich of one type of semiconductor material between two layers of
the other type.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Figure (a) below shows a layer of N-type material sandwiched between two layers of P-
type material. It is described as a PNP transistor.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Figure (b) depicts an NPN – transistor consisting of a layer of P-type material

sandwiched between two layers of N-type material.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
The emitter, base and collector are provided with terminals which are labelled as E, B and C.

The two junctions are :

1. emitter-base (E/B)junction and
2. collector-base (C/B) junction

The arrowhead is always at the emitter

(not at the collector) and in each case,
its direction indicates the conventional
direction of current flow.

For a PNP transistor, arrowhead points from emitter to base meaning that emitter is positive
with respect to base (and also with respect to collector)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

NOTE: In a transistor, for normal operation, collector and base have the same polarity with
respect to the emitter.

For NPN transistor, it points from base to emitter meaning that base (and collector as
well) is positive with respect to the emitter.

Emitter: is more heavily doped than any of the other regions

because its main function is to supply majority charge carries
(either electrons or holes) to the base.

Base: forms the middle section of the transistor. It is very thin (10–6m)
as compared to either the emitter or collector and is very lightly-doped
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Collector: Its main function (as indicated by its name) is to collect majority charge carriers
coming from the emitter and passing through the base.

In most transistors, collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region
because it has to dissipate much greater power. Due to this difference, there is no possibility
of inverting the transistor i.e. making its collector the emitter and its emitter the collector.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Transistor Biasing
For proper working of a transistor, it is essential to apply voltages of correct polarity across
its two junctions. It is worthwhile to remember that for normal operation;
1. emitter-base junction is always forward-biased and
2. collector-base junction is always reverse-biased.

This type of biasing is known as FR biasing.

Positive terminal of VEE is connected to P-type emitter

in order to repel or Push holes into the base.
The negative terminal of V CC is connected to the
collector so that it may attract or pull holes through
the base.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Positive terminal of VEE is connected to P-type emitter in order to repel or Push holes into
the base. The negative terminal of V CC is connected to the collector so that it may attract or
pull holes through the base.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Similarly for NPN Transistor: Negative terminal of VEE is connected to N-type while, The
positive terminal of V CC is connected to the collector.

NOTE: a transistor will never conduct any current if its emitter-base junction is not forward-biased
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Biasing Rule
For a PNP transistor, both collector and base
are negative with respect to the emitter (the
letter N of Negative being the same as the
middle letter of PNP). Of course, collector is
more negative than base.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
for NPN transistor, both collector
and base are positive with respect
to the emitter (the letter P of Positive
being the same as the middle letter of
NPN). Again, collector is more positive
than the base.

There would be no current due to majority charge carriers. However, there would be an
extremely small current due to minority charge carriers which is called leakage current of the
transistor
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

It is observed that, different potentials have been designated by double subscripts. The first
subscript always represents the point or terminal which is more positive (or less negative)
than the point or terminal represented by the second subscript.

The potential difference between emitter and base is written as VEB (and not VBE) because
emitter is positive with respect to base. Now, between the base and collector themselves,
collector is more negative than base.

Hence, their potential difference is written as V BC and not as V CB.

 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Transistor Currents
The three primary currents which flow in a properly-biased transistor are IE, IB and IC. The figures
below shows the directions of flow as well as relative magnitudes of these currents for a PNP
transistor connected in the common-base mode.

IE= IB + IC
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
It means that a small part (about 1—2%) of emitter current goes to supply base current
and the remaining major part (98—99%) goes to supply collector current.

Please note that; IE flows into the transistor whereas both IB and IC flow out of it.

The next slide shows the flow of currents in the same transistor when connected in the
common-emitter mode. It is seen that again, IE = IB + IC

IE= IB + IC
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
common-emitter mode
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
By normal convention, currents flowing into a transistor are taken as positive
whereas those flowing out of it are taken as negative.

Hence, IE is positive whereas both IB and IC are negative. Applying Kirchhoff's

Current Law, we have:

IE + ( - IB ) + ( - IC ) or IE - I B - IC = 0 or IE = IB + IC

This statement is true regardless of transistor type or transistor configuration

 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Recall Leakage current concept on slide 15: For the time being, we have not taken into account
the leakage currents which exist in a transistor.

Summing Up
The four basic guide about all transistor circuits are :
1. conventional current flows along the arrow whereas electrons flow against it;
2. E/B junction is always forward-biased;
3. C/B junction is always reverse-biased;

4. IE = IB + IC
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Transistor Circuit Configurations
Basically, there are three types of circuit connections (called configurations) for operating a
transistor.

1. common-base (CB),
2. common-emitter (CE),
3. common-collector (CC).

The term ‘common’ is used to denote the electrode that is common to the input and output
circuits.

common electrode is generally grounded, these modes of operation are frequently referred to
as grounded-base, grounded-emitter and grounded-collector configurations
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Figures (a), (b) and (c) for a PNP – transistor. Since a transistor is a 3-terminal (and not a 4-
terminal) device, one of its terminals has to be common to the input and output circuits.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
CB Configuration
In this configuration, emitter current IE is the input current and collector current IC is the
output current.
The input signal is applied between the emitter and base whereas output is taken out from
the collector and base as shown below.

The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current is called dc alpha (αdc) of a transistor.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
The subscripts CBO stand for ‘Collector to Base with emitter
Open.’ Very often, it is simply written as ICO.

The negative sign is due to the fact that current IE flows into the transistor whereas IC flows
out of it. Hence, IE is taken as positive and IC as negative.

If we write a dc simply as α, then α = IE /IC

Negative sign has been omitted, since we are here concerned with only magnitudes of the
currents involved.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
It is also called forward current transfer ratio (–hFB). In hFB, subscript F stands for forward and B
for common-base. The subscript d.c. on a signifies that this ratio is defined from dc values of IC
and IE.
The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a transistor ; the higher the value of α, better
the transistor in the sense that collector current more closely equals the emitter current. Its
value ranges from 0.95 to 0.999. Obviously, it applies only to CB configuration of a transistor. As
show below:
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
There is also an a.c. α for a transistor. It refers to the ratio of change in collector current to the
change in emitter current.

It is also, known as short-circuit gain of a transistor and is written as – hfb. It may be noted
that upper case subscript ‘FB’ indicates dc value whereas lower case subscript ‘fb’ indicates
ac value.

For all practical purposes, αdc= αac= α.

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Examples: The following current readings are obtained in a transistor connected in CB

configuration:
IE = 2 mA and IB = 20 mA. Compute the values of α and IC.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
CE Configuration
With this configuration, input signal is applied between the base and emitter and output
signal is taken out from the collector and emitter circuit. As seen from the Fig. below, IB is
the input current and IC is the output current. The ratio of the d.c. collector current to dc
base current is called dc beta (βdc) or just β of the transistor.

β = -IC/-IB = IC -IB
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
In other words: IC = βIB
It is also called common-emitter d.c. Forward transfer ratio
and is written as hFE. It is possible for to have β as high a
value as 500

It is written as hfe
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
The flow of various currents in a CE configuration both for PNP and NPN transistor is shown
in the Figures (a) and (b);
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
The formular is given by;

The relationship between alpha and beta could be given as (for only numerical value of α);
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
CC Configuration
In this situation, input signal is applied between base and collector and output signal is taken
out from emitter-collector see Fig (a). Conventionally speaking, here IB is the input current and
IE is the output current as shown in Fig. (b).

(a) (b)
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
The current gain of the circuit is:

The flow paths of various currents in a CC configuration are shown in Fig (b) from previous
slide. It is seen that;

Therefore; output current = (1 + β ) × input current.

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Relations Between Transistor Currents
While deriving various equations, following definitions should be kept in mind

(i) (ii) (iii)

The three transistor d.c. currents always bear the following ratio:
(iv)

Incidentally, it may be noted that for ac currents, small letters ie, ib and ic are used.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Leakage Currents in a Transistor
(a) CB Circuit
Consider the CB transistor circuit shown in Fig. (a) and (b). The emitter current (due to majority
carriers) initiated by the forward-biased emitter base junction is split into two parts :
(i) (1 – α) IE which becomes base current IB in the external circuit and
(ii) αIE which becomes collector current IC in the external circuit.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
As mentioned earlier, though C/B junction is reverse-biased for majority charge carriers (i.e.
holes in this case), it is forward-biased so far as thermally-generated minority charge carriers
(i.e. electrons in this case) are concerned.
This current flows even when emitter is disconnected from its dc supply as shown in Fig.(a)
where switch, S1 is open. It flows in the same direction as the collector current of majority
carriers. It is called leakage current ICBO. The subscripts CBO stand for ‘Collector to Base with
emitter Open.’ Very often, it is simply written as ICO.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Although, electrons (which form minority charge carriers in collector) flow from negative
terminal of collector battery, to collector, then to base through C/B junction and finally, to
positive terminal of VCC. However, conventional current flows in the opposite direction as
shown by dotted lien in Fig. (a)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
It should be noted that;

(i) ICBO is exactly like the reverse saturation current IS or I0 of a reverse-biased diode discussed in
previous lectures.

(ii) ICBO is extremely temperature-dependent because it is made up of thermally-generated

minority carriers. As mentioned earlier, ICBO doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature for Ge and
6°C for Si.

If we take into account the leakage current, the current distribution in a CB transistor circuit
becomes as shown in Fig. (a) and (b) of slide 36; both for PNP and NPN type transistors.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
It is seen that total collector current is actually the sum of two components :
(i) current produced by normal transistor action i.e. component controlled by emitter
current. Its value is a IE and is due to majority carriers
(ii) temperature-dependent leakage current ICO due to minority carriers.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
(b) CE Circuit
In Fig. (a) is shown a common-emitter circuit of an NPN transistor whose base lead is open. It is
found that despite IB = 0, there is a leakage current from collector to emitter. It is called ICEO , the
subscripts CEO standing for ‘Collector to Emitter with base Open’. Taking this leakage current
into account, the current distribution through a CE circuit becomes as shown in figure(c)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Thermal Runaway
We have seen in previous sections that; for a CE circuit IC = βIB + (1 + β)ICO

The leakage current is extremely temperature-dependent. It almost doubles for every 6°C rise
in temperature in Ge and for every 10°C rise in Si. Any increase in ICO is magnified (1 + β)
times i.e. 300 to 500 times.

Even a slight increase in ICO will affect IC considerably. As IC increases, collector power
dissipation increases which raises the operating temperature that leads to further increase in
IC. If this succession of increases is allowed to continue, soon IC will increase beyond safe
operating value thereby damaging the transistor itself—a condition known as thermal
runaway. Hence, some form of stabilization is necessary to prevent this thermal runaway.
ThankYou!