Bird’s Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

What skills are needed for a career in electrical and electronic engineering?
When you decide to become an electrical or electronic engineer, you’re committing yourself to a profession that
involves developing, designing, testing and supervising the manufacturing of electrical devices and equipment,
including navigation systems, electric motors and power generation equipment. Therefore, to be able to handle such
complex concepts and theories, and understand how to apply them to real-life projects, you need to possess a unique
and tailored skillset. Indeed, it’s no secret that a high proportion of engineering students drop out or change course,
with a lack of preparedness often cited as the biggest reason for this unusually high attrition rate.
So, to see if you have what it takes to stay the course and develop a promising career in the field, here are the top 10
electrical and electronic engineering skills that you will need.
1. Problem-Solving Skills
Regardless of their discipline, engineers are, at their core, problem-solvers. This is particularly true in electrical and
electronic engineering, where you are often required to think logically and apply a particular rule or concept to a
problem in order to solve it.
2. Basic Circuit Knowledge
Electrical design can become an extraordinarily complex topic, especially where large installations are concerned
(such as energy grids), or even within highly advanced pieces of small hardware, such as those used in smartphones.
Therefore, if you are to have any hopes of getting to grips with it all, you need to first have a solid understanding of
basic circuit design.

Sunshine Seeds/Shutterstock.com

3. Enthusiasm for Learning

Although it is an essential and unavoidable step, having a degree or a high qualification is not the end of the edu-
cational road for an electrical/electronic engineer; in fact, it is just the beginning of your active learning journey.
Much of this is borne out of necessity. Electrical and electronic engineering is one of the fastest evolving and fiercely
competitive engineering fields, so you will need to be constantly up to date (for example, with IEE wiring regs, and
particularly if you work in the product design and manufacturing sector).
4. Communication Skills
There is barely a profession in the world where the ability to communicate is not important, and electrical and
electronic engineering is no different. Whether it’s understanding the needs and requirements of a client, working
within project teams to develop or improve a piece of hardware/software, or working with other departments and
stakeholders, communication skills are an essential part of the role.
5. Organisational Skills
The ability to organise and manage your time is important for an electrical/electronic engineer, as much of your work
will likely be time-sensitive or project-based, regardless of which area of engineering you specialise in.
6. Numerical Skills
A common issue for electrical and electronic engineering students is that their mathematical background is not strong
enough. Therefore, it is important to focus on mathematics at college or university. Understanding engineering is
extremely difficult without a good knowledge of mathematics.
7. Work Ethic
A strong work ethic is another hugely important part of a successful engineer’s makeup. Therefore, you must be
determined and willing to work until you find a solution to whatever technical problems you encounter in your role.
8. Critical Thinking Skills
Critical thinking is a broad skill that can be applied to a wide array of situations, but it is just as important in electrical
and electronic engineering. Possessing the ability to approach things differently or take a different view to the norm
can make a big difference when you are trying to achieve a certain goal with your project.
9. Creative Thinking Skills
Engineers are not just problem-solvers - they are pioneers. Whether it’s on a grand scale or a simple one, the solutions
they provide change the way we live; therefore, to be able to explore and implement such radical ideas, you need
to be able to think ‘outside the box’. This is especially true in the commercial sector, where electronics giants are
constantly competing to develop new and exciting technologies. You can have all the knowledge in the world, but if
you don’t know how to be creative and explore new possibilities with it, then you’re going to be left behind.
10. Programming Skills
Although the importance of programming is higher in some areas of electrical and electronic engineering than others,
it is still a very useful skill to possess, particularly when working with low-level embedded systems or when analysing
data.

Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock.com

As you can see, the career of an electrical/electronic engineer is demanding. Apart from possessing the requisite
technical knowledge, it is also mandatory for you to incorporate other key soft skills into your employability
repertoire, such as decision-making, leadership and attention to detail. The rewards are high though, with
electrical and electronic engineering one of the highest-paying sectors in the industry.

Hopefully, Bird’s Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology will help you on your first important
steps in a long career in electrical and/or electronic engineering.

There is a lot to learn; stay with it - it will be worth it.

Bird’s Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology

Now in its seventh edition, Bird’s Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology introduces and covers theory
through detailed examples and laboratory experiments, enabling students to gain knowledge required by technicians
in fields such as engineering, electronics, and telecommunications. This edition includes several new sections, includ-
ing glass batteries, climate change, the future of electricity production, and discussions concerning everyday aspects
of electricity, such as watts and lumens, electrical safety, AC vs DC, and trending technologies.
The extensive and thorough topic coverage makes this a great text for a range of level 2 and 3 engineering courses,
which has helped thousands of students succeed in their exams. It is also suitable for BTEC First, National and
Diploma syllabuses, City & Guilds Technician Certificate and Diploma syllabuses, and Foundation Degrees in
engineering.
Its companion website at www.routledge.com/cw/bird provides resources for both students and lecturers, including
full solutions for all 900 further questions, lists of essential formulae, multiple-choice tests and illustrations, as well
as full solutions to revision tests for course instructors.

John Bird, BSc (Hons), CEng, CMath, CSci, FIMA, FIET, FCollT, is the former Head of Applied Electronics in the
Faculty of Technology at Highbury College, Portsmouth, UK. More recently, he has combined freelance lecturing
at the University of Portsmouth, with Examiner responsibilities for Advanced Mathematics with City & Guilds
and examining for the International Baccalaureate Organisation. He has over 45 years’ experience of successfully
teaching, lecturing, instructing, training, educating, and planning trainee engineers study programmes. He is the
author of 146 textbooks on engineering, science, and mathematical subjects, with worldwide sales of over one million
copies. He is a chartered engineer, a chartered mathematician, a chartered scientist and a Fellow of three professional
institutions. He has recently retired from lecturing at the Royal Navy’s Defence College of Marine Engineering in
the Defence College of Technical Training at H.M.S. Sultan, Gosport, Hampshire, UK, one of the largest engineering
training establishments in Europe.
Besides this text, Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology 7th Edition,

other books written by John Bird, and published by Routledge, include:

• Bird’s Basic Engineering Mathematics 8th Edition

• Bird’s Engineering Mathematics 9th Edition

• Bird’s Higher Engineering Mathematics 9th Edition

• Bird’s Comprehensive Engineering Mathematics 2nd Edition

• Mathematics Pocket Book for Engineers and Scientists 5th Edition

• Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology 7th Edition

• Science and Mathematics for Engineering 6th Edition

• Mechanical Engineering Principles 4th Edition

• Mechanics of Solids 3rd Edition

Bird’s Electrical and Electronic Principles
and Technology

Seventh Edition

John Bird
Seventh edition published 2022
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2022 John Bird

The right of John Bird to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Newnes 2000

Sixth edition published by Routledge 2017

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bird, J. O., author.
Title: Bird’s electrical and electronic principles and technology / John
Bird.
Other titles: Electrical and electronic principles and technology |
Electrical and electronic principles and technology
Description: Seventh edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge,
2021. | Revised edition: Electrical and electronic principles and
technology.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020053419 (print) | LCCN 2020053420 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367672379 (hbk) | ISBN 9780367672355 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003130406
(ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Electrical engineering.
Classification: LCC TK146 .B57 2021 (print) | LCC TK146 (ebook) | DDC
621.3–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020053419
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020053420

ISBN: 978-0-367-67237-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-67235-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-13040-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Access the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bird

To Sue
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Contents
Preface xiv 3.8 Electrical power and energy 60
3.9 Summary of terms, units and
their symbols 61
Section 1 Revision of some basic
mathematics 1 4 An introduction to electric circuits 63
4.1 Electrical/electronic system
1 Some mathematics revision 3 block diagrams 64
1.1 Use of calculator and evaluating formulae 3 4.2 Standard symbols for electrical components 65
1.2 Fractions 6 4.3 Electric current and quantity of electricity 65
1.3 Percentages 8 4.4 Potential difference and resistance 66
1.4 Ratio and proportion 10 4.5 Basic electrical measuring instruments 66
1.5 Laws of indices 13 4.6 Linear and non-linear devices 67
1.6 Brackets 15 4.7 Ohm’s law 67
1.7 Solving simple equations 16 4.8 Multiples and sub-multiples 67
1.8 Transposing formulae 18 4.9 Conductors and insulators 69
1.9 Solving simultaneous equations 20 4.10 Electrical power and energy 69
4.11 Main effects of electric current 72
2 Further mathematics revision 22 4.12 Fuses 73
2.1 Radians and degrees 23 4.13 Insulation and the dangers of constant
2.2 Measurement of angles 24 high current flow 73
2.3 Trigonometry revision 25
2.4 Logarithms and exponentials 27
Practical laboratory experiment: Ohm’s law 76
2.5 Straight line graphs 32
2.6 Gradients, intercepts and the equation
Which light bulb to choose? Watts or lumens? 78
of a graph 34
2.7 Practical straight line graphs 36
What uses the most energy in your home? 80
2.8 Calculating areas of common shapes 38

Formulae for revision of some 5 Resistance variation 81

basic mathematics 44 5.1 Resistor construction 81
5.2 Resistance and resistivity 82
Multiple choice questions on 5.3 Temperature coefficient of resistance 84
chapters 1 and 2 46 5.4 Resistor colour coding and ohmic values 86

6 Batteries and alternative sources of energy 90

Section 2 Basic electrical and electronic 6.1 Introduction to batteries 91
engineering principles 53 6.2 Some chemical effects of electricity 91
6.3 The simple cell 92
3 Units associated with basic electrical quantities 55 6.4 Corrosion 93
3.1 SI units 55 6.5 e.m.f. and internal resistance of a cell 93
3.2 Charge 56 6.6 Primary cells 95
3.3 Force 57 6.7 Secondary cells 96
3.4 Work 57 6.8 Lithium-ion batteries 98
3.5 Power 58 6.9 Cell capacity 101
3.6 Electrical potential and e.m.f. 59 6.10 Safe disposal of batteries 101
3.7 Resistance and conductance 59 6.11 Fuel cells 101
x Contents

6.12 Alternative and renewable energy sources 102 9.7 Composite series magnetic circuits 163
6.13 Solar energy 103 9.8 Comparison between electrical and
6.14 Glass batteries 105 magnetic quantities 166
9.9 Hysteresis and hysteresis loss 167
Revision Test 1 109
Revision Test 2 170
Some interesting facts about electricity 110
10 Electromagnetism 171
Where is energy wasted in the home? 112 10.1 Magnetic field due to an electric current 172
10.2 Electromagnets 173
7 Series and parallel networks 114 10.3 Force on a current-carrying conductor 175
7.1 Series circuits 114 10.4 Principle of operation of a simple
7.2 Potential divider 116 d.c. motor 178
7.3 Parallel networks 117 10.5 Principle of operation of a moving-coil
7.4 Current division 120 instrument 178
7.5 Loading effect 124 10.6 Force on a charge 179
7.6 Potentiometers and rheostats 125
7.7 Relative and absolute voltages 127 Why are relays so important in electrical
7.8 Earth potential and short circuits 129
circuits? 182
7.9 Wiring lamps in series and in parallel 129

11 Electromagnetic induction 184

Practical laboratory experiment:
11.1 Introduction to electromagnetic induction 185
Series-parallel d.c. circuit 132 11.2 Laws of electromagnetic induction 186
11.3 Rotation of a loop in a magnetic field 189
8 Capacitors and capacitance 134 11.4 Inductance 190
8.1 Introduction to capacitors 135 11.5 Inductors 192
8.2 Electrostatic field 135 11.6 Energy stored 192
8.3 Electric field strength 136 11.7 Inductance of a coil 193
8.4 Capacitance 136 11.8 Mutual inductance 195
8.5 Capacitors 137
8.6 Electric flux density 138 12 Electrical measuring instruments
and measurements 199
8.7 Permittivity 138
12.1 Introduction 200
8.8 The parallel plate capacitor 140
12.2 Analogue instruments 200
8.9 Capacitors connected in parallel and series 141
12.3 Shunts and multipliers 200
8.10 Dielectric strength 145
12.4 Electronic instruments 202
8.11 Energy stored in capacitors 146
12.5 The ohmmeter 202
8.12 Practical types of capacitor 147
12.6 Multimeters 203
8.13 Supercapacitors 149
12.7 Wattmeters 203
8.14 Discharging capacitors 150
12.8 Instrument ‘loading’ effect 203
12.9 The oscilloscope 205
Electrical safety is essential – electricity 12.10 Virtual test and measuring instruments 210
KILLS …! 153 12.11 Virtual digital storage oscilloscopes 211
12.12 Waveform harmonics 214
9 Magnetic circuits 155 12.13 Logarithmic ratios 215
9.1 Introduction to magnetism and magnetic 12.14 Null method of measurement 218
circuits 156 12.15 Wheatstone bridge 218
9.2 Magnetic fields 157 12.16 d.c. potentiometer 219
9.3 Magnetic flux and flux density 158 12.17 a.c. bridges 220
9.4 Magnetomotive force and magnetic field 12.18 Q-meter 221
strength 158 12.19 Measurement errors 222
9.5 Permeability and B – H curves 159
9.6 Reluctance 162 Are you competent to do electrical work? 227
 Contents xi

What is the difference between electrical and 15.3 The superposition theorem 280
15.4 General d.c. circuit theory 283
electronic devices? 229
15.5 Thévenin’s theorem 285
15.6 Constant-current source 290
13 Semiconductor diodes 230 15.7 Norton’s theorem 290
13.1 Types of material 231
15.8 Thévenin and Norton equivalent networks 293
13.2 Semiconductor materials 231
15.9 Maximum power transfer theorem 296
13.3 Conduction in semiconductor materials 233
13.4 The p–n junction 233
13.5 Forward and reverse bias 234 Practical laboratory experiment:
13.6 Semiconductor diodes 237 Superposition theorem 302
13.7 Characteristics and maximum ratings 238
13.8 Rectification 238 Practical laboratory experiment: Thévenin’s
13.9 Zener diodes 239 theorem 305
13.10 Silicon controlled rectifiers 240
13.11 Light emitting diodes 241
13.12 Varactor diodes 241 16 Alternating voltages and currents 308
13.13 Schottky diodes 241 16.1 Introduction 309
16.2 The a.c. generator 309
14 Transistors 245 16.3 Waveforms 310
14.1 Transistor classification 246
16.4 a.c. values 311
14.2 Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) 246
16.5 Electrical safety – insulation and fuses 315
14.3 Transistor action 247
16.6 The equation of a sinusoidal waveform 315
14.4 Leakage current 248
16.7 Combination of waveforms 317
14.5 Bias and current flow 249
16.8 Rectification 321
14.6 Transistor operating configurations 249
16.9 Smoothing of the rectified output
14.7 Bipolar transistor characteristics 249 waveform 322
14.8 Transistor parameters 251
14.9 Current gain 253
Practical laboratory experiment: Use of an
14.10 Typical BJT characteristics and
maximum ratings 253 oscilloscope to measure voltage, frequency and
14.11 Field effect transistors 254 phase 325
14.12 Field effect transistor characteristics 255
14.13 Typical FET characteristics and Practical laboratory experiment: Use of an
maximum ratings 257
14.14 Transistor amplifiers 257 oscilloscope with a bridge rectifier circuit 327
14.15 Load lines 259
Revision Test 4 328
Revision Test 3 266

Electric shock! 329

Formulae for basic electrical and electronic
principles 267
The war of the currents: AC v DC 331
What does an engineer do? 268

17 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 333

17.1 Purely resistive a.c. circuit 334
Section 3 Further electrical and 17.2 Purely inductive a.c. circuit 334
electronic principles 273 17.3 Purely capacitive a.c. circuit 335
17.4 R–L series a.c. circuit 336
15 d.c. circuit theory 275 17.5 R–C series a.c. circuit 340
15.1 Introduction 275 17.6 R–L–C series a.c. circuit 341
15.2 Kirchhoff’s laws 276 17.7 Series resonance 345
xii Contents

17.8 Q-factor 346 Practical laboratory experiment: Charging

17.9 Bandwidth and selectivity 347
and discharging a capacitor 412
17.10 Power in a.c. circuits 348
17.11 Power triangle and power factor 349
HSE and electrical safety 414
Practical laboratory experiment:
What is electroplating? 416
Measurement of the inductance of a coil 355

21 Operational amplifiers 418

Practical laboratory experiment: Series a.c.
21.1 Introduction to operational amplifiers 419
circuit and resonance 357 21.2 Some op amp parameters 420
21.3 Op amp inverting amplifier 421
18 Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits 359 21.4 Op amp non-inverting amplifier 424
18.1 Introduction 360 21.5 Op amp voltage-follower 424
18.2 R–L parallel a.c. circuit 360 21.6 Op amp summing amplifier 425
18.3 R–C parallel a.c. circuit 361 21.7 Op amp voltage comparator 426
18.4 L–C parallel circuit 362 21.8 Op amp integrator 427
18.5 LR–C parallel a.c. circuit 364 21.9 Op amp differential amplifier 427
18.6 Parallel resonance and Q-factor 367 21.10 Digital to analogue (D/A) conversion 429
18.7 Power factor improvement 371 21.11 Analogue to digital (A/D) conversion 431

Practical laboratory experiment: Parallel a.c. Revision Test 5 434

circuit and resonance 378
Formulae for further electrical and electronic
What everyday items in the home use motors? 380 principles 435

How does a car electrical system work? 381 Section 4 Electrical power technology 437
19 Filter networks 383
19.1 Introduction 383 22 Global climate change and the future of
19.2 Two-port networks and characteristic electricity generation 439
impedance 384 22.1 Introduction 440
19.3 Low-pass filters 384 22.2 Global climate change 440
19.4 High-pass filters 387 22.3 Evidence of rapid climate change 441
19.5 Band-pass filters 391 22.4 Consequences of global climate change 441
19.6 Band-stop filters 392 22.5 How does electric power production
affect the global climate? 442
20 d.c. transients 395 22.6 Generating electrical power using coal 443
20.1 Introduction 396 22.7 Generating electrical power using oil 444
20.2 Charging a capacitor 396 22.8 Generating electrical power using
20.3 Time constant for a C–R circuit 397 natural gas 445
20.4 Transient curves for a C–R circuit 397 22.9 Generating electrical power using
20.5 Discharging a capacitor 401 nuclear energy 446
20.6 Camera flash 403 22.10 Generating electrical power using hydro
20.7 Current growth in an L–R circuit 403 power 448
20.8 Time constant for an L–R circuit 404 22.11 Generating electrical power using
20.9 Transient curves for an L–R circuit 404 pumped storage 449
20.10 Current decay in an L–R circuit 406 22.12 Generating electrical power using wind 450
20.11 Switching inductive circuits 408 22.13 Generating electrical power using tidal
20.12 The effects of time constant on a power 450
rectangular waveform 408 22.14 Generating electrical power using biomass 451
 Contents xiii

22.15 Generating electrical power using solar 25.7 Types of d.c. generator and their
energy 452 characteristics 511
22.16 Harnessing the power of wind, tide and 25.8 d.c. machine losses 515
sun on an ‘energy island’ – a future 25.9 Efficiency of a d.c. generator 515
possibility? 453 25.10 d.c. motors 516
25.11 Torque of a d.c. motor 517
Could we live without electricity? 455 25.12 Types of d.c. motor and their
characteristics 519
23 Three-phase systems 457 25.13 The efficiency of a d.c. motor 522
23.1 Introduction 458 25.14 d.c. motor starter 525
23.2 Three-phase supply 458 25.15 Speed control of d.c. motors 525
23.3 Star connection 458 25.16 Motor cooling 528
23.4 Delta connection 462
26 Three-phase induction motors 531
23.5 Power in three-phase systems 463
26.1 Introduction 532
23.6 Measurement of power in three-phase
26.2 Production of a rotating magnetic field 532
systems 465
26.3 Synchronous speed 534
23.7 Comparison of star and delta connections 470
26.4 Construction of a three-phase induction
23.8 Advantages of three-phase systems 470
motor 535
24 Transformers 473 26.5 Principle of operation of a three-phase
24.1 Introduction 474 induction motor 535
24.2 Transformer principle of operation 474 26.6 Slip 536
24.3 Transformer no-load phasor diagram 477 26.7 Rotor e.m.f. and frequency 537
24.4 e.m.f. equation of a transformer 478 26.8 Rotor impedance and current 538
24.5 Transformer on-load phasor diagram 480 26.9 Rotor copper loss 538
24.6 Transformer construction 481 26.10 Induction motor losses and efficiency 539
24.7 Equivalent circuit of a transformer 482 26.11 Torque equation for an induction
24.8 Regulation of a transformer 484 motor 540
24.9 Transformer losses and efficiency 484 26.12 Induction motor torque–speed
24.10 Resistance matching 487 characteristics 543
24.11 Auto transformers 489 26.13 Starting methods for induction motors 544
24.12 Isolating transformers 491 26.14 Advantages of squirrel-cage
24.13 Three-phase transformers 491 induction motors 544
24.14 Current transformers 493 26.15 Advantages of wound rotor
24.15 Voltage transformers 494 induction motors 545
26.16 Double cage induction motor 545
26.17 Uses of three-phase induction motors 546
Revision Test 6 497

Revision Test 7 549

Ten trending technologies 498

25 d.c. machines 506 Formulae for electrical power technology 550

25.1 Introduction 507
25.2 The action of a commutator 507 Future technology snippets 551
25.3 d.c. machine construction 508
25.4 Shunt, series and compound windings 508 Answers to Practice Exercises 553
25.5 e.m.f. generated in an armature winding 509
25.6 d.c. generators 511 Index 570
Preface
Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology Section 2, comprising chapters 3 to 14, involves essen-
7th Edition introduces the principles which describe the tial basic electrical and electronic engineering prin-
operation of d.c. and a.c. circuits, covering both steady ciples, with chapters on electrical units and quantities,
and transient states, and applies these principles to filter introduction to electric circuits, resistance variation,
networks, operational amplifiers, three-phase supplies, chemical effects of electricity, series and parallel net-
transformers, d.c. machines and three-phase induction works, capacitors and capacitance, magnetic circuits,
motors. electromagnetism, electromagnetic induction, electri-
cal measuring instruments and measurements, semicon-
In this new seventh edition, new material added
ductors diodes and transistors.
includes the development of glass batteries, mention of
the vast topic of global climate change and the future Section 3, comprising chapters 15 to 21, involves fur-
of electricity production, practical laboratory experi- ther electrical and electronic principles, with chap-
ments have been reorganised alongside the topics they ters on d.c. circuit theory, alternating voltages and cur-
are covering, along with other minor modifications. rents, single-phase series and parallel networks, filter
networks, d.c. transients and operational amplifiers.
The text is essentially, as the title suggests, all about the
important principles of electrical and electronic work, Section 4, comprising chapters 22 to 26, involves elec-
and to add too many practical descriptions would have trical power technology, with chapters on global cli-
unduly added to its extent. However, a number of asso- mate change and the future of electricity production,
ciated electrical topics, hopefully of interest and help three-phase systems, transformers, d.c. machines and
to its readers, have been added, each on one or two three-phase induction motors.
pages, some with photographs, adding practical, every-
Each topic considered in the text is presented in a
day aspects of electricity, showing how the principles
way that assumes in the reader little previous knowl-
explained in the text are commonly used.
edge of that topic. Theory is introduced in each chapter
This seventh edition of the textbook provides cover- by a detailed outline of essential information, defini-
age of the latest BTEC syllabuses for Level 2 and 3 tions, formulae, procedures etc. The theory is kept to
National Specifications in Engineering involving Elec- a minimum, for problem solving is extensively used
trical and Electronic Principles, Electrical Technology to establish and exemplify the theory. It is intended
and some Principles and operation of three-phase sys- that readers will gain real understanding through see-
tems. Also, various parts of City & Guilds Technician ing problems solved and then through solving similar
Certificate/Diploma in Electrical and Electronic Engi- problems themselves.
neering/Telecommunication Systems are covered, as is
Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology
‘Electrical and Electronic Principles’ (EAL Advanced
7th Edition contains some 500 worked problems to
Diploma in Engineering and Technology). In fact, the
aid understanding. Also included are over 500 short
text is suitable for any introductory/Access/Foundation
answer questions, the answers for which can be deter-
course involving electrical and electronic engineering
mined from the preceding material in that particular
principles. Included in the text is some important revi-
chapter, together with over 400 multi-choice ques-
sion of the essential mathematics needed for engineer-
tions, and some 900 further questions, arranged in 172
ing.
practice exercises, all with answers at the back of the
The text is set out in four main sections: book. The Practice Exercises appear at regular inter-
vals - every 3 or 4 pages - throughout the text. 627 line
Section 1, comprising chapters 1 and 2, involves revi-
diagrams further enhance the understanding of the the-
sion of some basic mathematics needed for electrical
ory. All of the problems - multi-choice, short answer
and electronic principles.
 Preface xv

and further questions - mirror practical situations found

in electrical and electronic engineering. Free Web downloads
At regular intervals throughout the text are seven revi- The following support material is available from
sion tests to check understanding. For example, revi- http://www.routledge.com/cw/bird
sion test 1 covers material contained in chapters 3 to
6, revision test 2 covers the material contained in chap- For students:
ters 7 to 9, and so on. These revision tests do not have
answers given since it is envisaged that lecturers/in- 1. Full solutions to all 900 further questions in
structors could set the tests for students to attempt as the practice exercises
part of their course structure. Lecturers/instructors may 2. A set of formulae for each of the first four
access a free Internet download of full solutions of the sections of the text
revision tests from the website
http://www.routledge.com/cw/bird 3. Multiple choice question sheets

I am grateful to Mike Tooley for his help and advice in 4. Information on 26 engineers/scientists
the work involved in preparing the previous edition of mentioned in the text
the text.
For Lecturers/Instructors:
A list of relevant formulae is included at the end of each
of the first four sections of the book. 1. Full solutions to all 900 further questions in
the practice exercises
Learning by example is at the heart of Electrical and
Electronic Principles and Technology 7th Edition. 2. Full solutions and marking scheme for each
of the 7 revision tests. Also, each test may be
JOHN BIRD
downloaded.
Formerly Royal Naval Defence College of Marine
and Air Engineering, HMS Sultan, 3. Laboratory experiments. Throughout the
University of Portsmouth text, 10 practical laboratory experiments are
and Highbury College, Portsmouth included. It maybe that tutors will want to edit
these experiments to suit their own equipment/
component availability.
4. A set of formulae for each of the first four
sections of the text
5. Multiple choice question sheets
6. Information on 26 engineers/scientists
mentioned in the text
7. All 627 illustration used in the text may be
downloaded for use in PowerPoint presen-
tations
Taylor & Francis
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 Section 1
Revision of some basic
mathematics
Taylor & Francis
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http://taylorandfrancis.com
 Chapter 1
Some mathematics revision
Why it is important to understand: Some mathematics revision
Mathematics is a vital tool for professional and chartered engineers. It is used in electrical and elec-
tronic engineering, in mechanical and manufacturing engineering, in civil and structural engineering, in
naval architecture and marine engineering and in aeronautical and rocket engineering. In these various
branches of engineering, it is very often much cheaper and safer to design your artefact with the aid of
mathematics – rather than through guesswork. ‘Guesswork’ may be reasonably satisfactory if you are
designing an exactly similar artefact as one that has already proven satisfactory; however, the classifi-
cation societies will usually require you to provide the calculations proving that the artefact is safe and
sound. Moreover, these calculations may not be readily available to you and you may have to provide
fresh calculations, to prove that your artefact is ‘roadworthy’. For example, if you design a tall building
or a long bridge by ‘guesswork’, and the building or bridge do not prove to be structurally reliable, it
could cost you a fortune to rectify the deficiencies. This cost may dwarf the initial estimate you made
to construct these structures, and cause you to go bankrupt. Thus, without mathematics, the prospec-
tive professional or chartered engineer is very severely disadvantaged. Using a calculator, evaluating
formulae, manipulating fractions, understanding and performing calculations with percentages, appre-
ciating ratios and direct and inverse proportion, understanding and using the laws of indices, expanding
equations containing brackets, solving simple equations, transposing formulae and solving simultaneous
equations are all important aspects of early mathematics that may need to be revised.
Knowledge of mathematics provides the basis for all engineering.

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• use a calculator and evaluate formulae
• manipulate fractions
• understand and perform calculations with percentages
• appreciate ratios and direct and inverse proportion
• understand and use the laws of indices
• expand equations containing brackets
• solve simple equations
• transpose formulae
• solve simultaneous equations in two unknowns

arithmetic. However, when numbers are larger an elec-

1.1 Use of calculator and evaluating tronic calculator needs to be used.
formulae In engineering calculations it is essential to have a
scientific notation calculator which will have all the
In engineering, calculations often need to be performed. necessary functions needed, and more. This chap-
For simple numbers it is useful to be able to use mental ter assumes you have a CASIO fx-991ES PLUS
4 Section 1

calculator, or similar. If you can accurately use a cal-

culator, your confidence with engineering calculations 56.43 × 10−3 × 3 × 104
22. Evaluate correct to
will improve. 8.349 × 103
3 decimal places
Check that you can use a calculator in the following
Practice Exercise 99 × 105 × 6.7 × 10−3
23. Evaluate correct to 4
36.2 × 10−4
Practice Exercise 1 Use of calculator significant figures
(Answers on page 553) 4 1
24. Evaluate − as a decimal, correct to 4
5 3
1. Evaluate 378.37−298.651 + 45.64−94.562 decimal places
17.35 × 34.27
2. Evaluate correct to 3 decimal 2 1 3
41.53 ÷ 3.76 25. Evaluate − + as a fraction
places 3 6 7
( )
4.527 + 3.63 5 5
3. Evaluate ( ) + 0.468 correct 26. Evaluate 2 + 1 as a decimal, correct to 4
452.51 ÷ 34.75 6 8
to 5 significant figures significant figures
( )
912.5 ÷ 41.46 6 1
4. Evaluate 52.34 − ( ) correct to 27. Evaluate 5 − 3 as a decimal, correct to 4
24.6 − 13.652 7 8
3 decimal places significant figures
52.14 × 0.347 × 11.23 3 4 2 4
5. Evaluate correct to 4 28. Evaluate × − ÷ as a fraction
19.73 ÷ 3.54 4 5 3 9
significant figures
8 2
6. Evaluate 6.852 correct to 3 decimal places 29. Evaluate 8 ÷ 2 as a mixed number
( )2 9 3
7. Evaluate 0.036 in engineering form 1 1 7
30. Evaluate 3 × 1 − 1 as a decimal, cor-
8. Evaluate 1.33 5 3 10
( )3 rect to 3 decimal places
9. Evaluate 0.38 correct to 4 decimal places ( )
1 2
( )3 4 −1
10. Evaluate 0.018 in engineering form 5 3 2
31. Evaluate ( ) − as a decimal,
1 3 9
11. Evaluate
1
correct to 1 decimal place 3 ×2
0.00725 4 5
correct to 3 significant figures
1 1
12. Evaluate − correct to 4 signifi- In questions 32 to 38, evaluate correct to 4 decimal
0.065 2.341
cant figures places.
13. Evaluate 2.14 32. Evaluate sin 67◦
( )5
14. Evaluate 0.22 correct to 5 significant 33. Evaluate tan 71◦
figures in engineering form 34. Evaluate cos 63.74◦
( )7 35. Evaluate tan 39.55◦ − sin 52.53◦
15. Evaluate 1.012 correct to 4 decimal places
36. Evaluate sin(0.437 rad)
16. Evaluate 1.13 + 2.94 − 4.42 correct to 4 sig-
37. Evaluate tan(5.673 rad)
nificant figures ( )( )
√ sin 42.6◦ tan 83.2◦
17. Evaluate 34528 correct to 2 decimal places 38. Evaluate
√ cos 13.8◦
18. Evaluate 3 17 correct to 3 decimal places
√ √ In questions 39 to 45, evaluate correct to 4 signif-
19. Evaluate 6 2451 − 4 46 correct to 3 decimal
icant figures.
places
39. 1.59π 40. 2.7(π − 1)
Express the answers to questions 20 to 23 in engi-
neering form. (√ )
41. π2 13 − 1 42. 8.5e −2.5
−3
20. Evaluate 5 × 10 × 7 × 10 8

6 × 103 × 14 × 10−4
21. Evaluate
2 × 106
 Some mathematics revision 5

mass 6.45 kg
( ) √[ ] Density = = = 21500 kg/m3
43. 3e 2π−1
5.52π volume 300 × 10−6 m3
44. √
v ( 2e −2 × 26.73
u √ ) 
u 2− 3 Problem 5. The power, P watts, dissipated in an
u e 
45. t √ V2
π × 8.57 electrical circuit is given by the formula P =
R
.
Evaluate the power, correct to 4 significant figures,
given that V = 230 V and R = 35.63 Ω
Evaluation of formulae
V2 (230)2 52900
The statement y = mx + c is called a formula for y in P= = = = 1484.70390 . . .
terms of m, x and c where y, m, x and c are called R 35.63 35.63
symbols. Press ENG and 1.48470390.. × 103 appears on the
When given values of m, x and c we can evaluate y. screen.
There are a large number of formulae used in engineer-
ing and in this section we will insert numbers in place Hence, power, P = 1485 W or 1.485 kW correct to
of symbols to evaluate engineering quantities. 4 significant figures.
Here are some practical examples. Check with your
calculator that you agree with the working and answers. Problem 6. Resistance, R Ω, varies with
temperature according to the formula
Problem 1. In an electrical circuit the voltage V
R = R0 (1 + αt). Evaluate R, correct to 3 significant
is given by Ohm’s law, i.e. V = IR. Find, correct to
figures, given R0 = 14.59, α = 0.0043 and t = 80.
4 significant figures, the voltage when I = 5.36 A
and R = 14.76 Ω
R = R0 (1 + αt) = 14.59[1 + (0.0043)(80)]
V = IR = I × R = 5.36 × 14.76
= 14.59(1 + 0.344) = 14.59(1.344)
Hence, voltage V = 79.11 V, correct to 4 significant
figures Hence, resistance, R = 19.6 Ω, correct to 3 signifi-
cant figures
Problem 2. Velocity v is given by v = u + at. If
u = 9.54 m/s, a = 3.67 m/s2 and t = 7.82 s, find v, Problem 7. The current, I amperes, in an a.c.
correct to 3 significant figures. V
circuit is given by: I = √
(R + X2 )
2

v = u + at = 9.54 + 3.67 × 7.82 Evaluate the current, correct to 2 decimal places,

when V = 250 V, R = 25.0 Ω and X = 18.0 Ω.
= 9.54 + 28.6994 = 38.2394
Hence, velocity v = 38.2 m/s, correct to 3 significant V 250
I= √ = √( ) = 8.11534341 . . . . . .
figures 2 2
(R +X ) 25.02 +18.02
Problem 3. The area, A, of a circle is given by Hence, current, I = 8.12 A, correct to 2 decimal
A = πr2 . Determine the area correct to 2 decimal places
places, given radius r = 5.23 m
Now try the following Practice Exercise
2 2
A = πr = π(5.23) = π(27.3529)
Practice Exercise 2 Evaluation of formulae
Hence, area, A = 85.93 m2 , correct to 2 decimal
(Answers on page 553)
places
1. The area A of a rectangle is given by the
mass formula A = l × b. Evaluate the area, correct
Problem 4. Density = . Find the density
volume to 2 decimal places, when l = 12.4 cm and
when the mass is 6.45 kg and the volume is b = 5.37 cm.
300 × 10−6 m3 .
6 Section 1

2. The circumference C of a circle is given by 12. The potential difference, V volts, available
the formula C = 2πr. Determine the circum- at battery terminals is given by V = E − Ir.
ference, correct to 2 decimal places, given Evaluate V when E = 5.62, I = 0.70 and
r = 8.40 mm. R = 4.30
3. A formula used in connection with gases is 13. The current I amperes flowing in a number
PV nE
R= . Evaluate R when P = 1500, V = 5 of cells is given by I = . Evaluate the
T R + nr
and T = 200. current, correct to 3 significant figures, when
4. The velocity of a body is given by v = u + at. n = 36. E = 2.20, R = 2.80 and r = 0.50
The initial velocity u is measured when time 14. Energy, E joules, is given by the formula
t is 15 seconds and found to be 12 m/s. If the
1
acceleration a is 9.81 m/s2 calculate the final E = LI2 . Evaluate the energy when
velocity v. 2
L = 5.5 H and I = 1.2 A.
5. Calculate the current I in an electrical
15. The current I amperes in an a.c. circuit
circuit, correct to 3 significant figures, when
V
I = V/R amperes when the voltage V is is given by I = √ . Evaluate the
measured and found to be 7.2 V and the (R + X2 )
2

resistance R is 17.7 Ω. current, correct to 4 significant figures, when

1 V = 250 V, R = 11.0 Ω and X = 16.2 Ω.
6. Find the distance s, given that s = gt2 .
2
Time t = 0.032 seconds and acceleration due
to gravity g = 9.81 m/s2 . Give the answer 1.2 Fractions
in millimetres correct to 3 significant
figures. 2
An example of a fraction is where the top line, i.e. the
3
7. The energy stored in a capacitor is given 2, is referred to as the numerator and the bottom line,
1 i.e. the 3, is referred to as the denominator.
by E = CV2 joules. Determine the energy
2 A proper fraction is one where the numerator
when capacitance C = 5 × 10−6 farads and is smaller than the denominator, examples being
voltage V = 240 V. 2 1 3 5
, , , , and so on.
8. Find the area A of a triangle, correct to 1 dec- 3 2 8 16
1 An improper fraction is one where the denomina-
imal place, given A = bh, when the base tor is smaller than the numerator, examples being
2 3 2 8 16
length b is 23.42 m and the height h is 53.7 m. , , , , and so on.
2 1 3 5
9. Resistance R2 is given by R2 = R1 (1 + αt). Addition of fractions is demonstrated in the following
Find R2 , correct to 4 significant figures, worked problems.
when R1 = 220, α = 0.00027 and t = 75.6
mass 1 1
10. Density = . Find the density, correct Problem 8. Evaluate A, given A = +
volume 2 3
to 4 significant figures, when the mass is
2.462 kg and the volume is 173 cm3 . Give The lowest common denominator of the two denomina-
the answer in units of kg/m3 . Note that tors 2 and 3 is 6, i.e. 6 is the lowest number that both 2
1 cm3 = 10−6 m3 . and 3 will divide into.
1 3 1 2 1 1
11. Evaluate resistance RT , correct to 4 signif- Then = and = i.e. both and have the
1 1 1 1 2 6 3 6 2 3
icant figures, given = + + common denominator, namely 6.
RT R1 R2 R3
The two fractions can therefore be added as:
when R1 = 5.5 Ω, R2 = 7.42 Ω and
1 1 3 2 3+2 5
R3 = 12.6 Ω. A= + = + = =
2 3 6 6 6 6
 Some mathematics revision 7

2 3 1 2
Problem 9. Evaluate A, given A = + Problem 12. Evaluate + using a calculator
3 4 4 3

A common denominator can be obtained by multiply- □

(i) Press function
ing the two denominators together, i.e. the common □
denominator is 3 × 4 = 12. (ii) Type in 1
The two fractions can now be made equivalent, (iii) Press ↓ on the cursor key and type in 4
2 8 3 9
i.e. = and = 1
3 12 4 12 (iv) appears on the screen
so that they can be easily added together, as follows: 4
(v) Press → on the cursor key and type in +
2 3 8 9 8 + 9 17
A= + = + = = □
3 4 12 12 12 12 (vi) Press function
2 3 5 □
i.e. A = + = 1 (vii) Type in 2
3 4 12
(viii) Press ↓ on the cursor key and type in 3
1 2 3
Problem 10. Evaluate A, given A = + + (ix) Press → on the cursor key
6 7 2 11
(x) Press = and the answer appears
A suitable common denominator can be obtained by 12
(xi) Press S ⇔ D function and the fraction changes
multiplying 6 × 7 = 42, and all three denominators
to a decimal 0.9166666….
divide exactly into 42.
1 7 2 12 3 63 1 2 11
Thus, = , = and = Thus, + = = 0.9167 as a decimal, correct
6 42 7 42 2 42 4 3 12
to 4 decimal places
1 2 3 7 12 63
Hence, A= + + = + +
6 7 2 42 42 42
It is also possible to deal with mixed numbers on the
7 + 12 + 63 82 41 calculator.
= = = □ □
42 42 21 Press Shift then the function and □ appears
□ □
1 2 3 20
i.e. A= + + =1
6 7 2 21 1 3
Problem 13. Evaluate 5 − 3 using a
5 4
Problem 11. Determine A as a single fraction, calculator
1 2
given A = +
x y □ □
(i) Press Shift then the function and □
□ □
A common denominator can be obtained by multiplying appears on the screen
the two denominators together, i.e. xy (ii) Type in 5 then → on the cursor key
1 y 2 2x (iii) Type in 1 and ↓ on the cursor key
Thus, = and =
x xy y xy 1
(iv) Type in 5 and 5 appears on the screen
1 2 y 2x y + 2x 5
Hence, A= + = + i.e. A = (v) Press → on the cursor key
x y xy xy xy
□
(vi) Type in − and then press Shift then the
□
Note that addition, subtraction, multiplication and divi- 1 □
function and 5 − □ appears on the screen
sion of fractions may be determined using a calculator. 5 □
□ □ (vii) Type in 3 then → on the cursor key
Locate the and □ functions on your calculator
□ □ (viii) Type in 3 and ↓ on the cursor key
(the latter function is a shift function found above the 1 3
□ (ix) Type in 4 and 5 − 3 appears on the screen
function) and then check the following worked 5 4
□ 29
problems. (x) Press = and the answer appears
20
8 Section 1

9
(xi) Press shift and then S ⇔ D function and 1 Problem 15. Express 17.5% as a decimal number
20
appears
(xii) Press S ⇔ D function and the fraction changes 17.5
17.5% = = 0.175
to a decimal 1.45 100
1 3 29 9
Thus, 5 − 3 = = 1 = 1.45 as a decimal 5
5 4 20 20 Problem 16. Express as a percentage
8

Now try the following Practice Exercise 5 5 500

= × 100% = % = 62.5%
8 8 8
Practice Exercise 3 Fractions (Answers on
page 553) Problem 17. In two successive tests a student
gains marks of 57/79 and 49/67. Is the second mark
In problems 1 to 3, evaluate the given fractions. better or worse than the first?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1. + 2. + 3. + − 57 57 5700
3 4 5 4 6 2 5 57/79 = = × 100% = % = 72.15%
79 79 79
In problems 4 and 5, use a calculator to evaluate correct to 2 decimal places.
the given expressions.
49 49 4900
1 3 8 3 4 2 4 49/67 = = × 100% = % = 73.13%
4. − × 5. × − ÷ 67 67 6
3 4 21 4 5 3 9
correct to 2 decimal places.
3 5 1
6. Evaluate + − as a decimal, correct to 4 Hence, the second test mark is marginally better
8 6 2
decimal places. than the first test.
This question demonstrates how much easier it is to
8 2
7. Evaluate 8 ÷ 2 as a mixed number. compare two fractions when they are expressed as per-
9 3 centages.
1 1 7
8. Evaluate 3 × 1 − 1 as a decimal, cor- Problem 18. Express 75% as a fraction
5 3 10
rect to 3 decimal places.
75 3
2 3 75% = =
9. Determine + as a single fraction. 100 4
x y
75
The fraction is reduced to its simplest form by
100
1.3 Percentages cancelling, i.e. dividing numerator and denominator
by 25.
Percentages are used to give a common standard. The
use of percentages is very common in many aspects Problem 19. Express 37.5% as a fraction
of commercial life, as well as in engineering. Interest
rates, sale reductions, pay rises, exams and VAT are all 37.5
37.5% =
examples where percentages are used. 100
Percentages are fractions having 100 as their denom- 375
inator. = by multiplying numerator and
40 1000
For example, the fraction is written as 40% and is denominator by 10
100
read as ‘forty per cent’. 15
The easiest way to understand percentages is to go = by dividing numerator and
40
through some worked examples.
denominator by 25
Problem 14. Express 0.275 as a percentage 3
= by dividing numerator and
8
0.275 = 0.275 × 100% = 27.5% denominator by 5
 Some mathematics revision 9

Now try the following Practice Exercise

Problem 20. Find 27% of £65

27 Practice Exercise 4 Percentages (Answers

27% of £65 = × 65 = £17.55 by calculator on page 553)
100
In problems 1 and 2, express the given numbers as
Problem 21. A 160 GB iPod is advertised as percentages.
costing £190 excluding VAT. If VAT is added at
20%, what will be the total cost of the iPod? 1. 0.057 2. 0.374
20 3. Express 20% as a decimal number
VAT = 20% of £190 = × 190 = £38
100 11
Total cost of iPod = £190 + £38 = £228 4. Express as a percentage
16
5
A quicker method to determine the total cost is: 5. Express as a percentage, correct to 3 dec-
1.20 × £190 = £228 13
imal places
Problem 22. Express 23 cm as a percentage of 6. Place the following in order of size, the small-
72 cm, correct to the nearest 1% est first, expressing each as percentages, cor-
12 9 5
rect to 1 decimal place: (a) (b) (c)
23 21 17 9
23 cm as a percentage of 72 cm = × 100% 6
72 (d)
11
= 31.94444 . . . . . . %
7. Express 65% as a fraction in its simplest form
= 32% correct to the
8. Calculate 43.6% of 50 kg
nearest 1%
9. Determine 36% of 27 m
Problem 23. A box of screws increases in price 10. Calculate correct to 4 significant figures:
from £45 to £52. Calculate the percentage change (a) 18% of 2758 tonnes (b) 47% of 18.42
in cost, correct to 3 significant figures. grams (c) 147% of 14.1 seconds
11. Express: (a) 140 kg as a percentage of 1 t
new value − original value (b) 47 s as a percentage of 5 min
% change = × 100%
original value (c) 13.4 cm as a percentage of 2.5 m
52 − 45 7 12. A computer is advertised on the internet at
= × 100% = × 100
45 45 £520, exclusive of VAT. If VAT is payable at
= 15.6% = percentage change in cost 20%, what is the total cost of the computer?
13. Express 325 mm as a percentage of 867 mm,
Problem 24. A drilling speed should be set to correct to 2 decimal places.
400 rev/min. The nearest speed available on the
machine is 412 rev/min. Calculate the percentage 14. When signing a new contract, a Premiership
over-speed. footballer’s pay increases from £15,500 to
£21,500 per week. Calculate the percentage
pay increase, correct 3 significant figures.
available speed−correct speed
% over-speed = ×100% 15. A metal rod 1.80 m long is heated and its
correct speed
length expands by 48.6 mm. Calculate the
412−400 12 percentage increase in length.
= ×100%= ×100% = 3%
400 400
16. A production run produces 4200 components
of which 97% are reliable. Calculate the num-
ber of unreliable components.
10 Section 1

Hence, 2.08 m divides in the ratio of 7:19 as 56 cm to

1.4 Ratio and proportion 152 cm
(Check: 56 + 152 must add up to 208, otherwise an
Ratios error would have been made.)
Ratio is a way of comparing amounts of something; it
shows how much bigger one thing is than the other. Problem 28. Express 45 p as a ratio of £7.65 in
Ratios are generally shown as numbers separated by a its simplest form.
colon ( : ) so the ratio of 2 and 7 is written as 2:7 and
we read it as a ratio of ‘two to seven’. Changing both quantities to the same units, i.e. to pence,
Here are some worked examples to help us understand gives a ratio of 45:765
more about ratios. Dividing both quantities by 5 gives: 45 : 765 ≡ 9 : 153
Dividing both quantities by 3 gives: 9 : 153 ≡ 3 : 51
Dividing both quantities by 3 again gives:
Problem 25. In a class, the ratio of female to
3 : 51 ≡ 1 : 17
male students is 6:27. Reduce the ratio to its
Thus, 45p as a ratio of £7.65 is 1:17
simplest form.
45:765, 9:153, 3:51 and 1:17 are equivalent ratios and
1:17 is the simplest ratio
Both 6 and 27 can be divided by 3
Thus, 6:27 is the same as 2:9 Problem 29. A glass contains 30 ml of whisky
which is 40% alcohol. If 45 ml of water is added
6:27 and 2:9 are called equivalent ratios.
and the mixture stirred, what is now the alcohol
It is normal to express ratios in their lowest, or simplest, content?
form. In this example, the simplest form is 2:9 which
means for every 2 female students in the class there are The 30 ml of whisky contains 40% alcohol
40
9 male students. = × 30 = 12 ml
100
After 45 ml of water is added we have 30 + 45 = 75 ml
Problem 26. A gear wheel having 128 teeth is in
of fluid of which alcohol is 12 ml
mesh with a 48 tooth gear. What is the gear ratio?
12
Fraction of alcohol present =
Gear ratio = 128 : 48 75
12
A ratio can be simplified by finding common factors. Percentage of alcohol present = × 100% = 16%
75
128 and 48 can both be divided by 2, i.e. 128:48 is the
same as 64:24
Now try the following Practice Exercise
64 and 24 can both be divided by 8, i.e. 64:24 is the
same as 8:3
There is no number that divides completely into both Practice Exercise 5 Ratios (Answers on page
8 and 3 so 8:3 is the simplest ratio, i.e. the gear ratio 553)
is 8:3 1. In a box of 333 paper clips, 9 are defec-
128:48 is equivalent to 64:24 which is equivalent to 8:3 tive. Express the non-defective paper clips
8:3 is the simplest form. as a ratio of the defective paper clips, in its
simplest form.
Problem 27. A wooden pole is 2.08 m long. 2. A gear wheel having 84 teeth is in mesh with
Divide it in the ratio of 7 to 19. a 24 tooth gear. Determine the gear ratio in its
simplest form.
Since the ratio is 7:19, the total number of parts is 3. A metal pipe 3.36 m long is to be cut into two
7 + 19 = 26 parts in the ratio 6 to 15. Calculate the length of
26 parts corresponds to 2.08 m = 208 cm, hence, 1 part each piece.
208
corresponds to =8 4. In a will, £6440 is to be divided between three
26
Thus, 7 parts corresponds to 7 × 8 = 56 cm, beneficiaries in the ratio 4:2:1. Calculate the
and 19 parts corresponds to 19 × 8 = 152 cm amount each receives.
 Some mathematics revision 11

(a) Stress is directly proportional to strain.

5. A local map has a scale of 1:22,500. The dis- When the stress is 63 MPa, the strain is 0.0003,
tance between two motorways is 2.7 km. How hence a stress of 1 MPa corresponds to a strain of
far are they apart on the map? 0.0003
63
6. Express 130 g as a ratio of 1.95 kg
and the value of strain when the stress is 42 MPa
7. In a laboratory, acid and water are mixed in the 0.0003
ratio 2:5. How much acid is needed to make = × 42 = 0.0002
63
266 ml of the mixture?
(b) If when the strain is 0.0003, the stress is 63 MPa,
8. A glass contains 30 ml of gin which is 40% 63
then a strain of 0.0001 corresponds to MPa
alcohol. If 18 ml of water is added and the 3
mixture stirred, determine the new percentage and the value of stress when the strain is 0.00072
alcoholic content. 63
= × 7.2 = 151.2 MPa
9. A wooden beam 4 m long weighs 84 kg. 3
Determine the mass of a similar beam that is
Problem 33. Ohm’s law state that the current
60 cm long.
flowing in a fixed resistance is directly proportional
10. An alloy is made up of metals P and Q in the to the applied voltage. When 90 mV is applied
ratio 3.25:1 by mass. How much of P has to across a resistor the current flowing is 3 A.
be added to 4.4 kg of Q to make the alloy. Determine (a) the current when the voltage is
60 mV (b) the voltage when the current is 4.2 A.

(a) Current is directly proportional to the voltage.

Direct proportion
When voltage is 90 mV, the current is 3 A,
Two quantities are in direct proportion when they hence a voltage of 1 mV corresponds to a current
increase or decrease in the same ratio. 3
of A
Here are some worked examples to help us understand 90
more about direct proportion. and when the voltage is 60 mV,
3
the current = 60 × =2A
Problem 30. 3 energy saving light bulbs cost 90
£7.80. Determine the cost of 7 such light bulbs. (b) Voltage is directly proportional to the current.
When current is 3 A, the voltage is 90 mV,
If 3 light bulbs cost £7.80 hence a current of 1 A corresponds to a voltage of
7.80 90
then 1 light bulb cost = £2.60 mV = 30 mV
3 3
Hence, 7 light bulbs cost 7 × £2.60 = £18.20
and when the current is 4.2 A,
the voltage = 30 × 4.2 = 126 mV
Problem 31. If 56 litres of petrol costs £65.52,
calculate the cost of 32 litres.
Now try the following Practice Exercise
If 56 litres of petrol costs £65.52
65.52 Practice Exercise 6 Direct proportion
then 1 litre of petrol costs = £1.17 (Answers on page 554)
56
Hence, 32 litres cost 32 × 1.17 = £37.44 1. Three engine parts cost £208.50. Calculate the
cost of 8 such parts.
Problem 32. Hooke’s law states that stress, σ, is 2. If 9 litres of gloss white paint costs £24.75,
directly proportional to strain, ε, within the elastic calculate the cost of 24 litres of the same paint.
limit of a material. When, for mild steel, the stress
3. The total mass of 120 household bricks is
is 63 MPa, the strain is 0.0003. Determine (a) the
57.6 kg. Determine the mass of 550 such
value of strain when the stress is 42 MPa (b) the
bricks.
value of stress when the strain is 0.00072
12 Section 1

4
Hence, 3 designers would take years, i.e. 1 year 4
4. Hooke’s law states that stress is directly pro- 3
portional to strain within the elastic limit of months
a material. When, for copper, the stress is
60 MPa, the strain is 0.000625. Determine Problem 35. A team of five people can deliver
(a) the strain when the stress is 24 MPa, and leaflets to every house in a particular area in four
(b) the stress when the strain is 0.0005. hours. How long will it take a team of three
people?
5. Charles’s law states that volume is directly
proportional to thermodynamic temperature
for a given mass of gas at constant pressure. A If 5 people take 4 hours to deliver the leaflets, then 1
gas occupies a volume of 4.8 litres at 330 K. person would take 5 × 4 = 20 hours
Determine (a) the temperature when the vol- 20 2
Hence, 3 people would take hours, i.e. 6 hours, i.e.
ume is 6.4 litres, and (b) the volume when the 3 3
6 hours 40 minutes
temperature is 396 K.
6. Ohm’s law states that current is proportional Problem 36. The electrical resistance R of a
to p.d. in an electrical circuit. When a p.d. of piece of wire is inversely proportional to the
60 mV is applied across a circuit a current of cross-sectional area A. When A = 5 mm2 ,
24 µA flows. Determine: R = 7.2 ohms.
(a) the current flowing when the p.d. is 5 V,
Determine (a) the coefficient of proportionality
and
and (b) the cross-sectional area when the resistance
(b) the p.d. when the current is 10 mA
is 4 ohms.
7. If 2.2 lb = 1 kg, and 1 lb = 16 oz, determine
the number of pounds and ounces in 38 kg 1 k
(a) Rα i.e. R = or k = RA. Hence, when R = 7.2
(correct to the nearest ounce). A A
and A = 5, the coefficient of proportionality,
8. If 1 litre = 1.76 pints, and 8 pints = 1 gal-
lon, determine (a) the number of litres in 35 k = (7.2)(5) = 36
gallons, and (b) the number of gallons in 75 k
(b) Since k = RA then A =
litres. R
When R = 4, the cross sectional area,
Inverse proportion 36
A= = 9 mm2
4
Two variables, x and y, are in inverse proportion to one
1
another if y is proportional to , Problem 37. Boyle’s law states that at constant
x
1 k temperature, the volume V of a fixed mass of gas is
i.e. y α or y = or k = xy where k is a constant,
x x inversely proportional to its absolute pressure p. If a
called the coefficient of proportionality. gas occupies a volume of 0.08 m3 at a pressure of
Inverse proportion means that as the value of one vari- 1.5 × 106 pascals, determine (a) the coefficient of
able increases, the value of another decreases, and that proportionality and (b) the volume if the pressure is
their product is always the same. changed to 4 × 106 pascals.
Here are some worked examples on inverse proportion.
1 k
Problem 34. It is estimated that a team of four (a) Vα i.e. V = or k = pV
p p
designers would take a year to develop an
engineering process. How long would three Hence, the coefficient of proportionality,
designers take? k = (1.5 × 106 )(0.08) = 0.12 × 106
k 0.12 × 106
If 4 designers take 1 year, then 1 designer would take 4 (b) Volume, V = = = 0.03 m3
p 4 × 106
years to develop the process.
 Some mathematics revision 13

Now try the following Practice Exercise am

More generally, = am−n
an
Practice Exercise 7 Further inverse c5
For example, = c5−2 = c3
proportion (Answers on page 554) c2

Law 3: When a number which is raised to a

1. A 10 kg bag of potatoes lasts for a week with a
power is raised to a further power, the indices are
family of 7 people. Assuming all eat the same
multiplied.
amount, how long will the potatoes last if there
were only two in the family? ( 2 )3
For example, 2 = 22×3 = 26
2. If 8 men take 5 days to build a wall, how long ( 4 )2
would it take 2 men? and 3 = 34×2 = 38
3. If y is inversely proportional to x and y = 15.3 More generally, (am )n = amn
when x = 0.6, determine (a) the coefficient of ( 2 )5
proportionality, (b) the value of y when x is For example, d = d2×5 = d10
1.5, and (c) the value of x when y is 27.2
Law 4: When a number has an index of 0, its value
4. A car travelling at 50 km/h makes a journey in is 1.
70 minutes. How long will the journey take at
70 km/h? For example, 30 = 1

5. Boyle’s law states that for a gas at con- and 170 = 1

stant temperature, the volume of a fixed mass More generally, a0 = 1
of gas is inversely proportional to its abso-
lute pressure. If a gas occupies a volume of Law 5: A number raised to a negative power is the
1.5 m3 at a pressure of 200 × 103 Pascals, reciprocal of that number raised to a positive power.
determine (a) the constant of proportionality, 1 1
(b) the volume when the pressure is 800 × 103 For example, 3−4 = and = 23
34 2−3
Pascals and (c) the pressure when the volume
1
is 1.25 m3 More generally, a−n =
an
1
For example, a−2 =
1.5 Laws of indices a2
Law 6: When a number is raised to a fractional
The manipulation of indices, powers and roots is a
power the denominator of the fraction is the root of
crucial underlying skill needed in algebra.
the number and the numerator is the power.
2 √3
Law 1: When multiplying two or more num- For example, 8 3 = 82 = (2)2 = 4
bers having the same base, the indices are added. 1 √2
√
and 25 2 = 251 = 251
22 × 23 = 22+3 = 25 √ √
For example, = ±5 (Note that ≡ 2 )
and 54 × 52 × 53 = 54+2+3 = 59 m √
More generally, a n = n am
More generally, am × an = am+n 4
√3
For example, x 3 = x4
For example, a3 × a4 = a3+4 = a7

Law 2: When dividing two numbers having the same

Problem 38. Evaluate in index form 53 × 5 × 52
base, the index in the denominator is subtracted
from the index in the numerator.
53 × 5 × 52 = 53 × 51 × 52 (Note that 5 means 51 )
25
For example, = 25−3 = 22 = 53+1+2 = 56 from law 1
23
78
and = 78−5 = 73
75
14 Section 1

35 Problem 45. Evaluate (a) 41/2 (b) 163/4 (c) 272/3

Problem 39. Evaluate 1
34 −
(d) 9 2
35
From law 2: = 35−4 = 31 = 3 √ √
34 41 = 4 = ±2
2
(a) 41/2 =
√4
24 (b) 163/4 = 163 = (2)3 = 8
Problem 40. Evaluate (Note that it does not matter whether the 4th root of
24
16 is found first or whether 16 cubed is found first
– the same answer will result)
24 √
= 24−4 from law 2 3
(c) 272/3 = 272 = (3)2 = 9
24
= 20 = 1 from law 4 1
− 1 1 1 1
(d) 9 2= =√ = =±
1 9 ±3 3
Any number raised to the power of zero equals 1 9 2

3 × 32 Problem 46. Simplify a2 b3 c × ab2 c5

Problem 41. Evaluate
34 a2 b3 c × ab2 c5 = a2 × b3 × c × a × b2 × c5
3 × 32 31 × 32 31+2 33 = a2 × b3 × c1 × a1 × b2 × c5
4
= 4
= 4 = 4 = 33−4 = 3−1 from
3 3 3 3
Grouping together like terms gives:
laws 1 and 2
1 a2 × a1 × b3 × b2 × c1 × c5
= from law 5 Using law 1 of indices gives:
3
a2+1 × b3+2 × c1+5 = a3 × b5 × c6
103 × 102 i.e. a2 b3 c × ab2 c5 = a3 b5 c6
Problem 42. Evaluate
108
x5 y2 z
Problem 47. Simplify
10 × 10
3 2
10 3+2
10 5
x2 y z3
= = 8 from law 1
108 108 10
x5 y2 z x5 × y2 × z x5 y2 z
= 105−8 = 10−3 from law 2 = 2 = 2× 1× 3
2
x yz 3 x ×y×z 3 x y z
1 1
= +3
= from law 5 = x5−2 × y2−1 × z1−3 by law 2
10 1000
x3 y
103 × 102 1 = x3 × y1 × z−2 = x3 y z−2 or by law 5
Hence, = 10−3 = = 0.001 z2
108 1000
Now try the following Practice Exercise
Problem 43. Simplify: (a) (23 )4 (b) (32 )5
expressing the answers in index form.
Practice Exercise 8 Laws of indices
3 4 3×4 12 (Answers on page 554)
From law 3: (a) (2 ) = 2 =2
(b) (32 )5 = 32×5 = 310 In questions 1 to 18, evaluate without the aid of a
calculator.
(102 )3
Problem 44. Evaluate: 1. Evaluate 22 × 2 × 24
104 × 102
2. Evaluate 35 × 33 × 3 in index form
(102 )3 10(2×3) 106
From laws 1, 2, and 3: 4 = (4+2) = 6 = 27 33
10 × 10 2 10 10 3. Evaluate 4. Evaluate
106−6 = 100 = 1 from law 4 23 35
 Some mathematics revision 15

Problem 48. Expand the bracket to determine A,

5. Evaluate 70 23 × 2 × 26
6. Evaluate given A = a(b + c + d)
10 × 106 27
7. Evaluate
105 8. Evaluate 104 ÷ 10 Multiplying each term in the bracket by ‘a’ gives:
103 × 104 A = a(b + c + d) = ab + ac + ad
9. Evaluate
109
Problem 49. Expand the brackets to determine
10. Evaluate 56 × 52 ÷ 57
A, given A = a[b(c + d) − e(f − g)]
11. Evaluate (72 )3 in index form
12. Evaluate (33 )2 When there is more than one set of brackets the inner-
most brackets are multiplied out first. Hence,
37 × 34
13. Evaluate in index form A = a[b(c + d) − e(f − g)] = a[bc + bd − ef + eg]
35
(9 × 3 )
2 3
(16 × 4)2 Note that − e × −g = +eg
14. Evaluate 15. Evaluate
(3 × 27)2 (2 × 8)3
Now multiplying each term in the square brackets by
5−2 32 × 3−4 ‘a’ gives:
16. Evaluate −4 17. Evaluate
5 33 A = abc + abd − aef + aeg
72 × 7−3
18. Evaluate
7 × 7−4 Problem 50. Expand the brackets to determine
In problems 19 to 36, simplify the following, giv- A, given A = a[b(c + d − e) − f(g − h{j − k})]
ing each answer as a power:
The inner brackets are determined first, hence
19. z2 × z6 20. a × a2 × a5
A = a[b(c + d − e) − f(g − h{j − k})]
21. n8 × n−5 22. b4 × b7 = a[b(c + d − e) − f(g − hj + h)]
23. b2 ÷ b5 24. c5 × c3 ÷ c4 = a[bc + bd − be − fg + fhj − fhk]
m5 × m6 (x2 )(x)
25. 26. i.e. A = abc + abd − abe − afg + afhj − afhk
m4 × m3 x6
( 3 )4 ( 2 )−3
27. x 28. y Problem 51. Evaluate A, given
( )2 ( )−2 A = 2[3(6 − 1)− 4(7{2 + 5} − 6)]
29. t × t3 30. c−7
( )3 ( )4 A = 2[3(6 − 1) − 4(7{2 + 5} − 6)]
a2 1
31. 32. = 2[3(6 − 1) − 4(7 × 7 − 6)]
a5 b3
( )−2 1 = 2[3 × 5 − 4 × 43]
b2 34. ( )3
33. s3 = 2[15 − 172] = 2[−157] = −314
b7
x3 y2 z Now try the following Practice Exercise
35. p3 qr2 ×p2 q5 r×pqr2 36.
x5 y z3
Practice Exercise 9 Brackets (Answers on
page 554)
1.6 Brackets
The use of brackets, which are used in many engi- In problems 1 and 2, evaluate A.
neering equations, is explained through the following 1. A = 3(2 + 1 + 4)
worked problems.
2. A = 4[5(2 + 1) − 3(6 − 7)]
16 Section 1

Expand the brackets in problems 3 to 7. Problem 55. Solve the equation: x + 3 = 7

3. 2(x − 2y + 3) Subtracting 3 from both sides gives: x + 3 − 3 = 7 − 3

4. (3x − 4y) + 3(y − z) − (z − 4x) i.e. x = 7−3
i.e. x=4
5. 2x + [y − (2x + y)]
which is the solution of the equation x + 3 = 7
6. 24a − [2{3(5a − b) − 2(a + 2b)} + 3b] Note that subtracting 3 from both sides of the above
7. ab[c + d − e(f − g + h{i + j})] equation results in the ‘+3’ moving from the LHS to
the RHS, but the sign is changed to ‘−’
So we can move straight from x + 3 = 7 to: x = 7 − 3
Thus a term can be moved from one side of an equation
1.7 Solving simple equations to the other as long as a change in sign is made.
To ‘solve an equation’ means ‘to find the value of the
unknown’. Problem 56. Solve the equation: 6x + 1 = 2x + 9
Here are some examples to demonstrate how simple
equations are solved. In such equations the terms containing x are grouped
on one side of the equation and the remaining terms
Problem 52. Solve the equation: 4x = 20 grouped on the other side of the equation. As in Prob-
lems 54 and 55, changing from one side of an equation
4x 20 to the other must be accompanied by a change of sign.
Dividing each side of the equation by 4 gives: =
4 4 Since 6x + 1 = 2x + 9
i.e. x = 5 by cancelling then 6x − 2x = 9 − 1
which is the solution to the equation 4x = 20 i.e. 4x = 8
The same operation must be applied to both sides of an 4x 8
equation so that the equality is maintained. Dividing both sides by 4 gives: =
4 4
We can do anything we like to an equation, as long as
Cancelling gives: x=2
we do the same to both sides.
which is the solution of the equation 6x + 1 = 2x + 9
2x
Problem 53. Solve the equation: =6
5 In the above examples, the solutions can be checked.
( ) Thus, in problem 56, where 6x + 1 = 2x + 9, if x = 2
2x then:
Multiplying both sides by 5 gives: 5 = 5(6)
5 LHS of equation = 6(2) + 1 = 13
Cancelling and removing brackets gives: 2x = 30
RHS of equation = 2(2) + 9 = 13
Dividing both sides of the equation by 2 gives:
2x 30
= Since the left hand side equals the right hand side then
2 2 x = 2 must be the correct solution of the equation.
Cancelling gives: x = 15 When solving simple equations, always check your
2x
which is the solution of the equation =6 answers by substituting your solution back into the
5
original equation.
Problem 54. Solve the equation: a − 5 = 8
Problem 57. Solve the equation: 3(x − 2) = 9
Adding 5 to both sides of the equation gives:
a−5+5 = 8+5 Removing the bracket gives: 3x − 6 = 9
i.e. a = 8+5 Rearranging gives: 3x = 9 + 6
i.e. a = 13 i.e. 3x = 15
which is the solution of the equation a − 5 = 8 Dividing both sides by 3 gives: x = 5
Note that adding 5 to both sides of the above equation which is the solution of the equation 3(x − 2) = 9
results in the ‘−5’ moving from the LHS to the RHS, The equation may be checked by substituting x = 5
but the sign is changed to ‘+’ back into the original equation.
 Some mathematics revision 17

Cancelling gives: 4(2y) + 5(3) + 100 = 1 − 10(3y)

Problem 58. Solve the equation:
i.e. 8y + 15 + 100 = 1 − 30y
4(2r − 3) − 2(r − 4) = 3(r − 3) − 1 Rearranging gives: 8y + 30y = 1 − 15 − 100
i.e. 38y = −114
Removing brackets gives: 38y −114
8r − 12 − 2r + 8 = 3r − 9 − 1 Dividing both sides by 38 gives:
38
=
38
Rearranging gives: 8r − 2r − 3r = −9 − 1 + 12 − 8 Cancelling gives: y=–3
i.e. 3r = −6
−6 which is the solution of the equation
Dividing both sides by 3 gives: r = = –2
3 2y 3 1 3y
which is the solution of the equation + +5 = −
4(2r − 3) − 2(r − 4) = 3(r − 3) − 1 5 4 20 2
√
4 2 Problem 61. Solve the equation: 2 d = 8
Problem 59. Solve the equation: =
x 5
Whenever square roots are involved in an equation, the
The lowest common multiple (LCM) of the denomina-
square root term needs to be isolated on its own before
tors, i.e. the lowest algebraic expression that both x and
squaring both sides
5 will divide into, is 5x ( ) ( ) √ 8
4 2 Dividing both sides by 2 gives: d=
Multiplying both sides by 5x gives: 5x = 5x √ 2
x 5 Cancelling gives: d=4
Cancelling gives: 5(4) = x(2) (√ )2 ( )
2
i.e. 20 = 2x Squaring both sides gives: d = 4
20 2x i.e. d = 16
Dividing both sides by 2 gives: = √
2 2
which is the solution of the equation 2 d = 8
Cancelling gives: 10 = x or x = 10
4 2
which is the solution of the equation =
x 5 Problem 62. Solve the equation: x2 = 25
When there is just one fraction on each side of the equa-
tion as in this example, there is a quick way to arrive at Whenever a square term is involved, the square root of
equation (1) without needing to find the LCM of the both sides of the equation must be taken. √ √
denominators. Taking the square root of both sides gives: x2 = 25
4 2 i.e. x = ±5
We can move from = to: 4 × 5 = 2 × x which is the solution of the equation x2 = 25
x 5
by what is called ‘cross-multiplication’.
a c
In general, if = then: ad = bc Now try the following Practice Exercise
b d
We can use cross-multiplication when there is one frac-
tion only on each side of the equation. Practice Exercise 10 Solving simple
equations (Answers on page 554)
Problem 60. Solve the equation: Solve the following equations:
2y 3 1 3y
+ +5 = − 1. 2x + 5 = 7 2. 8 − 3t = 2
5 4 20 2
2 4. 2x − 1 = 5x + 11
3. c−1 = 3
3
The lowest common multiple (LCM) of the denomina-
tors is 20, i.e. the lowest number that 4, 5, 20 and 2 will 5. 2a + 6 − 5a = 0
divide into. 6. 3x − 2 − 5x = 2x − 4
Multiplying each term by 20 gives: 7. 20d − 3 + 3d = 11d + 5 − 8
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
20
2y
+ 20
3
+ 20(5) = 20
1
− 20
3y 8. 2(x − 1) = 4
5 4 20 2
18 Section 1

9. 16 = 4(t + 2) Problem 63. Transpose p = q + r + s to make r

the subject
10. 5(f − 2) − 3(2f + 5) + 15 = 0
11. 2x = 4(x − 3) The object is to obtain r on its own on the left-hand side
12. 6(2 − 3y) − 42 = −2(y − 1) (LHS) of the equation. Changing the equation around
so that r is on the LHS gives:
13. 2(3g − 5) − 5 = 0
14. 4(3x + 1) = 7(x + 4) − 2(x + 5) q+r+s = p (1)
15. 11 + 3(r − 7) = 16 − (r + 2)
From the previous chapter on simple equations, a term
16. 8 + 4(x − 1) − 5(x − 3) = 2(5 − 2x) can be moved from one side of an equation to the other
1 side as long as the sign is changed.
17. d+3 = 4
5 Rearranging gives: r = p−q−s
3 2 5 Mathematically, we have subtracted q + s from both
18. 2 + y = 1 + y + sides of equation (1)
4 3 6
1 1
19. (2x − 1) + 3 =
4 2 Problem 64. Transpose v = fλ to make λ the
1 1 2 subject
20. (2f − 3) + (f − 4) + =0
5 6 15
v = fλ relates velocity v, frequency f and wavelength λ
1 1 1
21. (3m − 6)− (5m+4) + (2m − 9) = −3 Rearranging gives: fλ = v
3 4 5 fλ v
x x Dividing both sides by f gives: =
22. − =2 2 3 f f
3 5 23. = v
a 8 Cancelling gives: λ=
1 1 7 x+3 x−3 f
24. + = 25. = +2
3n 4n 24 4 5
Problem 65. When a body falls freely through a
3t 6 − t 2t 3 height h, the velocity v is given by v2 = 2gh.
26. = + −
20 12 15 2 Express this formula with h as the subject.
y 7 5−y v−2 1
27. + = 28. =
5 20 4 2v − 3 3 Rearranging gives: 2gh = v2
√
2 3 30. 3 t = 9 2gh v2
29. = Dividing both sides by 2g gives: =
a − 3 2a + 1 √( ) 2g 2g
√ 32. 10 = 5
x
−1
31. 2 y=5 2 v2
Cancelling gives: h=
√( ) 2g
t2 y+2 1
33. 16 = 34. =
9 y−2 2 V
Problem 66. If I = , rearrange to make V the
6 2a R
35. = subject
a 3
V
I= is Ohm’s law, where I is the current, V is the
R
voltage and R is the resistance.
1.8 Transposing formulae V
Rearranging gives: =I
R
There are no new rules for transposing formulae. The ( )
same rules as were used for simple equations are used, V
Multiplying both sides by R gives: R = R(I)
i.e. the balance of an equation must be maintained. R
Here are some worked examples to help understanding Cancelling gives: V = IR
of transposing formulae.
 Some mathematics revision 19
( )
An alternative method of transposing L2 = L1 1 + αθ
ρL
Problem 67. Rearrange the formula R = to for α is shown below.
A L2
make (i) A the subject, and (ii) L the subject Dividing both sides by L1 gives: = 1 + αθ
L1
L2
ρL Subtracting 1 from both sides gives: − 1 = αθ
R= relates resistance R of a conductor, resistivity L1
A L2
ρ, conductor length L and conductor cross-sectional or αθ = −1
area A. L1
L2
ρL −1
(i) Rearranging gives: =R L
A Dividing both sides by θ gives: α= 1
Multiplying both sides by A gives: θ
( ) L2
ρL −1
A = A(R) L2 − L1 L
A The two answers α = and α = 1 look
L1 θ θ
Cancelling gives: ρL = AR quite different. They are, however, equivalent. The first
Rearranging gives: AR = ρl answer looks tidier but is no more correct than the
A R ρL second answer.
Dividing both sides by R gives: =
R R Problem 70. A formula for the distance s moved
ρL 1
Cancelling gives: A= by a body is given by: s = (v + u)t. Rearrange the
R 2
ρL formula to make u the subject.
(ii) Multiplying both sides of = R by A gives:
A 1
ρL = AR Rearranging gives: (v + u)t = s
2
ρL A R Multiplying both sides by 2 gives: (v + u)t = 2s
Dividing both sides by ρ gives: =
ρ ρ (v + u)t 2s
Dividing both sides by t gives: =
AR t t
Cancelling gives: L= 2s
ρ Cancelling gives: v+u =
t
Problem 68. Transpose y = mx + c to make m 2s 2s − vt
Rearranging gives: u= − v or u =
the subject t t

y = mx + c is the equation of a straight line graph, Problem 71. In a right angled triangle having
where y is the vertical axis variable, x is the horizon- sides x, y and hypotenuse z, Pythagoras’ theorem
tal axis variable, m is the gradient of the graph and c is states z2 = x2 + y2 . Transpose the formula to find x.
the y-axis intercept.
Subtracting c from both sides gives: y − c = mx Rearranging gives: x2 + y2 = z2
or mx = y − c
y−c and x2 = z2 − y2
Dividing both sides by x gives: m= Taking the square root of both sides gives:
x √
x = z2 − y2
Problem 69. The final length, L2 of a piece of
wire heated through θ◦ C is given by the formula
Problem 72. The √ impedance Z of an a.c. circuit
L2 = L1 (1 + αθ) where L1 is the original length.
Make the coefficient of expansion, α, the subject. is given by: Z = R2 + X2 where R is the
resistance. Make the reactance, X, the subject.
Rearranging gives: L1 (1 + αθ) = L2 √
Removing the bracket gives: L1 + L1 αθ = L2 Rearranging gives: R2 + X 2 = Z
Rearranging gives: L1 αθ = L2 − L1 Squaring both sides gives: R2 + X2 = Z2
L1 αθ L2 − L1 Rearranging gives: X2 = Z2 − R2
Dividing both sides by L1 θ gives: =
L1 θ L1 θ Taking the square root of both sides gives:
L2 − L1 √
Cancelling gives: α= X = Z2 − R2
L1 θ
20 Section 1

Now try the following Practice Exercise

26. A radar has a wavelength, λ, of 40 mm.
Practice Exercise 11 Transposing formulae The radar emits and receives electromagnetic
(Answers on page 554) waves which have a speed, v, of 300 × 106 m/s.
Given that v = f λ, calculate the frequency, f,
Make the symbol indicated the subject of each
in GHz
of the formulae shown, and express each in its
simplest form.
1. a + b = c − d − e (d)
2. y = 7x (x) 1.9 Solving simultaneous equations
3. pv = c (v) The solution of simultaneous equations is demonstrated
4. v = u + at (a) in the following worked problems.
5. V = IR (R)
Problem 73. If 6 apples and 2 pears cost £1.80
6. x + 3y = t (y)
and 8 apples and 6 pears cost £2.90, calculate how
7. c = 2πr (r) much an apple and a pear each cost.
8. y = mx + c (x)
9. I = PRT (T) Let an apple = A and a pear = P, then:
10. XL = 2πf L (L) 6A + 2P = 180 (1)
E
11. I = (R) 8A + 6P = 290 (2)
R
x
12. y = + 3 (x) From equation (1), 6A = 180 − 2P
a
9 180 − 2P
13. F = C + 32 (C) and A= = 30 − 0.3333P (3)
5 6
1
14. XC =
2πf C
(f) From equation (2), 8A = 290 − 6P
a
15. S = (r) 290 − 6P
1−r and A= = 36.25 − 0.75P (4)
8
λ(x − d)
16. y = (x) Equating (3) and (4) gives:
d
3(F − f) 30 − 0.3333P = 36.25 − 0.75P
17. A = (f) i.e. 0.75P − 0.3333P = 36.25 − 30
L
A B2 and 0.4167P = 6.25
18. y = (D)
5 CD 6.25
19. R = R0 (1 + αt) (t) and P= = 15
0.4167
E−e Substituting in (3) gives:
20. I = (R)
R+r A = 30 − 0.3333(15) = 30 − 5 = 25
21. y = 4ab2 c2 (b) Hence, an apple costs 25p and a pear costs 15p
√
L The above method of solving simultaneous equations is
22. t = 2π (L) called the substitution method.
g
23. v2 = u2 + 2as (u)
√( ) Problem 74. If 6 bananas and 5 peaches cost
a+x £3.45 and 4 bananas and 8 peaches cost £4.40,
24. N = (a)
y calculate how much a banana and a peach each cost.
√
25. Transpose Z = R2 + (2πfL)2 for L, and
Let a banana = B and a peach = P, then:
evaluate L when Z = 27.82, R = 11.76 and
f = 50. 6B + 5P = 345 (1)
4B + 8P = 440 (2)
 Some mathematics revision 21

Multiplying equation (1) by 2 gives: Now try the following Practice Exercise
12B + 10P = 690 (3)
Practice Exercise 12 Simultaneous
Multiplying equation (2) by 3 gives: equations (Answers on page 555)

12B + 24P = 1320 (4) 1. If 5 apples and 3 bananas cost £1.45 and
4 apples and 6 bananas cost £2.42, determine
Equation (4) – equation (3) gives: 14P = 630 how much an apple and a banana each cost.
630
from which, P= = 45 2. If 7 apples and 4 oranges cost £2.64 and
14
3 apples and 3 oranges cost £1.35, determine
Substituting in (1) gives: 6B + 5(45) = 345
how much an apple and a banana each cost.
i.e. 6B = 345 − 5(45)
i.e. 6B = 120 3. Three new cars and four new vans supplied to
120 a dealer together cost £93000, and five new
and B= = 20
6 cars and two new vans of the same models cost
Hence, a banana costs 20p and a peach costs 45p £99000. Find the respective costs of a car and
The above method of solving simultaneous equations is a van.
called the elimination method. 4. In a system of forces, the relationship between
two forces F1 and F2 is given by:
Problem 75. If 20 bolts and 2 spanners cost £10,
and 6 spanners and 12 bolts cost £18, how much 5F1 + 3F2 = −6
does a spanner and a bolt each cost? 3F1 + 5F2 = −18

Solve for F1 and F2

Let s = a spanner and b = a bolt.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations:
Therefore, 2s + 20b = 10
(1) a+b = 7

and 6s + 12b = 18 a−b = 3

(2) 6. Solve the simultaneous equations:
Multiplying equation (1) by 3 gives: 6s + 60b = 30 8a − 3b = 51
(3)
3a + 4b = 14
Equation (3) – equations (2) gives: 48b = 12
12
from which, b= = 0.25
48
Substituting in (1) gives: 2s + 20(0.25) = 10
i.e. 2s = 10 − 20(0.25)
i.e. 2s = 5
5
and s = = 2.5
2
Therefore, a spanner costs £2.50 and a bolt costs
£0.25 or 25p

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Exercises 1 to 12 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Chapter 2
Further mathematics revision
Why it is important to understand: Further mathematics revision
There are an enormous number of uses of trigonometry; fields that use trigonometry include astron-
omy (especially for locating apparent positions of celestial objects, in which spherical trigonometry is
essential) and hence navigation (on the oceans, in aircraft and in space), electrical engineering, music
theory, electronics, medical imaging (CAT scans and ultrasound), number theory (and hence cryptol-
ogy), oceanography, land surveying and geodesy (a branch of earth sciences), architecture, mechanical
engineering, civil engineering, computer graphics and game development. It is clear that a good knowl-
edge of trigonometry is essential in many fields of engineering.
All types of engineers use natural and common logarithms. In electrical engineering, a dB (decibel)
scale is very useful for expressing attenuations in radio propagation and circuit gains, and logarithms
are used for implementing arithmetic operations in digital circuits. Exponential functions are used
in engineering, physics, biology and economics. There are many quantities that grow exponentially;
some examples are population, compound interest and charge in a capacitor. There is also exponen-
tial decay; some examples include radioactive decay, atmospheric pressure, Newton’s law of cooling and
linear expansion. Understanding and using logarithms and exponential functions are important in many
branches of engineering.
Graphs have a wide range of applications in engineering and in physical sciences because of their inher-
ent simplicity. A graph can be used to represent almost any physical situation involving discrete objects
and the relationship among them. If two quantities are directly proportional and one is plotted against the
other, a straight line is produced. Examples of this include an applied force on the end of a spring plotted
against spring extension, the speed of a flywheel plotted against time and strain in a wire plotted against
stress (Hooke’s law). In engineering, the straight line graph is the most basic graph to draw and evaluate.
When designing a new building, or seeking planning permission, it is often necessary to specify the
total floor area of the building. In construction, calculating the area of a gable end of a building is impor-
tant when determining the quantities of bricks and mortar to order. When using a bolt, the most
important thing is that it is long enough for your particular application and it may also be necessary
to calculate the shear area of the bolt connection. Arches are everywhere, from sculptures and monu-
ments to pieces of architecture and strings on musical instruments; finding the height of an arch or its
cross-sectional area is often required. Determining the cross-sectional areas of beam structures is vitally
important in design engineering. There are thus a large number of situations in engineering where deter-
mining area is important. The floodlit area at a football ground, the area an automatic garden sprayer
sprays and the angle of lap of a belt drive all rely on calculations involving the arc of a circle. The abil-
ity to handle calculations involving circles and their properties is clearly essential in several branches of
engineering design.
 Further mathematics revision 23

Surveyors, farmers and landscapers often need to determine the area of irregularly shaped pieces of land
to work with the land properly. There are many applications in all aspects of engineering where finding
the areas of irregular shapes and the lengths of irregular shaped curves are important applications.
Typical earthworks include roads, railway beds, causeways, dams and canals. The mid-ordinate rule is
a staple of scientific data analysis and engineering. Understanding these further mathematics topics will
help you cope better with the electrical and electronic engineering studies that lie ahead.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• change radians to degrees and vice versa

• calculate sine, cosine and tangent for large and small angles
• calculate unknown sides of a right-angled triangle
• use Pythagoras’ theorem
• use the sine and cosine rules for acute-angled triangles
• define a logarithm
• state and use the laws of logarithms to simplify logarithmic expressions
• solve equations involving logarithms
• solve indicial equations
• solve equations using Napierian logarithms
• appreciate the many examples of laws of growth and decay in engineering and science
• perform calculations involving the laws of growth and decay
• understand rectangular axes, scales and co-ordinates
• plot given co-ordinates and draw the best straight line graph
• determine the gradient and vertical-axis intercept of a straight line graph
• state the equation of a straight line graph
• plot straight line graphs involving practical engineering examples
• calculate the areas of common shapes
• use the mid-ordinate rule to determine irregular areas

180◦
2.1 Radians and degrees (a) 0.1 rad = 0.1 rad × = 5.730◦
π rad
There are 2π radians or 360◦ in a complete circle, thus:
180◦
(b) 0.7 rad = 0.7 rad × = 40.107◦
π radians = 180◦ from which, π rad

180◦ π 180◦
1 rad = or 1◦ = rad (c) 1.3 rad = 1.3 rad × = 74.485◦
π 180 π rad
where π = 3.14159265358979323846 . . .. to 20 deci-
mal places!
Problem 2. Convert the following angles to
Problem 1. Convert the following angles to radians correct to 4 decimal places:
degrees correct to 3 decimal places: (a) 5◦ (b) 40◦ (c) 85◦
(a) 0.1 rad (b) 0.7 rad (c) 1.3 rad
24 Section 1

π rad π
(a) 5◦ = 5◦ × = rad = 0.0873 rad Problem 3. Use a calculator to determine the
180◦ 36
cosine, sine and tangent of the following angles,
π rad 4π each measured anticlockwise from the horizontal
(b) 40◦ = 40◦ × = rad = 0.6981 rad
180◦ 18 ‘x’ axis, each correct to 4 decimal places:

(c) 85◦ = 85◦ ×

π rad 85π
= rad = 1.4835 rad (a) 30◦ (b) 120◦ (c) 250◦
180◦ 180
(d) 320◦ (e) 390◦ (f) 480◦

Now try the following Practice Exercise

(a) cos 30◦ = 0.8660 sin 30◦ = 0.5000
tan 30◦ = 0.5774
Practice Exercise 13 Radians and degrees
(Answers on page 555) (b) cos 120◦ = −0.5000 sin 120◦ = 0.8660
tan 120◦ = −1.7321
1. Convert the following angles to degrees cor-
rect to 3 decimal places (where necessary): (c) cos 250◦ = −0.3420 sin 250◦ = −0.9397
tan 250◦ = 2.7475
(a) 0.6 rad (b) 0.8 rad
(d) cos 320◦ = 0.7660 sin 320◦ = −0.6428
(c) 2 rad (d) 3.14159 rad
tan 320◦ = −0.8391
2. Convert the following angles to radians cor-
(e) cos 390◦ = 0.8660 sin 390◦ = 0.5000
rect to 4 decimal places:
tan 390◦ = 0.5774
(a) 45◦ (b) 90◦
(f) cos 480◦ = −0.5000 sin 480◦ = 0.8660
(c) 120◦ (d) 180◦ tan 480◦ = −1.7321

These angles are now drawn in Fig. 2.2. Note that

the cosine and sine of angles always lie between −1
and +1, but that tangent values can be > 1 and < 1.
2.2 Measurement of angles
Angles are measured starting from the horizontal ‘x’
axis, in an anticlockwise direction, as shown by θ1
to θ4 in Fig. 2.1. An angle can also be measured in a
clockwise direction, as shown by θ5 in Fig. 2.1, but in
this case the angle has a negative sign before it. If, for
example, θ4 = 320◦ then θ5 = −40◦

Figure 2.2

Note from Fig. 2.2 that θ = 30◦ is the same as θ =

390◦ and so are their cosines, sines and tangents. Sim-
ilarly, note that θ = 120◦ is the same as θ = 480◦ and
so are their cosines, sines and tangents. Also, note that
θ = −40◦ is the same as θ = +320◦ and so are their
cosines, sines and tangents.
Figure 2.1
 Further mathematics revision 25

It is noted from above that

• in the first quadrant, i.e. where θ varies from 0◦
to 90◦ , all (A) values of cosine, sine and tangent
are positive
• in the second quadrant, i.e. where θ varies Figure 2.4
from 90◦ to 180◦ , only values of sine (S) are
positive
• in the third quadrant, i.e. where θ varies from Problem 4. In Fig. 2.4, if AB = 2 and AC = 3,
180◦ to 270◦ , only values of tangent (T) are determine the angle θ.
positive
• in the fourth quadrant, i.e. where θ varies from It is convenient to use the expression for cos θ, since
270◦ to 360◦ , only values of cosine (C) are ‘AB’ and ‘AC’ are given.
positive. AB 2
Hence, cos θ = = = 0.66667
AC 3
These positive signs, A, S, T and C are shown in
Fig. 2.3. from which, θ = cos−1 (0.66667) = 48.19◦

Problem 5. In Fig. 2.4, if BC = 1.5 and

AC = 2.2, determine the angle θ.

It is convenient to use the expression for sin θ, since

‘BC’ and ‘AC’ are given.
BC 1.5
Hence, sin θ = = = 0.68182
AC 2.2
from which, θ = sin−1 (0.68182) = 42.99◦
Figure 2.3

Now try the following Practice Exercise Problem 6. In Fig. 2.4, if BC = 8 and AB = 1.3,
determine the angle θ.
Practice Exercise 14 Measurement of
angles (Answers on page 555) It is convenient to use the expression for tan θ, since
1. Find the cosine, sine and tangent of the follow- ‘BC’ and ‘AB’ are given.
ing angles, where appropriate each correct to BC 8
Hence, tan θ = = = 6.1538
4 decimal places: AB 1.3
from which, θ = tan−1 (6.1538) = 80.77◦
(a) 60◦ (b) 90◦ (c) 150◦
(d) 180◦ (e) 210◦ (f) 270◦
(g) 330◦ (h) −30◦ (i) 420◦ (b) Pythagoras’ theorem
(j) 450◦ (k) 510◦ Pythagoras’ theorem∗ states that:
(hypotenuse)2 = (adjacent side)2 + (opposite side)2
i.e. in the triangle of Fig. 2.5, AC2 = AB2 + BC2

2.3 Trigonometry revision

(a) Sine, cosine and tangent
BC AB
From Fig. 2.4, sin θ = cos θ =
AC AC
BC
tan θ = Figure 2.5
AB
26 Section 1

Problem 7. In Fig. 2.5, if AB = 5.1 m and 3. If BC = 3.1 m and AC = 6.4 m, determine

BC = 6.7 m, determine the length of the angle θ
hypotenuse, AC.
4. If AB = 5.7 cm and BC = 4.2 cm, determine
the length AC
From Pythagoras, AC2 = AB2 + BC2
= 5.12 + 6.72 5. If AB = 4.1 m and AC = 6.2 m, determine
length BC
= 26.01 + 44.89
= 70.90
√
from which, AC = 70.90 = 8.42 m (c) The sine and cosine rules
For the triangle ABC shown in Fig. 2.6,
Now try the following Practice Exercise

Practice Exercise 15 Sines, cosines and

tangents and Pythagoras’ theorem (Answers
on page 555)
In problems 1 to 5, refer to Fig. 2.5.
1. If AB = 2.1 m and BC = 1.5 m, determine Figure 2.6
angle θ
a b c
2. If AB = 2.3 m and AC = 5.0 m, determine the sine rule states: = =
sin A sin B sin C
angle θ
and the cosine rule states: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

Problem 8. In Fig. 2.6, if a = 3 m, A = 20◦ and

B = 120◦ , determine lengths b, c and angle C.

a b
Using the sine rule, =
sin A sin B
3 b
i.e. =
sin 20◦ sin 120◦
3 sin 120◦ 3 × 0.8660
from which, b= =
sin 20◦ 0.3420
= 7.596 m

Angle, C = 180◦ − 20◦ − 120◦ = 40◦

c a
Using the sine rule again gives: =
sin C sin A
a sin C 3 × sin 40◦
i.e. c= = = 5.638 m
sin A sin 20◦

∗ Who was Pythagoras? Pythagoras of Samos (c. 570 BC – c. Problem 9. In Fig. 2.6, if b = 8.2 cm. c = 5.1 cm
495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and mathematician, and A = 70◦ , determine the length a and angles B
best known for the Pythagorean theorem. To find out more go and C.
to www.routledge.com/cw/bird
 Further mathematics revision 27

From the cosine rule,

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

= 8.22 + 5.12 − 2 × 8.2 × 5.1 × cos 70◦

= 67.24 + 26.01 − 2(8.2)(5.1) cos 70◦

= 64.643

√
Hence, length, a = 64.643 = 8.04 cm
Figure 2.7
a b
Using the sine rule: =
sin A sin B
8.04 8.2
i.e. ◦
=
sin 70 sin B 2.4 Logarithms and exponentials
◦
from which, 8.04 sin B = 8.2 sin 70 In general, if a number y can be written in the form ax ,
8.2 sin 70◦ then the index x is called the ‘logarithm of y to the base
and sin B = = 0.95839 of a’,
8.04
i.e. if y = ax then x = loga y
and B = sin−1 (0.95839) = 73.41◦ For example, the two statements:
Since ◦
A + B + C = 180 , then 16 = 24 and log2 16 = 4 are equivalent.
Logarithms having a base of 10 are called common
C = 180◦ − A − B = 180◦ − 70◦ − 73.41◦ = 36.59◦ logarithms and log10 is usually abbreviated to lg.
Logarithms having a base of e (where ‘e’ is a math-
ematical constant approximately equal to 2.7183) are
called hyperbolic, Napierian or natural logarithms,
Now try the following Practice Exercise
and loge is usually abbreviated to ln.

Practice Exercise 16 Sine and cosine rules (a) Laws of logarithms

(Answers on page 555) (i) log (A × B) = log A + log B
( )
In problems 1 to 4, refer to Fig. 2.6. A
(ii) log = log A − log B
1. If b = 6 m, c = 4 m and B = 100◦ , determine B
angles C and A and length a. (iii) log An = n log A
2. If a = 15 m, c = 23 m and B = 67◦ , determine Here are some worked problems to help understanding
length b and angles A and C. of the laws of logarithms.

3. If a = 4 m, b = 8 m and c = 6 m, determine Problem 10. Write log 4 + log 7 as the logarithm

angle A. of a single number
4. If a = 10.0 cm, b = 8.0 cm and c = 7.0 cm,
determine angles A, B and C. log 4 + log 7 = log(7 × 4) by the first law of logarithms

5. In Fig. 2.7, PR represents the inclined jib of a = log 28

crane and is 10.0 m long. PQ is 4.0 m long.
Determine the inclination of the jib to the Problem 11. Write log 16 − log 2 as the
vertical (i.e. angle P) and the length of tie QR. logarithm of a single number
28 Section 1
( )
16
log 16 − log 2 = log by the second law of RHS = 2 log(x + 2) = log(x + 2)2
2
logarithms
from the third law of logarithms
= log 8
= log(x2 + 4x + 4)
Problem 12. Write 2 log 3 as the logarithm of a Hence, log(x2 + 7x − 8) = log(x2 + 4x + 4)
single number
from which, x2 + 7x − 8 = x2 + 4x + 4

2 log 3 = log 32 by the third law of logarithms i.e. 7x − 8 = 4x + 4

= log 9 i.e. 3x = 12
and x=4
1
Problem 13. Write log 25 as the logarithm of a
2 Problem 16. Solve the equation:
single number ( )
log x2 − 3 − log x = log 2
1
1 ( 2 )
log 25 = log 25 2 by the third law of logarithms ( ) x −3
2 log x2 − 3 − log x = log from the second
√ x
= log 25 = log 5 law of logarithms
( 2 )
x −3
1 1 Hence, log = log 2
Problem 14. Write log 16 + log 27 − 2 log 5 x
2 3
as the logarithm of a single number x2 − 3
from which, =2
x
1 1
log 16 + log 27 − 2 log 5 Rearranging gives: x2 − 3 = 2x
2 3
1 1 and x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
= log 16 2 + log 27 3 − log 52
Factorising gives: (x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
by the third law of logarithms
√ √ from which, x = 3 or x = −1 (or use the quadratic for-
= log 16 + log 27 − log 25
3

mula or a calculator). x = −1 is not a valid solution

by the laws of indices since the logarithm of a negative number has no real
= log 4 + log 3 − log 25 root.
( ) Hence, the solution of the equation is: x = 3
4×3
= log
25
Now try the following Practice Exercise
by the first and second laws of logarithms
( )
12 Practice Exercise 17 Laws of logarithms
= log = log 0.48
25 (Answers on page 555)
In Problems 1 to 10, write as the logarithm of a
Problem 15. Solve the equation:
single number:
log(x − 1) + log(x + 8) = 2 log(x + 2) 1. log 2 + log 3
2. log 3 + log 5
LHS = log(x − 1) + log(x + 8)
= log(x − 1)(x + 8) 3. log 3 + log 4 − log 6
4. log 7 + log 21 − log 49
from the first law of logarithms
5. 2 log 2 + log 3
= log(x2 + 7x − 8)
 Further mathematics revision 29

Thus, x = antilog 0.57040 = 100.57040 = 3.719, correct

6. 2 log 2 + 3 log 5 to 4 significant figures.
1
7. 2 log 5 − log 81 + log 36
2
Now try the following Practice Exercise
1 1
8. log 8 − log 81 + log 27
3 2
Practice Exercise 18 Indicial equations
1
9. log 4 − 2 log 3 + log 45 (Answers on page 555)
2
1 In problems 1 to 6, solve the indicial equations for
10. log 16 + 2 log 3 − log 18 x, each correct to 4 significant figures:
4
Solve the equations given in Problems 11 to 14: 1. 3x = 6.4 2. 2x = 9
11. log x4 − log x3 = log 5x − log 2x
3. x1.5 = 14.91 4. 25.28 = 4.2x
12. log 2t3 − log t = log 16 + log t
13. 2 log b2 − 3 log b = log 8b − log 4b 5. x−0.25 = 0.792 6. 0.027x = 3.26

14. log(x + 1) + log(x − 1) = log 3 7. The decibel gain( n of

) an amplifier is given
P2
by: n = 10 log10 where P1 is the power
(b) Indicial equations P1
input and P2 is the power output. Find the
To solve, say, 3x = 27, logarithms to a base of 10 are P2
taken of both sides, power gain when n = 25 decibels.
P1
i.e. log10 3x = log10 27
and x log10 3 = log10 27 by the third law of logarithms
log10 27 1.43136 . . . (c) Solving equations involving exponential
Rearranging gives: x = = =3
log10 3 0.47712 . . . functions
which may be readily checked.
log 27 27 It may be shown that: loge ex = x For example,
(Note, is not equal to log ) loge e2 = 2 and loge e5t = 5t
log 3 3
This is useful when solving equations involving expo-
Problem 17. Solve the equation: 2x = 5, correct nential functions.
to 4 significant figures.
For example, to solve e3x = 7, take Napierian loga-
rithms of both sides,
Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides of 2x = 5
gives: which gives: ln e3x = ln 7
log10 2x = log10 5 i.e. 3x = ln 7
i.e. x log10 2 = log10 5 by the third law of logarithms 1
log10 5 0.6989700 .. from which x = ln 7 = 0.6486, correct to
Rearranging gives: x = = 3
log10 2 0.3010299 .. 4 decimal places.
= 2.322, correct to 4 significant figures.
Problem 19. Solve the equation: 9 = 4e−3x to
Problem 18. Solve the equation: x2.7 = 34.68, find x, correct to 4 significant figures.
correct to 4 significant figures.
9
Rearranging 9 = 4e−3x gives: = e−3x
Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides gives: 4
Taking Napierian logarithms( ) of both sides gives:
log10 x2.7 = log10 34.68 9
ln = ln(e−3x )
2.7 log10 x = log10 34.68 4
log10 34.68 ( )
9
Hence, log10 x =
2.7
= 0.57040 α
Since loge e = α, then ln = −3x
4
30 Section 1
( )
9
ln ( x )
4
Hence, x = = −0.2703, correct to 4 significant 4. 5.17 = ln
−3 ( 4.64)
figures. 1.59
5. 3.72 ln = 2.43
x
( )
Problem 20. Given 32 = 70(1 − e− 2 ) determine
t
−x
6. 5 = 8 1−e 2
the value of t, correct to 3 significant figures.
7. ln(x + 3) − ln x = ln(x − 1)
− 2t 32 ( )2 ( )
= 1 − e− 2
t
Rearranging 32 = 70(1 − e ) gives: 8. ln x − 1 − ln 3 = ln x − 1
70
( )
32 38 P R1
and e− 2 = 1 −
t
= 9. If = 10 log10 find the value of R1
70 70 Q R2
when P = 160, Q = 8 and R2 = 5
Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives: ( )
W
( ) 10. If U2 = U1 e PVmake W the subject of the
38
ln e− 2 = ln
t
formula.
70
( ) 11. A steel bar is cooled with running water. Its
t 38 temperature, θ, in degrees Celsius, is given
i.e. − = ln
2 70 by: θ = 17 + 1250e −0.17t where t is the time in
( ) minutes. Determine the time taken, correct to
38 the nearest minute, for the temperature to fall
from which, t = −2 ln = 1.22,
70 to 35◦ C.
correct to 3 significant figures.

Problem 21. Solve the equation:

(d) Laws of growth and decay
( )
4.87 Laws of exponential growth and decay are of the form
2.68 = ln to find x
x y = Ae−k x and y = A(1 − e−k x ), where A and k are
constants. When plotted, the form of the graphs of these
equations is as shown in Fig. 2.8.
From the definition of a logarithm, since
( ) y
4.87 4.87
2.68 = ln then e2.68 = A
x x
4.87
Rearranging gives: x= = 4.87e−2.68 y 5 Ae 2kx
e2.68
i.e. x = 0.3339, correct to 4 significant figures.

Now try the following Practice Exercise

0 x

Practice Exercise 19 Evaluating Napierian y

logarithms (Answers on page 555) A
In Problems 1 to 8 solve the given equations, each
correct to 4 significant figures.
y 5 A(12e 2kx )
1. 1.5 = 4e2t
2. 7.83 = 2.91e−1.7x
0
3. 16 = 24(1 − e− 2 ) x
t

Figure 2.8
 Further mathematics revision 31
( )
The laws occur frequently in engineering and science 1 5.4 × 103
θ= ln
and examples of quantities related by a natural law 1.215477 .. × 10−4 5 × 103
include:
104
αθ = (7.696104 .. × 10−2 )
(i) Linear expansion l = l0 e 1.215477 ..
(ii) Change in electrical Rθ = R0 eαθ = 633◦ C correct to the nearest degree.
resistance with temperature
(iii) Newton’s law of cooling θ = θ0 e−kt
(iv) Discharge of a capacitor q = Q e− CR
t
Problem 23. The current i amperes flowing in a
capacitor at time t seconds is given by:
(v) Atmospheric pressure p = p0 e−h/c i = 8.0(1 − e− CR ), where the circuit resistance R is
t

(vi) Radioactive decay N = N0 e−λt 25 kΩ and capacitance C is 16 µF.

i = Ie− L
Rt
(vii) Decay of current in an Determine (a) the current i after 0.5 seconds and
inductive circuit (b) the time, to the nearest millisecond, for the
i = I(1 − e− CR ) current to reach 6.0 A. Sketch the graph of current
t
(viii) Growth of current in a
capacitive circuit against time.

Here are some worked problems to demonstrate the

(a) Current i = 8.0(1 − e− CR )
t
laws of growth and decay.
−6
= 8.0[1 − e−0.5/(16×10 )(25×103 )
]
Problem 22. The resistance R of an electrical
conductor at temperature θ◦ C is given by = 8.0(1 − e−1.25 )
R = R0 eαθ , where α is a constant and R0 = 5 kΩ. = 8.0(1 − 0.2865047..) = 8.0(0.7134952..)
Determine the value of α correct to 4 significant
figures, when R = 6 kΩ and θ = 1500◦ C. Also, find = 5.71 amperes
the temperature, correct to the nearest degree, when
Transposing i = 8.0(1 − e− CR )
t

the resistance R is 5.4 kΩ. (b)

i
= 1 − e− CR
t

R gives:
Transposing R = R0 eαθ gives: = eαθ 8.0
R0 i 8.0 − i
from which, e− CR = 1 −
t
=
Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives: 8.0 8.0
R
ln = ln eαθ = αθ Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives:
R0
( )
t 8.0 − i
− = ln
( ) CR 8.0
1 R 1 6 × 103 ( )
Hence, α = ln = ln 8.0 − i
θ R0 1500 5 × 103 Hence, t = −CR ln
8.0
1
= (0.1823215 . . .) When i = 6.0A,
1500 ( )
−6 8.0 − 6.0
= 1.215477.. × 10 −4 t = −(16 × 10 )(25 × 10 ) ln 3
8.0
( )
2.0
i.e. t = −(0.40) ln
Hence, α = 1.215 × 10−4 8.0
correct to 4 significant figures. = −0.4 ln 0.25 = 0.5545 s
R 1 R
From above, ln = αθ hence θ = ln = 555 ms correct to the nearest ms.
R0 α R0
When R = 5.4 × 103 , α = 1.215477 .. × 10−4 and A graph of current against time is shown in
R0 = 5 × 103 Fig. 2.9.
32 Section 1

8
i (A) 20 µF. Determine (a) the current flowing after
6 0.5 seconds, and (b) the time for the current to
reach 10 amperes.
5.71 4 i 5 8.0(1 2e 2t /CR )

2.5 Straight line graphs

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 t (s)
0.555
A graph is a visual representation of information, show-
Figure 2.9 ing how one quantity varies with another related quan-
tity.
The most common method of showing a relationship
Now try the following Practice Exercise between two sets of data is to use a pair of reference
axes – these are two lines drawn at right angles to each
Practice Exercise 20 Laws of growth and other, (often called Cartesian or rectangular axes), as
decay (Answers on page 555) shown in Fig. 2.10.

1. The temperature, T◦ C, of a cooling object y

varies with time, t minutes, according to the
4
equation: T = 150 e−0.04 t . Determine the tem- B (24, 3)
perature when (a) t = 0, (b) t = 10 minutes. 3
2 A (3, 2)
2. The voltage drop, v volts, across an inductor
Origin
L henrys at time t seconds is given by: 1
v = 200 e− L , where R = 150 Ω and
Rt

24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4
L = 12.5 × 10−3 H. Determine (a) the 21
x

voltage when t = 160 × 10−6 s, and (b) the

time for the voltage to reach 85 V. 22
C (23, 22)
23
3. The length l metres of a metal bar at tem-
perature t◦ C is given by l = l0 eαt , where l0 24

and α are constants. Determine (a) the value

of l when l0 = 1.894, α = 2.038 × 10−4 and Figure 2.10
t = 250◦ C, and (b) the value of l0 when
l = 2.416, t = 310◦ C and α = 1.682 × 10−4 . The horizontal axis is labelled the x-axis, and the verti-
4. The instantaneous current i at time t is cal axis is labelled the y-axis.
given by: i = 10e−t/CR when a capacitor is The point where x is 0 and y is 0 is called the origin.
being charged. The capacitance C is 7 × 10−6 x values have scales that are positive to the right of the
farads and the resistance R is 0.3 × 106 ohms. origin and negative to the left.
Determine: y values have scales that are positive up from the origin
and negative down from the origin.
(a) the instantaneous current when t is 2.5 Co-ordinates are written with brackets and a comma in
seconds, and between two numbers. For example, point A is shown
(b) the time for the instantaneous current to with co-ordinates (3, 2) and is located by starting at the
fall to 5 amperes. origin and moving 3 units in the positive x direction (i.e.
to the right) and then 2 units in the positive y direction
Sketch a curve of current against time from
(i.e. up).
t = 0 to t = 6 seconds
When co-ordinates are stated, the first number is always
5. The current i flowing in a capacitor at time the x value, and the second number is always the y
t is given by: i = 12.5(1 − e−t/CR ) where value.
resistance R is 30 kΩ and the capacitance C is Also in Fig. 2.10, point B has co-ordinates (−4, 3) and
point C has co-ordinates (−3, −2)
 Further mathematics revision 33

The following table gives the force F Newtons which, the straight line crosses the vertical axis is called
when applied to a lifting machine, overcomes a corre- the vertical-axis intercept. So in this case, the
sponding load of L Newtons. vertical-axis intercept = 11 N at co-ordinates
(0, 11)
F (Newtons) 19 35 50 93 125 147
L (Newtons) 40 120 230 410 540 680 The graph you have drawn should look something like
Fig. 2.11.
1. Plot L horizontally and F vertically.
2. Scales are normally chosen such that the graph Graph of F against L
occupies as much space as possible on the graph 160
paper. So in this case, the following scales are 150
chosen: 140
130
Horizontal axis (i.e. L): 1 cm = 50 N Vertical axis 120
(i.e. F): 1 cm = 10 N 110

F (newtons)
100
3. Draw the axes and label them L (Newtons) for the
90
horizontal axis and F (newtons) for the vertical 80
axis. 70
60
4. Label the origin as 0.
50
5. Write on the horizontal scaling at 100, 200, 300, 40
and so on, every 2 cm. 30
20
6. Write on the vertical scaling at 10, 20, 30, and so 10
on, every 1 cm.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
7. Plot on the graph the co-ordinates (40, 19), (120, L (newtons)
35), (230, 50), (410, 93), (540, 125) and (680,
147) marking each with a cross or a dot. Figure 2.11

8. Using a ruler, draw the best straight line through

the points. You will notice that not all of the points In another example, let the relationship between two
lie exactly on a straight line. This is quite normal variables x and y be y = 3x + 2
with experimental values. In a practical situation it When x = 0, y = 3 × 0 + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2
would be surprising if all of the points lay exactly When x = 1, y = 3 × 1 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5
on a straight line. When x = 2, y = 3 × 2 + 2 = 6 + 2 = 8, and so on.
The co-ordinates (0, 2), (1, 5) and (2, 8) have been
9. Extend the straight line at each end. produced and are plotted, with others, as shown in
10. From the graph, determine the force applied when Fig. 2.12.
the load is 325 N. It should be close to 75 N. This
process of finding an equivalent value within the y
given data is called interpolation.
8
Similarly, determine the load that a force of 45 N
6
will overcome. It should be close to 170 N. y 5 3x 1 2
4
11. From the graph, determine the force needed to 2
overcome a 750 N load. It should be close to 161
N. This process of finding an equivalent value out- 21 0 1 2 x
side the given data is called extrapolation. To
extrapolate we need to have extended the straight
line drawn. Figure 2.12

Similarly, determine the force applied when the When the points are joined together a straight line
load is zero. It should be close to 11 N. Where graph results, i.e. y = 3x + 2 is a straight line graph.
34 Section 1

Now try the following Practice Exercise

2.6 Gradients, intercepts and the
Practice Exercise 21 Straight line graphs equation of a graph
(Answers on page 556)
Gradient
1. Corresponding values obtained experimen-
The gradient or slope of a straight line is the ratio of
tally for two quantities are:
the change in the value of y to the change in the value of
x −5 −3 −1 0 2 4 x between any two points on the line. If, as x increases,
y − 13 −9 −5 −3 1 5 (→), y also increases, (↑), then the gradient is positive.
In Fig. 2.13(a), a straight line graph y = 2x + 1 is
Plot a graph of y (vertically) against x (hori-
shown. To find the gradient of this straight line, choose
zontally) to scales of 2 cm = 1 for the horizon-
two points on the straight line graph, such as A and C.
tal x-axis and 1 cm = 1 for the vertical y-axis.
(This graph will need the whole of the graph y 5 2x 1 1
paper with the origin somewhere in the centre y
y 5 23x 1 2 y
of the paper). 8
7 C F 11
10
From the graph find: 6
5 8
(a) the value of y when x = 1 4 6
(b) the value of y when x = −2.5 3
A B 4
2
(c) the value of x when y = −6 1 2
E D
(d) the value of x when y = 5
21 0 1 2 3 4 x 24232221 0 x
2. Corresponding values obtained experimen-
(a) (b)
tally for two quantities are:
x − 2.0 − 0.5 0 1.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 y
y − 13.0 − 5.5 − 3.0 2.0 9.5 12.0 22.0 3 y53
2
1 1
Use a horizontal scale for x of 1 cm = unit
2
and a vertical scale for y of 1 cm = 2 units 0 1 2 3 x
and draw a graph of x against y. Label the (c)
graph and each of its axes. By interpolation,
find from the graph the value of y when x is Figure 2.13
3.5
Then construct a right angled triangle, such as ABC,
3. Draw a graph of y − 3x + 5 = 0 over a range where BC is vertical and AB is horizontal.
of x = −3 to x = 4. Hence determine (a) the change in y CB
value of y when x = 1.3 and (b) the value of x Then, gradient of AC = =
change in x BA
when y = −9.2
7−3
=
4. The speed n rev/min of a motor changes when 3−1
the voltage V across the armature is varied. 4
The results are shown in the following table: = =2
2
n (rev/min) 560 720 900 1010 1240 1410 In Fig. 2.13(b), a straight line graph y = −3x + 2 is
V (volts) 80 100 120 140 160 180 shown. To find the gradient of this straight line, choose
two points on the straight line graph, such as D and F.
It is suspected that one of the readings taken of Then construct a right angled triangle, such as DEF,
the speed is inaccurate. Plot a graph of speed where EF is vertical and ED is horizontal.
(horizontally) against voltage (vertically) and change in y FE
find this value. Find also (a) the speed at a volt- Then, gradient of DF = =
change in x ED
age of 132 V, and (b) the voltage at a speed of
1300 rev/min. 11 − 2 9
= = = –3
−3 − 0 −3
 Further mathematics revision 35

Fig. 2.13(c) shows a straight line graph y = 3. Since the (a) A right angled triangle ABC is constructed on the
straight line is horizontal the gradient is zero. graph as shown in Fig. 2.15.
AC 23 − 8 15
y-axis intercept Gradient = = = =5
CB 4−1 3
The value of y when x = 0 is called the y-axis intercept.
In Fig. 2.5(a) the y-axis intercept is 1 and in Fig. 2.13(b) y
the y-axis intercept is 2. A
23
20
Equation of a straight line graph
15
The general equation of a straight line graph is:
10 B
y = mx + c 8
C
5
where m is the gradient or slope, and c is the y-axis
intercept 24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 x
Thus, as we have found in Fig. 2.13(a), y = 2x + 1 rep- 25
resents a straight line of gradient 2 and y-axis intercept 210
1. So, given an equation y = 2x + 1, we are able to state,
on sight, that the gradient = 2 and the y-axis intercept 215
= 1, without the need for any analysis. 220
Similarly, in Fig. 2.13(b), y = −3x + 2 represents a
straight line of gradient - 3 and y-axis intercept 2.
In Fig. 2.13(c), y = 3 may be re-written as y = 0x + 3 Figure 2.15
and therefore represents a straight line of gradient 0 and
y-axis intercept 3. (b) The y-axis intercept at x = 0 is seen to be at y = 3
Here are some worked problems to help understanding y = mx + c is a straight line graph where
of gradients, intercepts and the equation of a graph. m = gradient and c = y-axis intercept.

Problem 24. Determine for the straight line From above, m = 5 and c = 3
shown in Fig. 2.14: Hence, equation of graph is: y = 5x + 3
(a) the gradient and
Problem 25. Determine the equation of the
(b) the equation of the graph straight line shown in Fig. 2.16.
y y
23 4
20
D 3
15
2
10
8
5 1

24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 x 24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 x
25 21
210 22
215 23 E
F
220 24

Figure 2.14 Figure 2.16

36 Section 1

The triangle DEF is shown constructed in Fig. 2.16.

2.7 Practical straight line graphs
DF 3 − (−3) 6
Gradient of DE = = = = −2
FE −1 − 2 −3 When a set of co-ordinate values are given or are
and the y-axis intercept = 1 obtained experimentally and it is believed that they fol-
Hence, the equation of the straight line is: y = mx + c low a law of the form y = mx + c, then if a straight
i.e. y = −2x + 1 line can be drawn reasonably close to most of the co-
ordinate values when plotted, this verifies that a law
of the form y = mx + c exists. From the graph, con-
Now try the following Practice Exercise
stants m (i.e. gradient) and c (i.e. y-axis intercept) can
be determined.
Practice Exercise 22 Gradients, intercepts Here is a worked practical problem.
and the equation of a graph (Answers on
page 556)
Problem 26. The following values of resistance
1. The equation of a line is 4y = 2x + 5. A table R ohms and corresponding voltage V volts are
of corresponding values is produced and is obtained from a test on a filament lamp.
shown below. Complete the table and plot a
graph of y against x. Find the gradient of the R ohms 30 48.5 73 107 128
graph. V volts 16 29 52 76 94
x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 Choose suitable scales and plot a graph with R
y −0.25 1.25 3.25 representing the vertical axis and V the horizontal
axis. Determine (a) the gradient of the graph,
2. Determine the gradient and intercept on the y- (b) the R axis intercept value, (c) the equation of the
axis for each of the following equations: graph, (d) the value of resistance when the voltage
is 60 V, and (e) the value of the voltage when the
resistance is 40 ohms. (f) If the graph were to
(a) y = 4x − 2 (b) y = −x
continue in the same manner, what value of
(c) y = −3x − 4 (d) y=4 resistance would be obtained at 110 V?

3. Draw on the same axes the graphs of The co-ordinates (16, 30), (29, 48.5), and so on, are
y = 3x − 5 and 3y + 2x = 7. Find the co- shown plotted in Fig. 2.17 where the best straight line
ordinates of the point of intersection. is drawn through the points.
4. A piece of elastic is tied to a support so that it (a) The slope or gradient of the straight line AC is
hangs vertically, and a pan, on which weights given by:
can be placed, is attached to the free end. The
length of the elastic is measured as various AB 135 − 10 125
= = = 1.25
weights are added to the pan and the results BC 100 − 0 100
obtained are as follows:
(Note that the vertical line AB and the horizon-
Load, W (N) 5 10 15 20 25 tal line BC may be constructed anywhere along
Length, l (cm) 60 72 84 96 108 the length of the straight line. However, calcula-
tions are made easier if the horizontal line BC is
Plot a graph of load (horizontally) against carefully chosen, in this case equal to 100.)
length (vertically) and determine:
(b) The R-axis intercept is at R = 10 ohms (by
(a) the length when the load is 17 N, extrapolation).
(b) the value of load when the length
is 74 cm, (c) The equation of a straight line is y = mx + c, when
(c) its gradient, and y is plotted on the vertical axis and x on the hor-
(d) the equation of the graph. izontal axis. m represents the gradient and c the
y-axis intercept. In this case, R corresponds to y,
 Further mathematics revision 37

y
when the resistance is 122 Ω and (b) the
147 resistance when the temperature is 52◦ C
140
A
2. The following table gives the force F
120 Newtons which, when applied to a lifting
machine, overcomes a corresponding load
Resistance R (ohms)

of L Newtons.
100
Force
85 F Newtons 25 47 64 120 149 187
80
Load
60 L Newtons 50 140 210 430 550 700

Choose suitable scales and plot a graph of

40
F (vertically) against L (horizontally). Draw
the best straight line through the points.
20 Determine from the graph (a) the gradient,
10 B (b) the F-axis intercept, (c) the equation of
C
the graph, (d) the force applied when the load
0 20 24 40 60 80 100 110 120 x is 310 N, and (e) the load that a force of
Voltage V (volts) 160 N will overcome. (f) If the graph were
Figure 2.17 to continue in the same manner, what value
of force will be needed to overcome a 800 N
load?
V corresponds to x, m = 1.25 and c = 10. Hence
the equation of the graph is: 3. The speed of a motor varies with armature
voltage as shown by the following experimen-
R = (1.25V + 10)Ω tal results:

From Fig. 2.17, n (rev/min) 285 517 615 750 917 1050

(d) when the voltage is 60 V, the resistance is 85 Ω V volts 60 95 110 130 155 175

(e) when the resistance is 40 ohms, the voltage is Plot a graph of speed (horizontally) against
24 V, and voltage (vertically) and draw the best straight
line through the points. Find from the graph
(f) by extrapolation, when the voltage is 110 V, the
(a) the speed at a voltage of 145 V, and (b) the
resistance is 147 Ω
voltage at a speed of 400 rev/min.

4. An experiment with a set of pulley blocks gave

Now try the following Practice Exercise the following results:
Effort,
Practice Exercise 23 Practical problems E (newtons) 9.0 11.0 13.6 17.4 20.8 23.6
involving straight line graphs (Answers on
page 556) Load,
L (newtons) 15 25 38 57 74 88
1. The resistance R ohms of a copper winding is
measured at various temperatures t◦ C and the Plot a graph of effort (vertically) against load
results are as follows: (horizontally) and determine (a) the gradient,
R ohms 112 120 126 131 134 (b) the vertical axis intercept, (c) the law of the
t◦ C 20 36 48 58 64 graph, (d) the effort when the load is 30 N and
(e) the load when the effort is 19 N.
Plot a graph of R (vertically) against t (hori-
zontally) and find from it (a) the temperature
38 Section 1

2.8 Calculating areas of common J

shapes

cm
92
1.
The formulae for the areas of common shapes are shown
in Table 2.1. I
Here are some worked problems to demonstrate how
the formulae are used to determine the area of common 5.68 cm
shapes.
K
Problem 27. Calculate the area of the metal plate
Figure 2.20
in the form of a parallelogram shown in Fig. 2.18.
E F
Area of triangle IJK
1 1
= × base × perpendicular height = × IJ × JK
2 2
m
9m

To find JK, Pythagoras’s theorem is used, i.e.

5.682 = 1.922 + JK2 from which,
√
H G JK = 5.682 − 1.922 = 5.346 cm
16 mm 1
Hence, area of triangle IJK = × 1.92 × 5.346
2
21 mm = 5.132 cm2
Figure 2.18
Problem 29. The outside measurements of a
picture frame are 100 cm by 50 cm. If the frame is
Area of a parallelogram 4 cm wide, find the area of the wood used to make
= base × perpendicular height. the frame.
The perpendicular height h is not shown on Fig. 2.18
but may be found using Pythagoras’s theorem (see page A sketch of the frame is shown shaded in Fig. 2.21.
25).
From Fig. 2.19, 92 = 52 + h2 from which, Area of wood = area of large rectangle
h2 = 92 − 52 =
√ 81 − 25 = 56 − area of small rectangle
Hence, perpendicular height, h = 56 = 7.48 mm
= (100 × 50) − (92 × 42)
E F = 5000 − 3864
= 1136 cm2
h
m
9m

100 cm

H 92 cm

16 mm 5 mm
G

Figure 2.19 50 cm 42 cm

Hence, area of parallelogram EFGH

= 16 mm × 7.48 mm = 120 mm2
Figure 2.21
Problem 28. Calculate the area of the triangular
workpiece shown in Fig. 2.20.
 Further mathematics revision 39

Table 2.1 Formulae for the areas of common shapes

Area of plane figures

Square x Area = x2

Rectangle Area = l × b

Parallelogram Area = b × h
h

1
Triangle Area = ×b×h
2
h

a 1
Trapezium Area = (a + b)h
2
h

π d2
Circle Area = π r2 or
r
4
Circumference = 2π r
Radian measure: 2π radians = 360 degrees

θ◦
Sector of circle Area = (π r 2 )
360

u
r
40 Section 1

πd2 π(15)2 225π

Problem 30. Find the cross-sectional area of the Area of DVD = = =
4 4 4
girder shown in Fig. 2.22.
= 176.7 mm2
50 mm
A
Problem 33. Find the area of the circular silver
5 mm medal having a circumference of 70 mm.
B

75 mm
6 mm
8 mm Circumference, c = 2πr hence radius,
c 70 35
C r= = = mm
2π 2π π
( )2
70 mm 35 352
Figure 2.22
Area of medal = πr2 = π =
π π
= 389.9 mm2 or 3.899 cm2
The girder may be divided into three separate rectangles
as shown in Figure 2.22. Problem 34. Calculate the area of the sector of a
circle having diameter 80 mm with angle subtended
Area of rectangle A = 50 × 5 = 250 mm 2
at centre 107◦ 42′
Area of rectangle B = (75 − 8 − 5) × 6 = 62 × 6
= 372 mm2 If diameter = 80 mm, then radius, r = 40 mm, and
Area of rectangle C = 70 × 8 = 560 mm 2
107◦ 42′ 107 42
60
area of sector = (π402 ) = (π402 )
Total area of girder = 250 + 372 + 560 360 360
= 1182 mm2 or 11.82 cm2 107.7
= (π402 ) = 1504 mm2 or 15.04 cm2
360
Problem 31. Fig. 2.23 shows the gable end of a
Problem 35. A hollow shaft has an outside
building. Determine the area of brickwork in the
diameter of 5.45 cm and an inside diameter of
gable end.
2.25 cm. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the
A shaft.
5m 5m
B The cross-sectional area of the shaft is shown by the
C D
shaded part in Fig. 2.24 (often called an annulus).
6m Area of shaded part = area of large circle
− area of small circle
8m
πD2 πd2 π
Figure 2.23 = − = (D2 − d2 )
4 4 4
π
= (5.45 − 2.25 )
2 2
The shape is that of a rectangle and a triangle. 4
Area of rectangle = 6 × 8 = 48 m2 = 19.35 cm2
1
Area of triangle = × base × height
2
CD = 4 m, AD = 5 m, hence AC = 3 m (since it is a 3,
4, 5 triangle – or by Pythagoras)
1
Hence, area of triangle ABD = × 8 × 3 = 12 m2 d5
2 2.25 cm
Total area of brickwork = 48 + 12 = 60 m2 D 5 5.45 cm

Problem 32. Find the area of the circular DVD Figure 2.24
having a diameter of 15 mm.
 Further mathematics revision 41

Problem 36. A football stadium floodlight can

spread its illumination over an angle of 45◦ to a
distance of 55 m. Determine the maximum area that
is floodlit.
7 cm
30 mm
Floodlit area = area of sector
1cm 8 mm
θ◦ ( 2 ) 45 ( )

25 mm
= πr = π × 552 10 mm
360 360 6 mm
from Table 2.1, page 39 2 cm 1 cm 2 cm 50 mm
(a) (b)
= 1188 m2
Figure 2.25

Problem 37. An automatic garden spray 6. Fig. 2.26 shows a 4 m wide path within the
produces a spray to a distance of 1.8 m and revolves outside wall of a 41 m by 37 m garden. Cal-
through an angle α which may be varied. If the culate the area of the path.
desired spray catchment area is to be 2.5 m2 , to
41
what should angle α be set, correct to the nearest
degree.
α ( 2)
Area of sector, 2.5 = πr 4 37
360
2.5 × 360
from which, α=
π × 1.82
= 88.42◦ Figure 2.26
Hence, angle α = 88◦ , correct to the nearest degree.
7. Calculate the area of the steel plate shown in
Fig. 2.27.
Now try the following Practice Exercise
25

Practice Exercise 24 Areas of common 25

shapes (Answers on page 556)
Dimensions
1. A rectangular field has an area of 1.2 hectares in mm
and a length of 150 m. If 1 hectare = 100
10000 m2 find
(a) its width, and
(b) the length of a diagonal. 25
2. Find the area of a triangular metal template
60
whose base is 8.5 cm and perpendicular height 140
6.4 cm.
Figure 2.27
3. A wooden square has an area of 162 cm2 .
Determine the length of a diagonal. 8. Determine the area of an equilateral triangle
2 of side 10.0 cm.
4. A rectangular picture has an area of 0.96 m .
If one of the sides has a length of 800 mm, cal- 9. If paving slabs are produced in 250 mm by
culate, in millimetres, the length of the other 250 mm squares, determine the number of
side. slabs required to cover an area of 2 m2 .
5. Determine the area of each of the angle iron 10. A rectangular garden measures 40 m by 15 m.
sections shown in Fig. 2.25. A 1 m flower border is made round the two
42 Section 1

shorter sides and one long side. A circu- 16. Find the area swept out in 50 minutes by the
lar swimming pool of diameter 8 m is con- minute hand of a large floral clock, if the hand
structed in the middle of the garden. Find, is 2 m long.
correct to the nearest square metre, the area
17. A base plate is in the form of a quadrant of a
remaining.
circle of radius 0.5 m. Calculate the area and
11. Determine the area of circles having (a) a perimeter of the plate.
radius of 4 cm (b) a diameter of 30 mm (c) a
18. A rectangular gasket 350 mm by 200 mm
circumference of 200 mm.
has four holes cut in it, each of diameter 60
12. Calculate the areas of the following sectors of mm. Calculate the area of the gasket in square
circles: centimetres.
(a) radius 9 cm, angle subtended at centre 75◦
19. Calculate the number of turns (to the nearest
(b) diameter 35 mm, angle subtended at cen-
whole number) on a solenoid which is made
tre 48◦ 37′
by winding 25 m of fine copper wire around
13. Determine the shaded area of the template a cylindrical former of diameter 26 mm.
shown in Fig. 2.28.

Areas of irregular figures

80 mm
radius Areas of irregular plane surfaces may be approximately
120 mm determined by using the mid-ordinate rule.
The mid-ordinate rule states:
Area ≈ (width of interval)(sum of mid-ordinates)
90 mm
Figure 2.28 Problem 38. A car starts from rest and its speed
is measured every second for 6 s:

14. An archway consists of a rectangular open- Time t(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

ing topped by a semi-circular arch as shown Speed v (m/s) 0 2.5 5.5 8.75 12.5 17.5 24.0
in Fig. 2.29. Determine the area of the open- Determine the distance travelled in 6 seconds (i.e.
ing if the width is 1 m and the greatest height the area under the v/t graph), by the mid-ordinate
is 2 m. rule.

A graph of speed/time is shown in Fig. 2.30.

30
2m
Graph of speed/time
25
Speed (m/s)

20

1m 15
Figure 2.29
10

15. The floodlights at a sports ground spread its 5

illumination over an angle of 40◦ to a distance
20.25
10.75
8.75

24.0
1.25

12.5
15.0
17.5
2.5
4.0
5.5
7.0

of 48 m. Determine (a) the angle in radians,

and (b) the maximum area that is floodlit. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (seconds)

Figure 2.30
 Further mathematics revision 43

The time base is divided into 6 strips each of width 1 Now try the following Practice Exercise
second.
Mid-ordinates are erected as shown in Fig. 2.30 by the Practice Exercise 25 Areas of irregular
broken lines. figures (Answers on page 556)
The length of each mid-ordinate is measured. Thus
1. Plot a graph of y = 3x − x2 by completing
area ≈ (width of interval)(sum of mid-ordinates) a table of values of y from x = 0 to x = 3.
= (1) [1.25 + 4.0 + 7.0 + 10.75 + 15.0 + 20.25] Determine the area enclosed by the curve, the
x-axis and ordinate x = 0 and x = 3 by the
= 58.25 m mid-ordinate rule.
2. Plot the graph of y = 2x2 + 3 between x = 0
and x = 4. Estimate the area enclosed by the
curve, the ordinates x = 0 and x = 4, and the
x-axis by the mid-ordinate rule.

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Exercises 13 to 25 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird