Unit – II :

Principle
of
Relays

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Over current Protection is that protection in which
the relay picks up when the magnitude of current
exceeds the pick-up value (level). The overcurrent
relaying has the following types.
 High speed O/C relay
 Definite time O/C protection
 Inverse minimum time O/C protection
 Directional O/C protection (of the above 3 types)

 O/C protection includes protection from overload & short

circuit protection.

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 Primary requirements of O/C protection are…
 Prot. Should not operate for starting current (time delay provided)
 Prot. Should be co-ordinated with neighbouring O/C protections so as
to discriminate.

 Application of O/C protections are….

 Motor Protection
 Transformer Protection
 Line Protection
 Protection of Utility Equipments

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Relays used in O/C protection:
1. For instantaneous o/c protection – attracted armature type, MI type,
PMMC type

2. For Inverse time characteristics – Electromagnetic Induction type,

PMMC type, static relays

3. Directional O/C protection – double actuating quantity with

directional feature.

4. Static Over current Relay

5. HRC fuse, drop out fuse etc for LV & MV distribution system
(generally upto 11 kV).
6. Thermal relays are widely used for O/C protection – e.g. motors,
home appliances
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Characteristics of Relay Unit for O/C Protection:
 Wide variety of relay units are available. According to their
type & char. Can classified as….
 Definite characteristics
 Inverse characteristics
 Extremely Inverse characteristics
 Very Inverse characteristics

 In case of definite characteristics, the time of operation is

almost Definite.
i.e. I0t = K
Where,
I = current in relay coil
t = relay time
K = constant
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 In case of Inverse characteristics, time is inversely
proportional to current.
Hence,
I1t = K
 In case of more inverse characteristics, time is inversely
proportional to current,
Hence the equation becomes

Int = K
Where,
n = can be 2 to 8 depends on discrimination desired.

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 When the fault current flows through the earth return
path, the fault is called Earth Fault.
 Following are the methods of earth fault protection

1. Residually connected E/F Relay:

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 In the absence of E/F,

Ias + Ibs + Ics = 0

 This sum is called residual current (IRS).

 The E/F relay is connected such that the residual current
flows through it,
 In the absence of E/F, IRS = 0
Hence, residually connected relay does not operate.
 However in the presence of e/f, the condition is disturbed &
Ias + Ibs + Ics ≠ 0.
 Hence IRS flows through relay. If this IRS is above pickup value,
the E/F relay operates.
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2. E/F Relay connected in Neutral & Earth Circuit:

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 In fig. another method of connecting e/f relay is presented. In
this method, relay is connected to secondary of CT whose
primary is connected in neutral to earth connection.

 In such protection, the fault current finds the return path

through the neutral-to-earth connection. The magnitude of e/f
current is dependent on type of earthing & location of fault.

 Hence, in this protection the zone of protection cannot be

accurately defined. The protected area is not restricted to the
equipment alone. The relay senses the e/f beyond the
generator/transformer winding.

 Hence such protection is called Unrestricted E/f Protection.

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3. Combined E/f & phase fault protection:

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It is convenient to incorporate phase-fault relays & e/f
relay in a combined phase-fault & e/f protection.

The increase in current of phase causes

corresponding increase in respective secondary
currents. The secondary currents flows through the
respective relay units.

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4. E/F Protection with core balance C.T. :

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 A single ring shaped core of magnetic material encircles
the conductor of all the 3-phases. A secondary coil is
connected to a relay unit. The X-section of core is ample,
so that saturation is not a problem.

 During no E/f condition, the components of fluxes due to

the fields of three conductors are balanced & the
secondary current is negligible.

 During E/f, such a balance disturbed & current is flowing

through the secondary. Core balance protection can be
conveniently used for protection of LV or MV system.

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 Directional Operation of relay is used where the selectivity
can be achieved by directional relaying.
 The directional relay recognizes the direction in which fault
occurs, relative to location of the relay.
 It is set such that, it actuates for fault occurring in one
direction only, it doesn’t act for faults occurring in the other
direction.

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Reverse Power Protection:

 If prime mover fails, the generator continuous to run as

motor & takes power from bus-bars.
 Directional power protection operates in accordance with
the direction of power flows.
i.e.
 Reverse power protection operates when the power
direction is reversed in relation to the normal power flow.
 Reverse power relay is different in construction than
directional o/c relay.

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 In directional o/c relay, the directional current doesn’t
measure the magnitude of the power. It senses the
direction of power flow. However, in reverse power relays,
the directional element measures magnitude & direction
of power flow.

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 A differential relay responds to a vector difference
between two or more similar electrical quantities.

 In general, differential relay should have at least two

actuating quantities. e.g. i1- i2, v1-v2

 The two actuating quantities should be similar.

 Since, the relay responds to the vector difference between

two quantities (i.e. I1-I2), which includes magnitude &/or
phase angle difference.

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 Differential protection is generally unit protection. The
protected zone can exactly determined by the locations of
CT’s or PT’s. The vector difference is achieved by suitable
connection of CT’s or PT’s secondaries.

 Mostly these relays are current differential relays in which

vector difference between the current entering the system
(winding or equipment) & current leaving the system is
compared and used for sensing the relay operation.

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 Differential Protection principle is used for many
application few of which given below:

1. Protection of generator or generator-transformer unit

2. Protection of transformer
3. Protection of transmission line or feeder by pilot wire differential
protection
4. Protection of transmission line by phase comparison carrier current
protection.
5. Protection of bus or bus zone using circulating current differential
protection.
6. Protection of large motors.

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Principle of Merz-price Protection (circulating current
differential protection): fig.: No fault or through fault

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Fig. Internal fault or fault in the protected zone:

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In figure, X be the winding to be protected
CT1 & CT2 are the two CT of identical ratio &
saturation characteristics
The Relay coil which operates for differential
current (o/c relay unit).

 Under normal operating condition, I1-I2 = 0, hence no

current through relay coil, hence no operation of relay.

 During fault I1-I2 ≠ 0, hence the current through relay coil

causing relay operation.

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 The polarity connections of CT such that the current I1 & I2
are in same direction in pilot wire during normal condition
or external fault.

 Relay operating coil is connected at the middle point of the

pilot wires for the balance.

 In Practice, two identical characteristics of CT’s are never

found even made by a same manufacturer.

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 Due to mismatching of characteristics, there is always
some spill current flows through the relay coil which may
cause operation of relay during high spill current during
heavy thorough or external short circuit faults.

 To overcome this abnormalities, the percentage or biased

differential relay has been introduced.

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Biased or Percentage Differential Protection:

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 Biased differential relay has an additional restraining coil
connected in pilot wire (fig).

 The restraining coil (bias coil) which restrains the

operation of the relay by developing restraining torque
against operating torque of operating coil for the setting
period.

 When the operating torque exceeds the restraining

torque, the relay operates.

 The total AT in restraining coil is equal to the sum of ATs

of the two halves. i.e. I1 (N/2) + I2 (N/2) for which the
restraining current of (I1+I2 / 2) in N turns.
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 For the short circuit, current outside the zone, I1 & I2 both
increases at a time & hence the restraining torque also
increases which prevents the undesirable operation.

 The biased differential relay has two types of setting.

 Firstly, Basic setting (sensitive setting) in which the value

of operating coil current set above which the relay
operates. This setting termed as % of rated current of
relay.

%Basic Setting = (smallest current in OC to cause operation/ Rated

current of the operating coil ) x 100
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 Secondly, Baised Setting which is defined as the “ratio of
minimum current through operating coil for causing
operation to the average restraining current” .

% Bias Setting = (minimum current in O.C. for causing operation / current in

restraining coil ) X 100

% bias setting = [(I1 – I2) / (I1 + I2 / 2)] x 100

For the above two settings, if the pick up ratio

[(I1 – I2) / (I1 + I2 / 2)] for a particular case is more than
the pre-set bias & the current (I1 – I2) is greater than the
basic setting, the relay will operate.

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i.e. the relay becomes operative if the pickup ratio is higher
than the bias setting (it is different than pickup of relay).

 In case of external faults there may be a high spill current

(I1 – I2). But (I1 + I2/2) will also be high, reducing the
pickup ratio below bias setting, thus it makes the relay
stable against external faults.

 The ratio of differential operating current to average

restraining current is fixed percentage. Hence the relay is
called “% differential relay” .

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 When the pickup ratio is more than bias setting, the pickup
point lies in the +ve torque region & if this ratio is less than
the bias setting, the relay will be in the blocking region (fig.
operating characteristics).

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 Distance relays are double actuating quantity relays with one
coil energized by voltage & other coil energized by current.

 Torque produced is such that when V/I reduces below a set

value, the relay operates.

 During a fault on a T’line the fault current increases & the

voltage at fault point reduces.
 The ratio V/I is measured at the location of CT’s & PT’s.

 The voltage at PT location depends on the distance between

the PT & the fault.
i.e. if fault is nearer, measured voltage is lesser & if fault is
farther, measured voltage is more. 32
 Hence assuming constant fault
resistance each value of V/I
measured from relay location
corresponding to distance
between the relaying point & the
fault along the line. Hence such
protection is called Impedance
or Distance protection.

 The operating time of the relay

automatically increases with an
increase of V/I ratio.

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 Impedance or reactance of the circuit between the relay &
the fault is proportional to the distance between them
provided the relay actuating quantities (V & I) are properly
chosen.

 Principle types of distance relays are …

 Impedance relay
 reactance relay
 admittance or mho relay
 oh m relay
 offset mho relay
Relay which measures the plain impedance (Z) are
called impedance relays.
Relays which measures impedance but respond to
faults on one direction only are called directional
impedance relay. 34
Principle of R-X diagram:
 R-X diagram are useful in plotting characteristics of distance relays.
 The three variables V,I & CosΦ are converted into two variables R & X.

Impedance Z1= RMS value of V / RMS value of I = V1/I1

Z can be plotted on R-X diagram,
R1 = Z1 CosΦ
X1 = Z1 SinΦ
Φ is positive, if I1 lags V1
Φ is negative, if I1 leads V1

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Plain Impedance Relay:
 The impedance relay operates for a certain conditions of the
ratio V & I which may expressed as impedance.
 In any impedance relay, there are two actuating quantities
namely V & I.
 The current gives operating torque & voltage gives restraining
torque. Impedance relay measures Z.

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 Since the relay operates for certain value, less than the set value of
the Z, the operating char. is a circle of radius Z.

 Any value of Zf less than the radius of the circle produces +ve torque
& the value of Zf more than radius of circle produces a –ve torque &
relay does not operate.

 This will happen regardless of phase angle between V & I.

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Disadvantages:

1. It is non-directional, it responds to the faults on both sides

of CT-PT location. Hence it cannot discriminate between
internal & external faults.
2. It is affected by arc resistance of line fault & result in
under reach.
3. It is sensitive to power swings as a large area is covered by
the circle on each side of R-X plane.

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 Thank You

Note: This slide is only for understanding the course, you must refer the books & research papers for the
detail study of course.
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