UNIT 4

COMPUTER NETWORK
What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a group of two or more interconnected computer systems.
You can establish a network connection using either cable or wireless media.
Every network involves hardware and software that connects computers and tools.
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications.
What Do Networks Do?
Computer networks are used to carry out a large number of tasks through the sharing of
information.
Some of the things that networks are used for include:
 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging and other methods
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners and photocopiers
 Sharing files
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information
 Computer Network Architecture
A Computer Architecture is a design in which all computers in a computer
network are organized. An architecture defines how the computers should get
connected to get the maximum advantages of a computer network such as better
response time, security, scalability etc. The two most popular computer
architectures are P2P (Peer to Peer) and Client-Server architecture.
Peer to Peer Architecture
In a Peer-To-Peer Network, the “peers” are computer systems which are connected
to each other via the Internet. Files can be shared directly between systems on the
network without the need of a central server. However, the most common use case
for peer-to-peer networks is the sharing of files on the internet. Peer-to-peer
networks are ideal for file sharing because they allow the computers connected to
them to receive files and send files simultaneously.
In peer to peer architecture all the computers in a computer network are connected with
every computer in the network. Every computer in the network use the same resources as
other computers. There is no central computer that acts as a server rather all computers
acts as a server for the data that is stored in them.

Computers (peers) can share peripheral devices like printer, hard drive, or scanner with
each other. Peer to peer network is made between computers through modem, switch
or hub. The connection between peers can be wired or wireless. In wired connection
coaxial cables, copper cable, and fiber optics can be used.

Examples of peer to peer network:-

Torrent: Torrent is a big example of a P2P network. In torrent, all the computers are
connected to each other on the internet. One computer can upload any file in the
network and other computers start downloading the files. Also, every computer can
upload parts of the file if that computer has already downloaded some chunks of the file.
Advantages of a Peer to Peer Architecture
1. Less costly as there is no central server that has to take the backup.
2. In case of a computer failure all other computers in the network are not
affected and they will continue to work as same as before the failure.
3. Installation of peer to peer architecture is quite easy as each computer
manages itself.
Disadvantages of a Peer to Peer Architecture
1. Each computer has to take the backup rather than a central computer and the
security measures are to be taken by all the computers separately.
Client Server Architecture
Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which many clients (remote
processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host computer).
In the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data to the
server through the internet, the server accepts the requested process and deliver the data
packets requested back to the client. Clients do not share any of their resources. Examples of
Client-Server Model are Email, World Wide Web, etc.

So, the clients and servers are two different computers in different parts of the world
that are connected through the Internet. However, it is not compulsory to have the
client, and the server resides miles apart, rather it could remain within the same building
as well.

Types of Computer Networks

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly
of four types:
  LAN(Local Area Network)
 PAN(Personal Area Network)
 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN(Wide Area Network)

1) What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?

PAN is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists of a computer,
mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing communication among
these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the internet.
PAN is typically set up to share resources within a personal computer such as wireless Keyboard
and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones and speakers, Wireless printers, Scanners and
more. PAN’s Usually be installed in a range of about 10 meters.

Characteristics of PAN
 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single
user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
  Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN
 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN.
 Distance limits.

2) Local Area Network (LAN)

 Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a
small places such as school, hospital, apartment etc.
 LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area
network thus the data which is shared is safe on the local area network
and can’t be accessed outside.
 The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone's
home or office.
 It is a network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several
buildings.
LAN is a group of Computers or peripherals devices connected in a small geographic area such
as house, building, school or office, etc. It is widely used network for sharing hardware devices
such as printers and software such as application programs or data.
Various devices in a LAN are connected to a central device called a HUB or Switch. The LAN can
be installed simultaneously in wired, wireless or both forms. However, LAN typically relies on
wired connections for better speed and increased security.

Characteristics of LAN
 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
  LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.

Advantages of LAN
 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related
to software setup and hardware failures

4) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and
smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN network covers larger area by
connections LANs to a larger network of computers. In Metropolitan area network
various Local area networks are connected with each other through telephone
lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller
than WANs (wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or
town.
The Primary aim of MAN is to expand the LAN. Most of the Government sectors
and other private organizations use MAN to connect all of its offices in a city.
MAN uses high capacity fiber optics to provide increased speed. The MAN is
typically installed in a range of more than 100 km.
Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are: Modem and Wire/Cable.
Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.
Advantages of MAN
 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic
cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater
access to WANs.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to
another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

5) Wide area network (WAN)

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is
spread across a large geographical area. WAN network system could be a
connection of a LAN which connects with other LAN's using telephone lines and
radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.
The size of the WAN is larger than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country,
continent or even a whole world. Internet connection is an example of WAN.
Other examples of WAN are mobile broadband connections such as 3G, 4G etc.

Advantages of WAN
 Centralized infrastructure: One of the main advantage of WAN is the that
we do not need to maintain the backup and store data on local system as
everything is stored online on a data center, from where we can access the
data through WAN.
 Privacy: We can setup the WAN in such a way that it encrypts the data that
we share online that way the data is secure and minimizes the risk of
unauthorized access.
 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business
offices situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Cost of installation is very high.
  The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and
network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use
of different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of
multiple wired and wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of networks.

Computer Network Topologies

What is Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.

1. Physical – The physical network topology refers to the actual connections

(wires, cables, etc.) of how the network is arranged. Setup, maintenance,
and provisioning tasks require insight into the physical network.
2. Logical – The logical network topology is a higher-level idea of how the
network is set up, including which nodes connect to each other and in
which ways, as well as how data is transmitted through the network.
Logical network topology includes any virtual and cloud resources.

In a computer network, there are mainly six types of physical topology, they are:

1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

1) Bus Topology
Bus topology is the simplest kind of topology in which a common bus or channel is
used for communication in the network. The bus topology is designed in such a
way that all the stations are connected through a single cable known as a
backbone cable.
The bus is connected to various taps and droplines. Taps are the connectors,
while droplines are the cables connecting the bus with the computer. In other
words, there is only a single transmission line for all nodes.
 When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but only the
receiver accepts it and others reject it. Bus technology is mainly suited for small
networks like LAN, etc.
Advantages of Bus topology:

1. Simple to use and install.

2. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
3. Less cabling is required.
4. Cost-efficient to implement.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
1. If the bus fails, the network will fail.
2. A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to limited bus
length.
3. Security issues and risks are more as messages are broadcasted to all
nodes.

2) Ring Topology
Ring topology is a topology in which each computer is connected to exactly two
other computers to form the ring. In a ring, topology nodes are connected to each
other in a ring form. The data travel from one node to another node in the form
of a ring.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology
with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the
100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has
to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Suppose computer A wants to send data to computer D then data is first placed in
the packet and the packet is transferred to computer B then computer C and
finally, to the computer, D. Data is travelling in the form packets in the ring
topology. If the data is received in the target node then the empty packet is
passed to the next node until it reaches the source node. The source node will
finally know that its data is received successfully.
Example of ring topology:-

 Ring topology is used in WAN (Wide area network)

 Used in MAN (Metropolitan area network)
 Sometimes used in homes

Following are the advantages of Ring topology:

1. Easy Installation.
2. Less Cabling Required.
3. Reduces chances of data collision (unidirectional).
4. Each node gets the same access time.
Following are the disadvantages of Ring topology:
 1. If a node fails, the whole network will fail.
2. Slow data transmission speed (each message has to go through the ring path).
3. Difficult to reconfigure (we have to break the ring).
3) Star Topology
Star topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are
connected to a centralized hub. The hub or switch acts as a middleware between
the nodes. Any node requesting for service or providing service, first contact the
hub for communication.

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device

called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct
communication between devices, a device must have to communicate through
hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data
to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.
Following are the advantages of Star topology:
1. Centralized control.
2. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not give response).
3. Nodes can be added or removed to the network easily.
4. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
5. Easy to reconfigure and upgrade (configured using a central device).

Following are the disadvantages of Star topology:

1. If the central device fails, the network will fail.
2. Cost of installation is high.
3. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

4) Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are
interconnected with each other. In other words, direct communication takes place
between the nodes in the network.
  Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
 There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
 It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
 The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
 It is a topology commonly used for wireless networks.

 If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh

topology, then total number of ports that is required by each device is ? N-1.
In the Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence total
number of ports required is 4.
 If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh
topology, then total number of dedicated links required to connect them
is C i.e. N(N-1)/2. In the Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each
N
2

other, hence total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.

Following are the advantages of Mesh topology:

1. Dedicated links facilitate direct communication.

2. No congestion or traffic problems on the channels.
3. Very fast communication.
4. Maintains privacy and security due to a separate channel for
communication.
5. A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or
transmission of data.
Following are the disadvantages of Mesh topology:

1. Very high cabling required.

2. Complex to implement and takes large space to install the
network.
3. Installation and maintenance are very difficult.

5) Tree Topology:
Tree topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are directly
or indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Tree topology is a combination of
Bus and Star topology.
In a tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments, which can be
easily managed and maintained. There is a main hub and all the other sub-hubs
are connected to each other in this topology.
In a tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments, which can be easily
managed and maintained. There is a main hub and all the other sub-hubs are connected
to each other in this topology.

However, where each node in a star topology is directly connected to the central
hub, a tree topology has a parent-child hierarchy to how the nodes are
connected.
A tree topology is a special type of structure where many connected elements are
arranged like the branches of a tree. For example, tree topologies are frequently
used to organize the computers in a corporate network, or the information in
a database.
The pattern of connection resembles a tree in which all branches spring from one
root hence (Tree Topology). Tree topology is one of the most popular among five
network topology.
In computer networks, a tree topology is also known as a star bus topology. It
incorporates elements of both a bus topology and a star topology. In the picture,
if the main cable (trunk) between the two star topology networks failed, those
networks would be unable to communicate with each other. However, computers
on the same star topology would still be able to communicate.
Following are the advantages of Tree topology:

1. Large distance network coverage.

2. Fault finding is easy by checking each hierarchy.
3. Least or no data loss.
4. A Large number of nodes can be connected directly or indirectly.
5. Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them fails.
Following are the disadvantages of Tree topology:

1. Cabling and hardware cost is high.

2. Complex to implement.
3. Hub cabling is also required.
4. A large network using tree topology is hard to manage.
5. It requires very high maintenance.

6) Hybrid Topology:
A Hybrid topology is a computer topology which is a combination of two or more
topologies. In practical use, they are the most widely used.
In this topology, all topologies are interconnected according to the needs to form
a hybrid. All the good features of each topology can be used to make an efficient
hybrid topology. Hybrid structures are most commonly found in larger
companies where individual departments have personalized network topologies
adapted to suit their needs and network usage.
When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid
topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and
bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will
result in Hybrid topology.
Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

1. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Following are the advantages of Hybrid topology:

1. It can handle a large volume of nodes.

2. It provides flexibility to modify the network according to our needs.
3. Very Reliable(if one node fails it will not affect the whole network).
Following are the disadvantages of Hybrid topology:

1. Complex design.
2. Expensive to implement.

Network Devices
The devices which are used for communication between different hardware’s
used in the computer network are known as network devices. These devices
are also known as physical devices, networking hardware, and network
equipment otherwise computer networking devices. In a computer network,
each network device plays a key role based on their functionality, and also
works for different purposes at different segments.

1) Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate

the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over
the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by
bit and regenerate it at the original strength.
The significant point to be noted regarding these devices is that they do not
strengthen the signal. Whenever the signal gets weak, then they reproduce it
at the actual strength.

2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires

coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology
which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are
sent to all connected devices. Because of this working, a network hub cannot
be so safe and secure.

The network hub is one kind of networking device in a computer network,

used to communicate with various network hosts and also for data
transferring.
3. Bridge-- Bridge devices work at the data link layer of the Open System
Interconnect (OSI) model, connecting two different networks together and
providing communication between them. Bridges are similar to repeaters and
hubs in that they broadcast data to every node.

When referring to computer networks, a bridge, network bridge, or bridging is a

device that connects two LANs (local area networks) or two segments of the same
LAN. The main function of this is to examine the incoming traffic and examine
whether to filter it or forward it.

4. Switch –Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is
a multiport device that improves network efficiency. As the hub is used for data
transferring, whereas a switch is used for filtering & forwarding the data. So this is
the more clever technique to deal with the data packets.

5. Routers –A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on
their IP addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally
connect LANs and WANs together. A network router is one kind of network device
in a computer network and it is used for routing traffic from one network to
another. Routers are intelligent devices, and they store information about the
networks they’re connected to. They are responsible for receiving, analyzing, and
forwarding data packets among the connected computer networks.
6. Gateway – gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two
networks together that may work upon different networking models. They
basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret
it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters
and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex
than switch or router.
It acts as the entry – exit point for a network since all traffic that flows across the
networks should pass through the gateway. A gateway is a node (router) in a
computer network, a key stopping point for data on its way to or from other
networks. Thanks to gateways, we are able to communicate and send data back
and forth. The Internet wouldn’t be any use to us without gateways (as well as a
lot of other hardware and software).
In a workplace, the gateway is the computer that routes traffic from a workstation
to the outside network that is serving up the Web pages. For basic Internet
connections at home, the gateway is the Internet Service Provider that gives you
access to the entire Internet.

COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Communication media refers to the means of delivering and receiving data or information. In
data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another.
Two types of Transmission media
1. Wired media/Guided media
2. Wireless Media/Unguided media

Wired Media comes in a variety of different types as given below:

1) Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They
are the most widely used Transmission Media.Twisted pair consists of two insulated
copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

2) Coaxial Cable –
 Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
 The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
 It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
 The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
It is more expensive then twisted cable and less then fiber optic cable and cover more distance
with the help of repeaters. It can supply 10 to 100 Mbps speed.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

 The data can be transmitted at high speed.

 It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Coaxial cable:

 It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

 If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

3) Optical Fiber Cable –

 Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
 Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used
to send the data by pulses of light.
 The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
 Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
 Fiber Optic cable is made of glass thinnest more than Human Hair.
Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable
Fibre optic has several advantages over metallic cable:

 Higher bandwidth
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Light weight

Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable

There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fibre:

 Installation and maintenance

 High Cost

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves
no physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly.
Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by
appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it
converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency
range. The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to
digital data.

Microwaves Transmission
Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-point communication
systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space
radio communications. Other parts of the microwave radio band are used for radars,
radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio astronomy.
Microwave is a wireless communication technology that uses high frequency beams of
radio waves to provide high speed wireless connections that can send and receive
voice, video, and data information.

Infrared Transmission

 Infrared wireless is used for medium and short range communications and
control. Infrared technology is used in instruction detectors; robot control
system, medium range line of sight laser communication, cordless microphone,
headsets, modems, and other peripheral devices.
 Infrared radiation is used in scientific, industrial, and medical application.
 It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
resides in the same closed area.

Radio Transmission
It is a wireless transmission medium that is used to communicate information
through radio signals in air, over long distance such as between cities and
countries. In this medium, a transmitter is required to send messages (signals)
and receiver is required to receive them. To receive the broadcast radio signal,
the receiver has an antenna that is located in the range of signal. Some networks
use a special device called transceiver used to send and to receive messages in
the form of radio signals.
Satellite Transmission

 A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
 Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fibre optic systems.
 We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.
 What is the OSI Model
Developed in 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection or OSI model is
a seven-layer model used to describe networking connections. It was initially
developed by ISO, the International Organization for Standardization in 1984
and is now common practice for learning networking concepts.
The OSI models specifies how information is transmitted from a network
device like a router to its destination through a physical medium and how it
interacts with the application. In other words, it provides a standard for
different systems to communicate with each other.
It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.
All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical
layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get
the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link
layer, which will put the frame back together.
At the physical layer, one might find “physical” resources such as network hubs, cabling,
repeaters, network adapters or modems.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2)

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-to-node data transfer
where data is packaged into frames. The data link layer also corrects errors that may have
occurred at the physical layer.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer, and delivering
them to their intended destinations among based on the addresses contained inside the frame.

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of Network Layer:
 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network
layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport
layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
It gets the data from the session layer and breaks it into transportable
segments.
 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5)
This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, authentication and also ensures security.
When two devices, computers or servers need to “speak” with one another, a
session needs to be created, and this is done at the Session Layer. Functions
at this layer involve setup, coordination (how long should a system wait for a
response, for example) and termination between the applications at each end
of the session.
Session layer services also include authentication and reconnections.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
It represents the preparation or translation of application format to network
format, or from network formatting to application format. In other words, the
layer “presents” data for the application or the network. A good example of
this is encryption and decryption of data for secure transmission - this
happens at Layer 6.
Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the
form of character strings, numbers and so on. It converts the data from sender-
dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
  Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications
produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also
serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.
It receives information directly from users and displays incoming data it to the
user. The application layer is where the user directly interacts with a software
application, so it is closest to the end user. When the user wants to
transmit files or pictures, this layer interacts with the application
communicating with the network. The application layer identifies resources,
communication partners, and synchronizes communication.
The functions of the Application layer are :
1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. SMTP for emails
5. FTP for emails
How data flows through the OSI model
In order for human-readable information to be transferred over a network from one
device to another, the data must travel down the seven layers of the OSI model on the
sending device and then travel up the seven layers on the receiving end.
For example: Mr. C wants to send Mr. P an email. Mr. C composes his message in an
email application on his laptop and then hits ‘send’. His email application will pass his
email message over to the application layer, which will pick a protocol (SMTP) and pass
the data along to the presentation layer. The presentation layer will then compress the
data and then it will hit the session layer, which will initialize the communication session.
The data will then hit the sender’s transportation layer where it will be segmented, then
those segments will be broken up into packets at the network layer, which will be broken
down even further into frames at the data link layer. The data link layer will then deliver
those frames to the physical layer, which will convert the data into a bitstream of 1s and
0s and send it through a physical medium, such as a cable.
Once Mr. P’s computer receives the bit stream through a physical medium (such as her
wifi), the data will flow through the same series of layers on her device, but in the
opposite order. First the physical layer will convert the bitstream from 1s and 0s into
frames that get passed to the data link layer. The data link layer will then reassemble
the frames into packets for the network layer. The network layer will then make
segments out of the packets for the transport layer, which will reassemble the segments
into one piece of data.
The data will then flow into the receiver's session layer, which will pass the data along to
the presentation layer and then end the communication session. The presentation layer
will then remove the compression and pass the raw data up to the application layer. The
application layer will then feed the human-readable data along to Mr. P’s email
software, which will allow her to read Mr. C’s email on her laptop screen.

Internet, Intranet and Extranet

Internet
Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible computer network of interconnected
computer networks (internetwork) that transmit data using the standard Internet Protocol
(IP). Largest Internetwork in the world is Internet.
The terms World Wide Web (WWW) and Internet are not the same. The Internet is a
collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic
cables, wireless connections, etc. The World Wide Web is one of the services
accessible via the Internet, along with various others including email, file sharing,
remote administration, video streaming, online gaming etc. World Wide Web (WWW) is
a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked together by
hyperlinks and URLs.
1. Internet can be described as a global system of interconnected computer network.
2. Internet is the largest network in as far as the number of connected devices is
concerned.
3. Internet is a means of sharing information throughout the world.
4. Security is dependent of the user of the device connected to network.

Advantages Of Internet
 An internet connection provides many people with ability to work from home
or have a virtual office.
 Internet has made it possible to send and receive information across large
matrix of computer systems.
 With internet one is able to access information quickly and easily.
 The internet improves internal communications through emails, connected
calendars and chat services specifically designed to improve business
communications.

Disadvantages Of Internet
 It is unregulated network and therefore it invites undesirable activities.
 Access to internet is not restricted and information is available to anyone
across the world.
 If the file server breaks down, the files on the server become inaccessible.
 There is danger of hacking or availability of malicious viruses.

Intranet
An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. Typical intranet for a
business organization consists of many interlinked local area networks (LAN) and use any Wide
Area Network (WAN) technology for network connectivity. The main purpose of an intranet is to
share company information and computing resources among employees. Intranet is a private
Internetwork, which is usually created and maintained by a private organization. The content
available inside Intranet are intended only for the members of that organization (usually
employees of a company).
In case an organization doesn’t want to leak or share some of its confidential or
sensitive information with the general public, the information is normally shared
through an intranet to its members (staff). The members of the organization (staff)
may access the intranet from their workplace.
1. Intranet can be described as a network of computers or a private network
designed for a specific group of users (organization).
2. It is a small network with a few number of connected devices.
3. Intranet is a means of sharing sensitive or confidential information throughout
the organization.
4. It is regulated by a specific organization.
5. The content in the network is accessible only to members of the organization.
6. Ownership of intranet is by a single organization.
7. Intranet is regulated by the organization policies.
8. An intranet may be accessible from the internet, but it is protected by a
password and accessible only to authorized users.

Benefits of Intranet
 It reduces emails and meetings
 Improves employee engagement and knowledge sharing
 Helps an organization to build an internal collaborative culture.
 Increases productivity in an organization.
 With use of intranet, there is reduced incidences and errors
 Enhances centralized access to information

Disadvantages Of Intranet
 Intranet can be very costly and time-consuming to implement.
 Poor user experience results in low usage rates.
 Hard to measure success and effectiveness.
 Information can be shared outside the local network due to one faulty or
compromised machine.
 Intranet reduces face-to-face interaction among employees and this can
hinder cooperation.
 Users normally rely on easy to guess passwords and therefore it is easy to
compromise the entire network.

Extranet
An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users
outside the company like suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other business
associates.
Extranet is required for normal day-to-day business activities. For example, placing
purchase order to registered vendors, billing & invoices, payments related activities,
joint venture related activities, product brochures for partners, discounted price lists for
partners etc.

1. Extranet is regulated by contractual agreements between organizations.

2. Example of extranet is when companies like HP, Intel and Lenovo decide to use
the same network for related business operations.
3. Extranet is a means of conveying information between members of the
organization and external members.
4. It is regulated by multiple organizations.
5. The content on the network is accessible to members of the organization and
external members with access to the network.

Advantages Of Extranet
 An extranet greatly improves flexibility by making applications and
information available to customers, clients and partners, allowing all the
involved parties to operate with convenience.
 With proper implementation, an extranet can help improve an organizations
security by creating different access levels, consequently controlling who can
access company data.
 It helps to remove bottlenecks within transactions of an organization and
significantly increasing productivity.

Disadvantages of Extranet
 Extranets are vulnerable to security breaches since they give outsiders access
to internal database and systems
 Time is required to train users on how to work with the network.
 The network is prone misuse.
 Maintenance cost of the network is high.
 Information can be shared outside the local network due to one faulty or
compromised machine.