Chapter 3

3.1 Metabolism and Energy

Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in a cell or organism.

Work is performed when energy is used to move an object against an opposing force, for
example friction or gravity.

Kinetic Energy: The energy of motion, or found in moving objects

Potential Energy: The stored energy that an object possess as a result of its position relative to
other objects or to its internal structure - simply put, stored energy

The First Law of Thermodynamics: THe total amount of energy in a closed system is constant.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to another.

If a physical system gains an amount of energy, another physical system must experience a
loss of energy of the same amount.

The conversion of energy in chemical bonds comes from the breaking and forming of new
bonds in a chemical reaction. This results in changes to the amount of potential energy
available.

Bond Energy: THe minimum amount of energy required to break a particular type of bonds;
measure in kJ/mol.

Mole: The number of atoms or molecules (Avogadro’s Number 6.022 x 1023) whose mass in
grams is equal to the atomic mass of one such particle in atomic mass units; one carbon atom
has a mass of 12 AU, and , therefore, one moles of carbon atoms has a mass of 12 grams.

Activation Energy: The minimum amount of energy that chemical reactants must absorb to start
a reaction.

Transition State: A temporary condition during a chemical reaction in which the bonds in the
reactant are breaking and the bonds in the products are forming.

Exothermic Reaction: A chemical reaction in which the energy is released, leaving the products
with less chemical potential energy than the reactants.

Endothermic Reaction: A chemical reaction in which energy is absorbed, giving the products
more chemical potential energy than the reactants.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics: In every energy transfer or conversion, some of the
useful energy in the system becomes insatiable and increases the entropy of the universe.

In thermodynamics, the degree of disorder is a measurable quantity called entropy. The total
entropy of a system and its surroundings increases whenever there is any change, such as a
chemical reaction.

Entropy: A measurement of disorder in a system.

Entropy increases during chemical reactions when:

● Solids react to form liquids or gasses
● Liquids react to form gaseous products
● The total number of product molecules in greater than the total number of reactant
molecules

Living things are all highly ordered structures. However, they still follow the laws of entropy. By
expending energy to perform functions, living organisms can maintain a low level of entropy in a
system. However, thousands of chemical reactions still take place to maintain order in a living
system, releasing energy in the form of thermal energy and the by-product of metabolism, such
as carbon dioxide. These by-products and released energy increase the entropy of the
surroundings, but the living organisms itself still maintains order. Therefore, the entropy of the
universe increases, even as the overall entropy of the organism decreases or is held in a highly
ordered state.

Spontaneous Change: A change that will, once begun, continue on its own under a given set of
conditions; does not require a continuous supply of energy.
Gibbs Free Energy: Energy that can do useful work; also called Free Energy

Δ G=Gfinal state −Ginitial state

Where the free energy cna be calculated ofr any reaction.

Exergonic Reaction: A chemical reaction that releases free energy; the products have less free
energy than the reactants.

Endergonic Reaction: A chemical reaction that absorbs free energy; the products have more
free energy than the reactants.
Couple Reactions: The transfer of energy from one reaction to another in order to drive the
second reaction.

For Example:

Catabolic Pathway: A pathway in which energy is released and complex molecules are broken
down into simple molecules.

Anabolic Pathway: A pathway in which energy is supplied to build complex molecules from
simple molecules.
All living things perform numerous activities that result in an increase in the free energy of the
products or substances involved (grow, repair, and reproduce). Free energy is usually supplied
by the energy carrier molecule ATP.

Chapter 4

4.1 Introduction to Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

Aerobic Cellular Respiration: A process that uses oxygen to harvest energy from organic
compounds.

Obligate Aerobes: An organism that cannot live without oxygen.

Substrate Level Phosphorylation: The formation of ATP by the direct transfer of a phosphate
group from a substrate to ADP.

Oxidative Phosphorylation: A process that forms ATP using energy transferred indirectly from a
series of redox reactions.

Glycolysis: A series of reactions in which a glucose molecule is broken into two pyruvate
molecules and energy is released.

Pyruvate Oxidation: A reaction in pyruvate is oxidized by NAD+, and CO2 is removed, forming an
acetyl group and releasing NADH.
Citric Acid Cycle: A cyclic series of reaction that transfers energy from organic molecules to
ATP, NADH and FADH2 and releases carbon dioxide atoms as CO2,.

Anaerobic Respiration: A process that uses a final inorganic oxidizing agent other than oxygen
to produce energy.

Fermentation: A process that uses an organic compound as the final oxidizing agent to produce
energy.

Obligate Anaerobe: An organism that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen.

Facultative Anaerobe: An organism that can live with or without oxygen.

4.2 Aerobic Respiration: The Details

Decarboxylation Reaction: A chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group to form CO2.

Dehydrogenation: The removal of a hydrogen atom from a molecule.

Proton Gradient: A difference in proton or H+ ion concentration across a membrane.

Proton-Motive Force: A force that moves protons because of a chemical gradient (often referred
to as an electrochemical gradient) of protons across a membrane.

Chemiosmosis: A process in which ATP is synthesized using the energy of an electrochemical

gradient and the ATP Synthase Enzyme.

4.3 The Efficiency and Regulation of Cellular Respiration

Creatine Phosphate: Having a constant supply of ATP is critical for cells. This is difficult in
certain types of cells. Such as muscle and brain cells, whose energy demands fluctuate
dramatically. Cells may require a sudden burst of energy in periods of high activity, but low at
other times, to meet these changes in demands with the use of creatine phosphate. When ATP
levels are high in the cells, ATp phosphorylates creatine to make creatine phosphate. Then
when the energy demand becomes high, creatine phosphate can be used to phosphorylate
ADP to ATP, and can act as an energy supply when ATP demand becomes high in the cell.
Some organisms have the ability to use creatine phosphate to meet energy demands when they
swing from low to high.

Metabolic Rate: The amount of energy that is expended per unit of time.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The metabolic rate of an organism at rest.

Changes based on age, gender, development, muscle mass, and health.

Phosphofructokinase:
Inhibited by ATP, Citrate
Activated: ADP or AMP (Adenosine monophosphate)
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase:
Inhibitor: NADH

Alternatives to Glucose:
Proteins: Hydrolyzed into individual amino acids and undergoes a deamination reaction to
remove an amino group or ammonia, then it can enter as
● Pyruvate
● Acetyl-CoA
● Intermediates in the Krebs Cycle depending on the R-Group if the amino acid

Lipids: Lipids are hydrolyzed into fatty acids and glycerol. Glycerol is converted into G3P and
enters glycolysis. Fatty Acids undergo beta-oxidation and enter the Krebs Cycle as Acetyl-CoA.
Beta Oxidation is when the fatty acids are catabolized into the sequential removal of small
acetyl groups.

Complex Carbohydrates (Starch, Glycogen): Disaccharide carbohydrates like sucrose and

lactose or maltose are easily hydrolyzed into monosaccharides like glucose fructose and
galactose enters glycolysis in the early stages. Starch is hydrolyzed into glucose monomers
using amylase, and enzymes in the digestive tract. Glycogen is hydrolyzed by enzymes in the
liver into G6P, an early substrate in glycolysis.

Aerobic Cellular Respiration produces a maximum of 38 ATP per glucose molecule and has a
maximum efficiency of 41%.

Due to the mass of the water bonded to carbohydrates, they are heavier than lipids to carry
around as fuel.

4.4 Anaerobic Pathways: Life Without Oxygen

Alcohol Fermentation: A process in which pyruvate is decarboxylated, producing a molecule
each of CO2, and acetaldehyde which is reduced by NADH to ethanol, and an NAD+.

Lactate Fermentation: A process in which pyruvate reacts with NADH and is converted directly
into lactate and regenerates NAD+.