Thermal physics

Kinetic theory of matter

The Kinetic theory of matter is based on three fundamental statements:

1. Matter is made up of tiny particles called molecules, which consist of even smaller particles called atoms.
2. These molecules are constantly in motion.
3. Molecules interact with each other with forces that depend on the distance between them. They attract
strongly when they are close together, but if they move further apart, eventually the attraction forces no longer
act.

Evidence for the kinetic theory

1. Brownian motion (Name after Robert Brown – 1827)

When viewed under a microscope, pollen grains floating on water or smoke particles suspended in air are
found to move haphazardly in all directions. The observation can be explained by considering that the pollen
grains or smoke particles are bombarded by molecules of water or air in fast random motion.

The light illuminates the smoke particles so that they can be seen through the microscope moving in random
paths as shown in diagram 2.
2. Diffusion
This is moving of fluids by the motion of their particles. It causes a phenomenon such as the spreading of a
smell throughout a room even when the air inside the room appears still.
States of matter
NB: Both Brownian Theory and Diffusion shows that the molecules of both liquids and gases are in restless
motion with randomly changing direction and speed.

Matter can exist in states, each of which has distinguishing properties. The main states of matter are solids,
liquids and gas.

A. Solids
Generally they are incompressible and have a rigid structure and definite shape. These properties can be
explained by assuming that:
i. Particles are close together and have a fixed mean distance between them,
ii. There are strong attractive forces between particle (as shown by elasticity)
iii. The particles vibrate about a fixed position with energy dependent on temperature.
 B. Liquids
Generally they are incompressible, but they have no definite shape. Kinetic theory postulates that:
i. Particles are a little further apart than in solids but the mean distance between them does not change
much
ii. There are attractive forces between (forces causing surface tension) but they are much weaker than in
solids,
iii. Particles are not in a fixed position but can move freely relative to one another.

C. Gases
They have no fixed shape or volume, they can be compressed and always fill the container holding them. We
consider that:
i. Particles are as far apart as the container allows,
ii. There are no forces between the particles except when they collide with each
other or the walls of the container,
iii. The particles are always in fast random motion.

Evaporation

This is the loss of more energetic particles from the surface of a liquid. A pure substance cannot exist in liquid state
above a certain temperature called boiling point. However, evaporation occurs at all temperatures.

Evaporation versus Boiling

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a specific temperature
Occurs at any temperature
called boiling point
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs at the surface of the liquid
Bubbles are formed No bubbles are formed

Evaporation and kinetic theory

Not all the particles in a liquid have the same amount of energy. The more energetic particles close to the surface may
escape from the liquid and move into the air in the vapour state, thus the rate of evaporation is increased.

How to increase the rate of evaporation

i. Increase in the surface area

This means that more of the energetic particles of the liquid are the surface and can escape.
ii. Increase in temperature
An increase in temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the particles. This means that more
particles have enough energy to escape from the liquid.
iii. Decreasing the pressure above the liquid
Less energy is necessary to escape from the liquid since there is less force exerted downwards on the liquid
by the air.
iv. Draught (Wind current)
It blows away vapour molecules above the liquid surface preventing them from returning to the liquid. This
gives room for other molecules to escape from the liquid.
Cooling by evaporation

Evaporation requires latent heat which causes the liquid to cool e.g. perspiration cools down as sweat removes heat
from the body as it evaporates.

Cooling by evaporation can be explained by the kinetic theory of matter as follows:

Molecules which are more likely to escape are those with the most energy thus when a liquid evaporates it loses
energetic particles and so the average kinetic energy (temperature) of the liquid decreases.

Experiment to demonstrate cooling by Evaporation

When air is blown through the ether (volatile spirit), the ether evaporates rapidly, acquiring heat from the surroundings.
Enough energy is drawn the film of water causing it to ice.

Applications of Evaporation

i. Perspiration

As we perspire, we lose latent heat and thus cool down

ii. Refrigeration
It uses a liquid with low boiling point called the refrigerant. The liquid evaporates easily.

a. Heat from the food causes the refrigerant in the in the freezer to evaporate cooling the food
b. The vapour is drawn by the electric pump
c. The electric pump compresses the vapour into the liquid and latent heat of vapourisation is
released.
d. The hot liquid is forced through the cooling pipes made of aluminium for quick conduction and
over laid with black mesh for quick absorption and radiation.
Thermal Expansion

When matter is heated, the particles gain more kinetic energy and start moving more vigorously. Forces of attraction
between particles lessen and particles move apart. There is a general increase in the volume (and decrease in
density) of the body. This increase in the volume of the body is called thermal expansion.

Expansion in Solids

Ball and Ring experiment

Before heating, the ball fits through the ring easily. After heating, the ball does not fit in the ring, showing that the
particles gained kinetic and moved apart hence the solid expanded. When both the ball and ring are heated, the ball
once again fits through the ring showing that the internal diameter of the ring has also expanded.

Expansion in Liquids

Just like solids a liquid also expands or contract when heated or cooled. The diagram below can be used to
demonstrate expansion of liquids.

Observation: When heat is applied there is a momentary

drop in the level of the solution as flask expands before the liquid can conduct heat. After a while the solution rises
steadily as it expands and rises through the capillary. When cooled the liquid contracts and occupy less space hence it
Expansion in Gases

Expansion of gases can be demonstrated by the following experimental set-up.

A round bottomed flask is filled with a solution of potassium per manganate and then
heated.

Observations: The level of potassium per manganate solution in the tube goes down
while the level of the solution in the beaker rises as the solution is displaced by air.
Eventually bubbles are seen as air escapes through the solution.

Explanation: When air is heated it expands and occupies more space thereby
displacing the solution in the tube. This shows that air expands as well. Note: When a
cold cloth is placed over the flask, the air contracts and occupies less space
forcing the solution up into the tube.

Uses of Thermal Expansion

A. Bimetallic strip
BIMETALLIC STRIP is made of two equal lengths of different metal riveted together. The two metals have
varying linear expansivity.

When the bimetallic strip is heated aluminium expands

more than copper. To accommodate the extra length of
aluminium the strip beds towards copper. When the
bimetallic strip is cooled (placing in liquid nitrogen at -
196oC), the metals contracts with aluminium getting
shorter than copper hence the strip beds towards
aluminium.
Therefore, generally, a bimetallic strip always beds
towards the less expanding metal when heated and towards the more expanding one when cooled.
a. Thermostat

A thermostat is used to keep the temperature of an appliance or room constant, without getting too hot or too cold. It
uses a bimetallic strip as a temperature controlled switch.

Appliances which use a thermostat include electric iron, fire alarm, refridgerator, gas oven, electric kettle

i. Electric iron

The temperature of an electric iron is kept near-steady by

the bimetallic strip as it opens and closes the contacts
with temperature variations. As the base of the electric
iron gets hotter above the temperature set by the control
knob the bimetallic strip bends downward and breaks the
contacts. When the temperature drops, the strip cools and contracts. It then goes back to its original position hence
switching the electric current again.

Note: Brass expands more than iron so that the strip bends downwards to break open the circuit when the temperature
rises.

ii. Fire alarm

The bimetallic strip must bend and switch on the circuit to sound the electric bell. Brass should expand more than iron
so that the strip bends down. The bending should occur at a temperature considerably higher than the average room
temperature to avoid false alarms.

B. Riveting

A white–hot rivet is placed in the rivet hole and its end hammered flat and
on cooling it contracts and pulls the plate tightly together.

C. Shrink fitting
This is used where the pieces joined involve a ball and socket. An axle is cooled in liquid nitrogen at -196oC
until the gear wheel can be slipped on to it. On regaining normal temperature the axle expands to give a very
tight joint.

Precautions taken against Thermal Expansion

1. GAPS ON BRIDGES AND ROADS

Bridges are often made of steel bars that get longer when it is hot. There must be expansion gaps in the road at the
end of a bridge. Bridges are usually put on rollers to allow for easy movement during expansion and contraction.

Roads are often made of concrete

slabs hat expand and contract too.
There are expansion gaps between
the slabs filled with a soft substance
that can be squeezed easily in hot
weather as the slabs expand.
 2. Electrical and power lines
When they are laid, they are hung slack. This allows for expansion and contraction during hot and cold
weathers.

Measurement of Temperature

Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. Thermometers are devices which are used
to measure temperature. A thermometer makes use some of the physical properties, which changes with temperature.

Type of Thermometer Physical property

Liquid-in-glass thermometer Expansion of liquid (volume)
Thermocouple thermometer Production of potential difference
Platinum Resistance Thermo Change in electrical resistance
Constant-volume gas Thermo Change in pressure of gas
Thermochromic Liquids Change in colour

Liquid-in-glass Thermometer

The thermometer consists of a glass tube containing a liquid (mercury or alcohol). The liquid in the glass bulb expands
and rises up the capillary tube (bore) when the bulb is heated. The temperature is read from a scale. The level of the
liquid falls when the bulb loses heat as the liquid contracts back into the bulb.

Choice of thermometer liquid

The liquid should;

 Be visible through the glass (alcohol must be coloured)
 Expand and contract by large amount over a wide range of temperature
 Not stick to the walls of the glass
 Be sensitive; it should expand and contract rapidly and by a large degree upon a small change in
temperature.
 Rise at the same rate for each 1oC rise in temperature

Comparison between Mercury and Alcohol

 Mercury Alcohol
Expands uniformly, so it is accurate Expand six times more than mercury
B.p. 360 oC , M.p. (-39 oC) B.p. (78oC), M.p.(-110oC)
Does not stick to glass Sticks to glass
Good conductor of heat cheap
Silvery in colour Colourless (must be coloured)
The Celsius Scale

The Celsius scale thermometer has got two fixed points.

It has the lower fixed point which is the temperature of pure melting ice and is equivalent to 0°C. It also has the upper
fixed point which is the temperature of steam above pure boiling water which is 100°C.

To calibrate a thermometer, the fixed points are first found. The lower fixed point is found by putting the thermometer
in pure melting ice. The thermometric liquid will rise (or drop) to a certain level. When it has stabilized at that level,
mark its level. The marked point is 0 °C.

thermometer

The upper fixed point is found by putting the thermometer in steam above pure boiling water at a standard pressure of
760 mmHg. The thermometric liquid will rise to a certain level which is marked upon stabilizing. The marked point is
100 °C.

The distance between the two fixed points is then divided into 100 equal divisions, each division being equivalent to
1°C.

Properties of a Thermometer
  Sensitivity, it’s the ability of a thermometer to detect small change in temperature (small change in
temperature results in large difference in mercury level of the thread. To make the thermometer sensitive, it
should have a narrow bore and large bulb.
 Quick-acting, its ability to register the required temperature in short time. The bulb should be made with thin
glass wall to allow heat to pass quickly to mercury and small bulb.
 Range, it’s the difference between the smallest temperature value and the largest. The range of a
thermometer can be increased by using a small bulb, wide capillary and/or longer bore.

Types of Liquid-in-glass Thermometer

A. Laboratory Thermometer

Range: -10 °C to 110°C

Thermometric liquid: mercury or alcohol

Accuracy: accurate to the nearest whole number of degrees Celsius (1°C)

B. Clinical Thermometer

Thermometric liquid: Mercury

Special feature:

 it has a constriction. The constriction allows the user to take a reading after the thermometer has been
removed from the patient’s body. The mercury thread breaks at the constriction and flows back into the bulb.
The mercury above the constriction remains intact and allows the user to take a reading. After taking a
reading, the thermometer is flicked over and this allows the mercury above the constriction to return to the
bulb.
 The bore is very thin so that a small expansion moves the reading a long way.
 Short range: 35°C to 42°C and accuracy of 0.1°C
 The tube is triangular cross section. The front acts as a magnifying glass to make the mercury seem wider,
and easier to see.

Kelvin scale of temperature

Kelvin scale gives correct temperature since it does not depend on the physical property of any substance. Kelvin
scale is also called the absolute scale or thermodynamic scale.

Symbol for Kelvin = K, Absolute zero of temp. = 0K (zero Kelvin)

The Kelvin temperature (T) corresponding to a Celsius temperature (Θ) is given by; T= 273 + Θ

Thermocouple Thermometer
This is an electrical thermometer. It is made of two wire of different material e.g. Copper and iron or constantan
wires joined together at two junctions known as hot junction and cold junction. The other ends are connected to a
galvanometer. The cold junction is kept at a low temperature e.g. melting ice (0 oC) while the hot junction is placed in
the material whose temperature is to be measured. When there is a temperature difference between the junctions,
a current is produced and flows causing a deflection in the scale. The larger the temperature differences between the
junctions the greater the current. The meter used can be calibrated in degree Celsius.

Advantages of Thermocouple thermometer over Liquid-in-glass thermometer

 It can measure wide range of temperature from about – 200 oC to 1600 oC

 It can measure rapidly temperatures as junctions are thin, bare and are good conductors of heat and
electricity, which means that they can quickly be in thermal equilibrium with the system.
 Temperature can be read from a digital display some distance away from the heat source
 Readings can be read automatically or fed directly to a computer

Disadvantage

The thermometer is bulky, expensive and has a complicated structure.

HEAT CAPACITY
When a substance is heated, its internal energy increases and when it cools the internal energy drops.
The heat capacity (c) of a body is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of the body by 1 oC.

Unit: J/ oC

Thus thermal energy needed = heat capacity x temperature change

E = cΔT where: E - energy in joules
C - Heat capacity (J/ oC)
ΔT- change in temperature (oC)

Thermal energy needed to produce a temperature rise depends on three factors:

 The mass of the material

 The type of material
 The rise in temperature

It is therefore more useful to work with the heat capacity of a specific mass (Specific Heat Capacity).

The specific heat capacity of a substance is numerically the same as the thermal energy required to produce a 1K
temperature in a mass of 1kg.

Energy supplied = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change

E = mcΔT where: E - energy in joules

C – Specific heat capacity (J/ kgoC)
ΔT- change in temperature (oC)
m – Mass (kg)
Specific Capacity of Materials

Substance Specific heat capacity J/ kgK

water 4200
alcohol 2400
ice 2100
Aluminum 900
concrete 800
glass 700
steel 500
copper 400
lead 130

Example, (Use the information from table above).

1. How much heat energy is required to heat up the tip (made of copper) of a soldering iron by 400 oC?
2. How much thermal energy is lost when the temperature of 3kg of aluminum drops from 25 oC to 15 oC?
3. A 0.5 kg block of aluminum at a temperature of 100 oC is placed in 1.0 kg of water at 20 oC. Assuming there is
no heat energy lost to the surroundings, what will be the final temperature of the aluminum and water when
they come to the same temperature?

Experiment 1: Specific heat capacity of metal block (solid).

Aim: To measure the specific energy of steel block

Experimental set up

Procedure

1. Arrange apparatus as shown in the figure above.

2. Take the initial temperature of the block Θi from the thermometer before switching the power supply on.
3. Record final temperature of the block Θf, which is the maximum temperature reached after 10 minutes and
the total energy supplied E from the joulemeter.
E
4. Calculate the specific heat capacity of steel using the equation c¿
m ( Θf −Θi )

NB:

1. If energy supplied is not know and the power of the heat is known then the time has to be calculated and
energy supplied can be calculated by using the formula, Energy = power x time.
2. Oil has to be poured into the holes to improve the conduction from heater to block and block to
thermometer.
3. The insulation material is used to prevent heat loss to the surrounding.

Results

Mass of the block =

Initial Temperature =
Final temperature =
Energy supplied =

Calculation of c:

Conclusion
Experiment 2 Specific heat capacity of liquid (water)

Aim: to measure specific energy of water

Experimental setup

The volume of some water is measured in a measuring cylinder and its mass calculated. The water is then poured
into and insulated container and heated using an immersion heater. The temperature of the water before and after
heating (measured using thermometer). The energy supplied by the heater is calculated by multiplying the power of
the heater the time taken (measured using a stop clock).

Precautions

 The container is insulated to prevent heat loss through conduction, convection and radiation.
 The lid is used to prevent heat loss through convection and evaporation
 The heater must be powerful enough to cause reasonably temperature rise in a short time.
 Water must be continuously stirred to ensure even temperature distribution.

Results

Volume of water =
Density of water =
Mass of water =
Initial temperature =
Final temperature =
Power of the heater =
Time taken for heating =
Energy supplied (power x time) =
E
Calculation for specific heat capacity =
m ΔΘ
Conclusion
Heat energy and change of state

Heat energy used to change state of a substance is called latent heat. Latent heat means hidden heat. The heat is
hidden in the sense it cause a substance to change state without causing any rise in temperature. E.g. latent heat
turns ice at 0 oC into water at 0 oC. When a mass of a substance m, changes its state, it losses or gains thermal energy
E, given by the formula:

E =lm, where l is specific latent heat

m is mass in kg
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat energy needed to change the state of 1 kg of substance
without changing its temperature. Units is joules per kilogram (J/kg)

Change of state

Gas or

boils Latent heat of Condenses

(vaporisation) vaporisation (Condensation)

Liquid
Sublimes
(Sublimation)
Latent
melts heat of freezes
(fusion) fusion (Solidification)

Solid
Snow& hoarfrost

Melting

When ice turns into water the change of state is called melting (fusion).This occurs at a particular temperature,
which remains unchanged until all the substance has melted, even though the heat is being supplied. All the energy
supplied is used to weakening the force of attraction between the molecules so that they separate sufficiently into a
liquid state. There is no change in the average kinetic energy of the molecules, so the temperature remains
unchanged. This specific temperature is called its melting point, which can be defined as the specific temperature
where solid turns into liquid.

A liquid turns solid at exactly the same temperature, which is said to be its freezing or solidification point.

Boiling

When water evaporates to from vapour or steam the change of state is called boiling. This occurs at a specific
temperature called its boiling point. The energy supplied to a liquid when boiling is used to rearrange molecules into
a gaseous state and latent heat is stored in vapour, and is released when vapour cools into liquid.
When vapour cools and turns into liquid the process is called condensation. It occurs at exactly the same point as the
boiling point of liquid called condensation point, but in physics it is usually referred to as boiling point.

Specific Latent heat of fusion

Specific latent heat of fusion lf of a solid substance is the heat energy required to change 1kg of it from solid to liquid
without any temperature change.
heat energy needed
Specificlatent heat of fusion=
mass

E joule
l f= Unit: of lf is (J/kg)
m kilogram

Example
An ice block has a mass of 100g. If the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 340 000 J/kg, calculate the heat energy
needed to melt the ice block. (Assume the ice at 0℃ and no temperature rise occurs)
Leave 7 lines for working

Experiment 1 Specific latent heat of fusion ice

Aim: to determine the specific latent heat for ice
Experimental setup

The apparatus are arranged as shown above and the heater of known power is switched on for a period of time,
measured with a stop watch. After 15 minutes the heater will be switched off and the mass of water in the beaker
(melted ice) is measured using a digital balance.

Then the energy supplied is calculated by the formula; Energy = power x time.

Therefore; Pt =ml f

The specific latent heat of fusion can then be calculated by rearranging the above formula.

Pt
l f=
m

Results

Power of the heater =

Time of heating =
Mass of the beaker =
Mass of the beaker and melted ice =
Mass of melted ice =
Calculation of l f

Specific Latent heat of vaporization

The specific latent heat of vaporization l v of a liquid substance is the energy required to change 1 kg of it to gas
(vapour) without change in temperature.

heat energy needed

Specificlatent heat of vaporisation=
mass

E
l v=
m

joule
Unit: of lf is (J/kg)
kilogram

Experiment 2 Specific latent heat of vaporization

Aim: To determine the latent heat of vaporization of water

Experimental set up

The apparatus are arranged as shown above and the heater of known power is switched on heating the water until
the water boils vigorously, the mass reading on the balance is noted and a stopwatch started. Several minutes later,
the stopwatch is stopped and the mass reading taken again. The difference in the mass readings gives the mass of
water which has been changed into steam during the time measured.

Then the energy supplied is calculated by the formula; Energy = power x time.

Therefore; Pt =ml v

The specific latent heat of fusion can then be calculated by rearranging the above formula.

Pt
l v=
m

Results
Power of the heater =
Time of heating =
Initial mass =
Final mass =
Mass difference =
Calculation of l v

Example

1. The kettle in contains 1.6 kg of water, is left switched on. After starting to boil, how much heat energy will be
used in turning all the water to steam, and how long will it take for the 2.5 kW kettle to boil dry? (The specific
latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.3 x106 J/kg.)

Leave 10 lines for working

2. Calculate the heat required to convert 5 kg of ice at -20℃ into steam at 100℃ . (The specific heat capacity of
water and ice are, respectfully, 4200 J/kgK and 2100 J/kgK; the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 340 000 J/kg, and specific latent
heat of vaporization of water is 2.3 x106 J/kg.)

Leave half a page for working

Cooling curves

Heating curve of water

Ice of pure water at -5℃ is heated and changes into vapour at 100℃ .

Cooling curve of water

Vapour of pure water is allowed to cool and becomes ice at -5℃ .

The unusual expansion of water

Most liquids contract steadily as they cool, and contract further on reaching their freezing point. Water contracts as
it cools down from 100℃ to 4℃ . However between 4℃ and 0℃ it expands, strangely. So water has a minimum
volume at 4℃ and hence maximum density at 4℃ .

At 0℃ when water freezes to produce ice, a large expansion occurs and every 100 cm3 of water produces 109 cm3 of
ice. This large expansion account, for bursting of unlagged water pipes in very cold weather and the fact that ice is
less dense than cold water and so floats. (See graph of volume against temp of water below)
Heat transfer

Heat transfer is the movement of thermal energy from region of high temperature to regions of lower temperature.

There are three processes by which heat energy is transferred. Namely;

 CONDUCTION
 COVECTION
 RADIATION

CONDCTION
This mode of heat transfer occurs mainly in solids.
Definition:
“The movement of thermal energy from region of high temperature to regions of low temperature without
transfer of matter as a whole”
In metals, conduction is mostly due to free electrons. When one end of the metal is heated, the free electrons at that
end move faster and further to the other end. In doing so they jostle against atoms and transfer some of their energy
to these atoms thereby raising the temperature of those atoms. This happens fast so metal are good conductors.

Experiment 1: conductivity of metals

Experimental set up (GCSE Physics 4th edition page 173 fig 40.1)

Procedure

 Rest aluminum, iron, copper and brass rod across the top of a tripod as shown above.( the rods must be of similar
length and thickness)
 Attach a matchstick to one end of each rod with paraffin wax.
 Heat the other end of all the rods at the same time and watch what happens.
Heat flows along the rods different rates and the matchsticks drop off after varying length of time. The match on
copper falls first showing it is best conductor, followed by aluminum, brass and then iron.

In non-metals (insulators) there are no free electrons. The only conduction is due to vibration of atoms in the hot
end, which transfer very small amount of energy to nearby atoms. The process is slow, therefore non-metals are
poor conductors.

All metals are good conductors and non metals such as plastic, wood and air are insulators.

Conductivity of materials

Material Conductivity( W/mK)

copper 385 Good conductor
Iron 72
Concrete 5
Glass 1
Brick 0.6
water 0.6
fat 0.046
wool 0.04
air 0.025 Poor conductor
Experiment 2: conductivity of water

Experimental set up (GCSE Physics 4th edition page 173 fig 40.3)

Procedure

 Wedge a piece of ice at the bottom of a test tube so that it cannot float.
 Almost fill tube with water and then heat it near its upper end as shown above.
 Note the order in which things happen

The water at the top of the tube boils, while the ice remains unmelted at the bottom, showing that water is a poor
conductor of heat. Liquids (except liquid mercury) are usually bad conductors of heat.

Air is a very poor conductor of heat and is an important insulator. Materials which trap air such as wool, feather, fur,
felt, fiberglass and polystyrene are good insulators. They can be used to keep heat in (or out).
Uses of Good and Bad Conductors

Good conductors are used wherever heat is required to travel quickly while bad conductors are used wherever heat
need to be insulated.

1. Saucepans, boilers and radiators are made of metals such as aluminum, iron and copper. Handles are made
of plastic or wood to reduce conduction of heat to minimum.
2. Wire gauze is often is often placed over Bunsen burners to conduct heat outwards from the flame. A glass
beaker can safely be heated on the gauze because this protects it from the concentrated heat of the flame
3. Conduction of thermal energy in house is prevented by cavity walls filled with plastic foam, double glazing
and lot insulation (fiberglass).
4. Materials with trapped air are used as ‘’lagging’’ to insulate water pipes, hot water tanks, oven, refrigerators
and walls and roofs of houses.
5. Others insulator are used to make warm winter clothes.

CONVECTION

This is the mode by which heat is transferred in fluids (liquids/gases).

Convection is the flow through liquids and gases (fluids) from region of high temperature to region of low
temperature by movements of the fluid (by means of convection currents).

Convection currents are a flow of liquid or gas caused by a change in density, in which the whole medium moves and
carries heat energy with it.

Note; a) convection cannot happen in solids because the molecules have fixed relative positions.

b) Convection is more effective in gases than in liquids.

Demonstration of convection in Liquids

Explanation convection current: An increase in temperature usually causes an increase in volume. A given mass of
warm fluid, will therefore experience an up-thrust (from cooler fluid that surround it) greater than its own
weight. The cold denser fluid thus provides a force that causes the warm fluid to rise.

Demonstration of convection in Air

When warm air above the candle flame rises and escape, cold air enters the chamber and carries in smoke from the
burning paper. The direction of convection current is made visible by the smoke.
Example of convection

a) cloud formation – warm moist air rises before condensing into rain.

b) winds – caused by differences in air pressure which arises from uneven heating of masses air.

c) the art of gliding is to trace and use hot air currents (as done by sea gulls – birds)

d) the domestic hot water supply.

Domestic hot water system

Hot water from the boiler rises up to the storage tank which is connected to the water tap. Cold water moves from
the supply tank down to the boiler where it is heated and rises. This creates a convectional current. If water cools in
the storage tank it goes down to the boiler to be re-heated. When fairly wide water pipes are used, convection
currents can be relied upon to carry hot water up to a boiler to a storage tank without the use of a pump. But heating
systems which use narrow pipes need water pump to help circulate the hot water.
Land and sea breezes- are set up by earth-sea temperature differences. During the day the land heats up more
quickly than water in the sea. Hot air above the land rises causing cool and heavier air from the sea to come and
replace it (sea breeze). At night the reverse occurs. The diagram below illustrates this.

Heat by Electromagnetic waves-Radiation

Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by in form of electromagnetic waves requiring no tangible
medium. It is the type of wave motion given out by accelerated electric charges, and it results in the transfer of
energy form one place to another. In particular the infra-red waves have frequencies such that they are easily
absorbed by particles of matter, and are therefore effective at warming matter.
Warm objects give out or radiate infrared waves (heat waves – radiant heat). But if they become hotter they emit
shorter wavelengths which may include light. This is why a radiant heater or grill starts to ‘glow red’ hot when it
heats up. Radiation can travel through vacuum (e.g. radiant heat from the sun reaching the earth).

Illustration: Radiant heat-component of electromagnetic waves

Emitters and Absorbers

When radiant heat falls on any object a part of it is absorbed and the other part reflected. The absorbed energy
heats the object and its temperature rises. The absorbed energy can be re-radiated (emitted).
Dull, black surfaces are better emitters of radiation than shiny/white/light coloured surfaces.
Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers, as shown in the chart below.

Summary on emitters and absorbers

White or silver surfaces are poor absorbers because they reflect most of the thermal radiation away. This is why, in
hot, sunny countries, houses are often painted white to keep them cool inside. The inside of a black car warms up
more rapidly than a white one on a sunny day.

Illustration: Good/ bad absorbers of thermal radiation

If two coins of the same value are stuck on outside of each plate with candle wax, some minutes after the heater has
been switched on, the wax on the black surface melts and the coin falls off. The white surface is still cooler and the
wax does not melt.
The experiment shows that black surfaces are better absorbers of thermal radiation than white surfaces. Dull black
are the best absorbers of thermal radiation; silvery mirror-like surfaces are poorest absorbers. Silvery surfaces
reflect almost all the thermal radiation striking them.

Experiment 1 Absorption of radiation

Apparatus

Measuring cylinder, two thermometer, water, beaker, stoppers, heater black conical flask, silvered conical flask

Procedure

1. Pour 200 ml of water into each conical flask

2.

Car cooling system-most car engines are cooled by convection currents in the water pipes. A pump is often used to
help water to circulate. This is ‘forced convention’. Cold water from the radiator flows to the engine through the
pipes in the engine. It is then heated and rises up taking the heat from the engine hence leaving the engine cooler.

The radiator is a heat exchanger where the hot water is cooled by air. The radiators are usually made of aluminum to
and painted black to maximize heat conduction and emission. Once cooled, the water flows back to the engine
hence sets up convectional current between the engine and radiator, which keeps the engine cool.

Illustration: Cooling System of a Car engine

The vacuum flask (thermos flask)

A vacuum flask can keep drinks hot (or cold) for hours. It has these features from reducing the rate of thermal energy
floe in or out.

a) An insulated stopper to reduce conduction and convection.

b) A double-walled container with gap between the walls. Air has been removed from the gap to reduce
conduction and convection.
c) Walls with shinny surfaces to reduce thermal radiation.

Illustration: Thermos flask

Greenhouse effects

On a sunny day, a greenhouse becomes a ‘heat trap’. Short-wavelength thermal radiation from the sun passes easily
through the glass and warms up the materials inside. The warmed materials emit thermal radiation, but at longer
wavelengths that do not pass through the glass so easily. Radiation is reflected back into the greenhouse, so the
temperature rises.

The burning of fossil fuels and the cutting down of trees, which use up CO 2 results in billions of tones of CO 2 in the
atmosphere. The CO2 and other green house gases form a layer above the earth. This layer acts like a glass in a green
house trapping the heat from the sun. The short wave length from the sun pass easily but the re-radiated heat by
plants and the ground has a long wavelength and cannot pass through the layer.

The trapped heat may lead to Global warming, which may lead to shift in wind belts and ocean currents (i.e. change
in climate leading to floods in some places and high temperature with low rainfall in other areas.

Illustration: Green house effect

Other everyday consequences of thermal transfer

Day and nights in deserts – days tend to be very hot due to radiant heat from the heated sand. Nights also tend to be
very cold due to lack of cloud cover. There is nothing to act like a greenhouse.

Cyclones-are regions where the atmospheric pressure is lower than average and hence winds blow spirally inwards
towards the pressure center.

The existence of cyclones is attributed to convection currents creating differences in air pressure at certain localities.
Cyclones like typhoons can be very destructive where they pass.