Namaste

Basic Electrical and Electronics

Engineering
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 2
Electrical Machine

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Faradays Experiment

There is change of flux with respect to conductor in which emf is induced.

Thus, to have induced emf there must exist.

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 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
v With this experiment Faraday stated laws called Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction.
v This phenomenon of cutting of flux lines by the conductor to get the induced e.m.f. in
the conductor or coil is called electromagnetic induction.
v Thus, to have induced e.m.f. there must exist,
1) A coil or conductor.
2) A magnetic field (permanent magnet or electromagnet).
3) Relative motion between conductor and magnetic flux (achieved by moving
conductor with respect to flux or moving with respect to conductor.)

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 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
First law:
Whenever the number of magnetic lines of force(flux) linkages with a coil or
circuit change an emf gets induced in that coil or circuit.
Second law:
The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkage in that coil.
flux linkage = flux × number of turns of coil.

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 Induced EMF
Consider a coil having N turns. The initial flux linking with a coil is Φ!
∴ initial flux linkage = NΦ!
in time interval t, the flux linkage with the coil changes from Φ! to Φ"
∴ final flux linkages= NΦ"
NΦ! #NΦ"
∴ rate of change of flux linkages = $
Now as per the first law, emf will get induced in the coil and as per second law the
magnitude of emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkaes.
NΦ! #NΦ" NΦ! #NΦ" %&
∴ e∝ =K =N
$ $ %$
%&
With K as unity to get units of e as volt, dΦ change in flux, dt is change in time hence is
%$
rate of change in flux.
As per lenz’s law the induced emf sets up a current in such a direction so as to oppose the
very cause producing it. Mathematically this opposition is expressed by a negative sign.
%&
Thus the induced emf is e = −N %$ volts.
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 Nature of Induced EMF
v Emf gets induced in a conductor or coil whenever there exists change in flux with that
conductor or coil according to the Faraday’s law.
v Such change in flux can be brought about by different method.
v Depending upon the nature of methods, the induced emf is classified as
1.Dynamically induced emf
2.Statically induced emf

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 Dynamically Induced EMF
v The change in the flux linking with a coil, conductor or circuit can be brought about by
its motion relative to magnetic field. This is possible by moving flux with respect to coil,
conductor or circuit or it is possible by moving conductor, coil or circuit with respect to
stationary magnetic flux. (both these methods are discussed earlier in discussion of
Faraday’s experiment.)
v Such induced emf which is due to physical movement of coil or conductor with respect
to flux or movement of magnet with respect to stationary coil or conductor is called
dynamically induced emf or motional induced emf.

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 Dynamically Induced EMF

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 Magnitude of Dynamically Induced EMF
Consider a conductor moving with velocity v m/s such that its plane of motion or direction
of velocity is perpendicular to the direction of flux lines as shown in figure 1.21a.
B= flux density in wb/m",
L = active length of conductor in meters,
v = velocity in m/sec
Let this conductor is moved through distance dx in a small time interval dt, then area
covered by the conductor = l × dx m"

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 Magnitude of Dynamically Induced EMF
∴ flux cut by conductor = flux density × area covered
by conductor
or, dΦ= B × l × dx wb
According to the Faraday’s law, magnitude of induced
emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
()*+ ,*- dΦ 2)1+
e = -./0 = 1- = 1- (1)
(here N=1 as single conductor)
1+
But 1- = rate of change of displacement = velocity of
the conductor = v

∴ e = B l v volts (2)
Equation 2 gives the induced emf when plane of motion is exactly perpendicular to the
plane of flux. This is the maximum possible emf as plane of motion is at right angles to
plane of the flux.
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 Magnitude of Dynamically Induced EMF

But if the conductor is moving with a velocity v but at a certain angle 𝜗 measured with respect to direction of the field (plane
of flux) as shown in the figure then component of velocity which is perpendicular to the direction of flux is vsin 𝜃 which is
responsible for the induced emf. The other component vcos 𝜃 is parallel to the plane of the flux and hence will not contribute
to the dynamically induced emf.
under this condition magnitude of induced emf is given by,
e=Blv sin 𝜃 volts. Where 𝜃 is measured with respect to plane of the flux.
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 Direction of of Dynamically Induced EMF
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: According to Fleming’s right hand rule, outstretch the three
fingers of right hand namely the thumb, fore finger and the middle finger, perpendicular to
each other. Arrange the right hand so that first finger point in the direction of flux and thumb
in the direction o f motion of conductor with respect to flux then the middle finger will point
in the direction of induced emf (or current ).

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 Example
A conductor of 2 m length moves with a uniform velocity of 1.27 m/sec under a magnetic
field having a flux density of 1.2 Wb/m2 (tesla). Calculate the magnitude of induced e.m.f. if
conductor moves, i) At right angles to axis of field. ii) At an angle of 60° to the direction of
field.

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 Example
A coil carries 200 turns gives rise a flux of 500𝜇𝑊𝑏 when carrying a certain current. If this
current is reversed in 1/10 th of a second. Find the average e.m.f. induced in the coil.

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 Statically Induced EMF
v The change in flux lines with respect to coil can be achieved without physically moving
the coil or the magnet. Such induced emf in a coil which is without physical movement of
coil or a magnet is called statically induced emf.

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 Statically Induced EMF
v Consider an electromagnet which is producing the necessary flux for producing emf. Now,
let current through the coil of an electromagnet be an alternating one. Such alternating
current means it changes its magnitude periodically with time. This produces the flux
%&
which is also alternating i.e. changing with time. Thus there exists %$ associated with coil
placed in the vicinity of electromagnet. This is responsible for producing an emf in the
coil. This is called statically induced emf.

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 Force on Current Carrying Conductor

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 Magnitude of Force on Current Carrying Conductor

The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor depends on the following factors,
a. Flux density(B) of the magnetic field in which the conductor is placed measured in tesla,
b. Magnitude of the current (I) passing through the conductor in amperes.
c. Active length (l) of the conductor in meters.
If the conductor is at right angles to the magnetic field as shown in the figure‘a’ then the
force F is given by, F= BIl Newtons
But if the conductor is not exactly at right angles, but inclined at angle 𝜃 degrees with
respect to axis of magnetic field as shown in the figure‘b’ then the force F is given by
F=BIlsin θ
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 Magnitude of Force on Current Carrying Conductor

As shown in the figure ‘c’, if the conductor is kept along the lines of magnetic field the θ=0
and as sin0=0, the force experienced by the conductor is also zero.

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Direction of Force on Current Carrying Conductor
The direction of the force experienced by the current carrying conductor placed in magnetic
field can be determined by the Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. The rule states that, if the fore
finger, middle finger and thumb of a left hand are mutually perpendicular to each other and
the fore finger direct the magnetic field direction and middle finger in the direction of the
current then the thumb gives the direction of the force experienced by the conductor.

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 Component of Transformer

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 Core Vs Shell Type Transformer

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 Magnetic Core Loss
v Whenever we magnetized or demagnetized a magnetic material some power loss will
take place which is known as magnetic core loss.
v The magnetic core material is generally iron or its alloy so, core loss is also referred as
iron loss.
v The magnetic losses can be classified as
ü Hysteresis loss
ü Eddy current loss
v The magnetic core loss will result in the following effects
ü It reduces the efficiency of the electrical equipment
ü It increases the temperature because of heating of the core.

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 Application

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Namaste
 Transformer Ratings
A sinusoidal flux 0.02 Wb links with 55 turns of a transformer secondary coil. Calculate the
r.m.s. value of the induced emf in the secondary. The supply frequency is 50 Hz.

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 Transformer Ratings
For a single phase 50Hz transformer having primary ,and secondary turn of 80 and 400
respectively, determine the emf induced in the secondary windings and maximum value of flux
density if cross sectional area is 200 cm2 and primary winding is connected to 240V.

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 Transformer Ratings
For a single phase transformer having primary ,and secondary turn of 440 and 880
respectively, determine the transformer kVA rating if half load secondary is 7.5 A and
maximum value of core flux is 2.25 mWb

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 Transformer Ratings
The emf per turn of a single-phase, 6.6 kV, 440 V, 50 Hz transformer is approximately 12 V.
Calculate number of turns is the HV and LV windings and the net cross-sectional area of the
core for a maximum flux density of 1.5 T.

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 No load Operation
The no load current of a transformer 10A at power factor of 0.25 lagging, when connected to 400
V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate,
a) Magnetizing component of no load current
b) Iron loss and
c) Maximum Value of flux in the core. Assume primary winding turns as 500.

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 Transformer on Load Operation
A single phase transformer takes 10A on no-load at 0.2 p.f. lagging. The turn ratio is 4:1(step
down). If the load on the secondary is 200A at a pf of 0.85 lagging, find the primary current and
power factor. Neglect the voltage drop in the winding. Also draw the phasor diagram.

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 Tutorial 2
A 400/200V transformer takes 1A at a power factor of 0.4 on no-load. If the load current of 50A
at 0.8 lagging power factor, calculate the primary current.
I1=25.874A and pf1=0.788(lag)

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 Efficiency
The primary and secondary windings of a 500kVA transformer have a resistance of 0.4 Ohm
and 0.001 ohm respectively. The primary and secondary voltages are 6600V and 400V
respectively. The iron loss is 3kW. Calculate the efficiency of the transformer on full load, the
load power factor being 0.8 lagging.

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 Part Load Efficiency
In a 25kVA, 2000/200V, single phase transformer, the iron loss and copper losses are 350 and
400W respectively. Calculate the efficiency at unity power factor on a) Full load and b) Half
Load

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 Maximum Efficiency
A 250 kVA single phase transformer has iron losses of 1.8kW. The full load copper losses is
2000 watts. Calculate,
i. Efficiency at full load, 0.8 lagging pf
ii. kVA supplied at maximum Efficiency
iii. Maximum Efficiency at 0.8 lagging p.f.

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 All Day Efficiency
A 200 kVA single-phase transformer is in circuit throughout 24 hours. For 8 hours in a day,
the load is 150 kW at 0.8 power factor lagging and for 7 hours, the load is 90 kW at 0.9
power factor. Remaining time or the rest period, it is at no-load condition. Full-load Cu loss is
4 kW and the iron loss is 1.8 kW. Calculate the all-day efficiency of the transformer.

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Thank You
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