Course Code: MED15303CR

Course Title: Comparative Education

Unit I
Concept of Comparative Education
Comparative education is the field of education that analyses the education system of a country
by using data and systems from other countries, and designs policies to improve education.
According to Good (1962, as cited in Lawal, 2004), it is a field of study dealing with the
comparison of current educational theory and practice in different countries for purposes of
broadening and deepening the understanding of educational problems beyond the boundaries of
one’s own country. Moreover, Adeyinka (1994) gives the following definitions of the concept:
•A study of two or more education systems.
•A study of how the philosophy, objectives and aims, policy, and practice of education in other
countries influence the general development, policy, and practice of education in a particular
country
•A study of how the development of education in the past, across the ages and continents, has
influenced the development of education in particular countries
•A study of the school systems of two or more countries, and of the administrative machinery set
up to implement or control the implementation of government policies at various levels of
education systems. From the above definitions, it is clear that the study of comparative education
allows the person involved to have a better understanding of the system of education outside
his/her own country. Keeping in view the requirement of equivalence in a global world, it is
important to compare the education system of any country with the systems of other countries.
As comparative education considers education from a global perspective and investigates
best practices in education, it is important to learn about essential educational values and
systems, approaching various problems from an international, comparative standpoint. The study
of making comparisons is systematic; open-mindedness and an understanding of information in
an unbiased manner are some crucial requirements. There is a general tendency for comparison
in education to be between developed and developing countries, and many a times within the

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developed and developing countries. The idea is to see what makes them successful, or what
issues have been faced and how were they addressed.
The Comparative Education course focuses on essential educational values and systems,
and various related problems, through international comparison. The following questions are
essential in the course:
• What are the similarities and differences between differing cultures and civilizations in the
worldviews and views of humanity that are foundational to education in these respective
contexts?
• What are the commonalities and differences in education systems and educational issues
around the world, including in other developing and developed countries?
• What are the current, central issues in educational curriculum and pedagogy in schools around
the world?
Objectives of Comparative Education
Harold Noah (1985) and Farooq Joubish (2009), have stated that Comparative Education has
four main objectives:
1. To describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes.
2. To assist in the development of educational institutions and practices.
3. To highlight the relationships between education and society.
4. To establish generalized statements about education which are valid in more than one
country.
In addition to these objectives, some of the general objectives of Comparative Education
 To provide a picture or profile of the education systems in various countries or regions of
the world.
 To enable one come up with a global description and classification of education in
various parts of the world.
 To determine the relations and aspects in education and society, for example, how does
family size affect education? How does social status affect education? Or what are the
motivations of different social classes to participate in education?
 To distinguish the fundamental elements of educational persistence and change and relate
these with philosophical laws.

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  To facilitate practical reform and planned development of the school system, that is,
improvement of education at home. In order to achieve this aims one requires to establish
the correlation of aims, customs, social norms and the education system.
 To enable one have a greater understanding of the wider educational process.
 To promote the spirit of international understanding and co-operation among those who
study it, by promoting friendship, understanding other people's points of view and
appreciate other people's cultures.
Scope of Comparative Education
There are five perspectives that capture the scope of comparative education. These are;
 The subject matter and content; this covers the essential components of educational
systems such as structure, aims, content or curriculum, administration, financing, teacher
education.
 Geographical units of study; these comprises intra-national, international, regional,
continental and global or world systems studies and analysis.
 Ideological scope; this compares countries' educational systems on the basis of different
political, social and economic ideologies. For example, democratic, communism,
socialist, capitalist, free market and mixed economies.
 Thematic scope; this scope focuses on educational themes, topical issues or problems
and compares them within one or more geographical units. For example free primary and
secondary education, universal primary education, education for all and universal higher
education.
 The historical or spatial scope; this deals with the study of the historical development of
the discipline from the earliest (pre-historic) phase known as the period of Travelers'
Tales to the modern phase known as the period of social science perspectives.

Historical Development of Comparative Education

Many scholars of comparative education have ventured into the discovery of the genesis of
comparative education. On the whole there seems to be no specific time in which the discipline
of comparative education originated. However the search for the origins of comparative
education has made many scholars to look back hopefully to time immemorial. For example,

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Fredrick Schneider and Franz Hilker of Germany sought European precedents in education.
William Brickmann in the U.S.A. led the quest and search for the origin of comparative
education and educators. His work includes several articles on the subject which dates back as
far as to Herodotus (484-425Bc) as a competent cultural comparativist was assumed in the
ancient world.
For purpose of this course, the genesis of comparative education will therefore be looked at in
light of phases or stages based on major characteristics activities of each phase.
These phases are;
I. The phase of Travelers Tales i.e. Pre-history to end of 18 th century.
II. Period of Pioneers or Phase of Selective Education Borrowing i.e. during the
19th century.
III. The phase of concern for Cultural Context or Period of Philosophers i.e. from 1900 to
end of World War II.
IV. The phase of Social Science perspective i.e. from1945 to the present.
The phases used here are to signify changes in the historical development of comparative
education and are actually retrospective and imposed ones. They do not indicate precise
or sudden turning points. These changes are gradual. This means that towards the end of
one phase the next phase was already evident in the work perspective observers. At the
same times entry into a new phase does not mean a compete break from the previous
phase. There is always an over-lap of the phases in time and space. We now look at each
phase at independently;
The Phase of Traveler’s Tales
Historically people visited places for various reasons such as commerce, conversation, curiosity
or conflict. However everyone who has ever been interested in the upbringing of children or in
education in general has always tended to find out what goes on in other communities. Studies of
early writers of comparative education indicate that they drew examples from other societies that
they visited or heard about. They actually tended to look for differences and similarities in
respect to education of other communities and their own.
This phase was marked by descriptive reports of travelers who comprised military
conquerors, business expeditions and even explorers. The motives for accounts of travelers' tales

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were partly curiosity and the need for comparison. They gave descriptive account of features in
foreign systems of educational as they saw them. Their reports on education was fragmental,
generally unsystematic, exaggerated at times and understatements at other times. Although they
were stimulating they were superficial and piecemeal and as such were of little comparative
value but worth considering. Some of the contributors during this phase were;
Herodotus (484-425 BC) - in his commentaries on the Persian wars he attempted a comparison
of culture.
Xenophon (430-355 BC) -An Athenian, he gave a detailed account of the education for
citizenship given to the youth in Persia. He compared the aims and structure of education in
Persian and Sparta. According to him, he admired the Spartan education and wished that the
Athenians could copy it.
Plato- A Greek philosopher compared the aims and structure of the Spartan and Greek systems.
In his two books i.e. "The law" and "The Republic" he compared education system in Sparta and
Athens. Like Xenophon he admired the Spartan education system which was state controlled and
emphasized on discipline which was military type. He went ahead and argued that the Athenian
education was likely to bring about permissiveness and lack of social order. He therefore
recommended that the Athenians should copy Sparta.
Julius Caesar (102-42BC) - As the Roman emperor he also described how children were
educated in countries beyond Rome. He also admired especially the Spartan state controlled
education system. He also commented on education of the Belgian, Acquitanians and Celts as
indicated in his writings on Gallic wars.
Cicero (106-43BC) - He made comparisons between Greek and Roman education. In his book
"De Republica" (57BC) he explained that he favoured state controlled system as opposed to a
family centered system. In his "De Oratore" he claimed that Greece was far better than every
other nation in the practice of eloquence and hence in education.
Tacitus (AD 55-116) - He contrasted the education in his own day with that of earlier periods,
He even began the long history of the ‘'past versus the present" debate.
Marco Polo (13th century) - He traveled to the court of Kublai Khan in China and reported
about the Chinese education system. He observed that there were no quarrels in schools in China
and that honesty and truthfulness were emphasized. He further observed that men and women

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lived together peacefully in China a fact he attributed to the education system. However in the
19th century it was noted that the Chinese education system contributed to the corrupt
government system and breaking of laws such as cruelty to prisoners.
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1506) -A Tunisian born scholar who made comparison between the Eastern
Moslem culture and that of the west. He emphasized the need to establish similarities and
differences between the present and the past. He also advocated for the need to know the causes
of the similarities in certain cases and of the differences in others.
Jacop Middendorp (German) -was sent by his government to find information about
universities in France, Italy, Denmark, Poland and Bohemia.
Erasmus (1496-1536) - a scholar during the Renaissance, he gave detailed information about
education in different countries, comparing the state of education in England in his time with that
of Italy.
Montaigne (1533-1592) - From France he traveled widely to Germany, Italy and other European
countries and gave account on the education of the people he visited.
William Petty (1623-1687) - A professor of Anatomy at Oxford University and founder of the
Royal society, presented a more scholarly approach to the observation of foreign counties in his
book" The methods of enquiring into the state of any country."
Le Chatolais (1773) and Diderot (1776) - From Russia, they compared the Russian education
with that of France.
Condorcet (France) - After the French Revolution, he compared the French education system
with that of England, Italy and Germany. He gave his report to the National Assembly.
From the account of the scholars mentioned above, it should be noted that during ancient
time, there were examples of individuals with interest in comparisons of all kind. During the
(13th-15th centuries) travel of one kind or another became greater in length and more
comprehensive in character. During the 16th century cases of embryonic comparative education
research became more frequent. This was partly due to the impetus of geographical exploration
and discovery of the time. As such there were writings, of traveling scholars and others sent to
other countries to study education. During the 17 th century there was increasing and more
significant international contacts as foreign travel not only became more possible, but more and
more common. During this time, travelers guide books, became available and recommended that

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the travelers should observe school activities in the countries they toured. They were also to
consider and gather information on libraries, lectures, school debate, among other key
educational activities. Learning institutions especially universities during this period and after the
Renaissance and Reformation in Europe also made some contributions to the development of
comparative education.
The Phase of Selective Education Borrowing (1817-1900)
Historically the 19th century Europe was characterized by the aftermath of the French
Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Agrarian Revolution and the Colonization process. Education
reformers at this time were concerned with the social and political conditions of these revolutions
and the reaction of the masses. In education they saw the means of moral improvement and
social amelioration. Education reformers were concerned that the ability of individual school
system to improve themselves faced a lot of oppositions even where there were good intentions.
This brought the need to share the best ideas and practices available in many countries. In this
regard there was a significant change of approach that suggested a more systematic and
comprehensive collection of data and in turn "selective borrowing" in education.
This phase can be said to have been characterized and motivate by two main factors. The
first, being the efforts aimed at developing a methodology or a system of rules and regulations
that ought to be followed when studying foreign systems of education. The second, being the
drive to learn lessons from foreign systems for the sole purpose of borrowing educational ideals.
These two factors resulted in journey to foreign countries by travelers with special interest in
educational matters. At this time, there were serious attempts of observations and study of other
systems of education. In this phase travelers no longer traveled for general curiosity and
enlightment, but rather they wanted to discover what was going on in education in other
countries in order to identify what aspects they would borrow for improving their own systems
of education.
Some of the scholar attributed to this phase and hence the development of comparative
education include;
Victor cousin (1792-1867) - He lived in France at time when Europe was in chaos after the
Napoleonic wars. He was a professor of philosophy and head of France's normal school. After
the Napoleonic wars there was need to bring reform in France. He visited Prussia and

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investigated its education with the aim of finding out areas of relevance for reform of education
in France. In (1813) he wrote a report and recommended selective education borrowing from
Prussian experience. He believed that with this borrowing rivalry and antipathies would be out of
place. As such he said people of stature should not be afraid to borrow from wherever and
whatever is appropriate.
Horrace Mann (1796-1859) - From America, he visited Prussia, Scotland, Ireland, France,
Germany, Holland and England. His experience in these foreign countries led him to conclude
that history provided an explanation for the conditions which he saw. According to him he saw
the role of history in comparative education studies as that of illuminating present problems. He
argued that many features of Prussian education could be useful in America despite the gap he
saw between the political and social ideas of the two countries.
Henry Barnard (1811-1900) - From America, he visited Europe and was impressed with the
Prussian education ideas on education like his colleague Horrace Mann. He actually founded the
"Connecticut common school journal" where he prepared and published many of his report and
details on foreign systems of education, and between 1856-1881, he edited and published a
journal entitled "The American journal of Education". He also presented statistical material from
various education systems in his publications as well as historical and descriptive data of a
comparative nature.
Mathew Arnold (1822-1888) - From England, he advocated for an expansion of state activities
in education because of what he had seen for himself on tours which took him several times to
the continent of Europe. He recommended that the people of England should look at what the
French and other countries on the continent of Europe were doing. According to him if this was
done in England or a similar thing on the same principle then he said that the English system of
education would be better off. For him he advocated for the borrowing of positive points of
continental systems of education. However, he cautioned on the dangers of making comparisons
based on analysis of inadequate statistical data.
K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870) - From Russia, he read works of European educational reformers
and attempted to introduce many views into the schools with which he was associated. He also
visited foreign countries in order to observe educational institutions and so conduct educational
studies. He acknowledged national differences in systems of education. As a result he

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emphasized the non-transferability of national traditions as they affected education. However, he
suggested the possible transfer of general schemes across national boundaries.
Marc Antoine Julian de Paris (1775-1848) - He was born in 1775 in Paris and as he grew up,
he distinguished himself as a scholar. He lived during the time of Napoleon and the Napoleonic
wars. He actually became a diplomat in Napoleon's government. In his travel, he noticed the
crisis created by the Napoleonic wars. He was concerned about deterioration of the society after
wars. He was further disturbed by the social and political conditions of revolution in the early
19th century in Europe. He believed that the political and business life of France was based on
oneself interest. He saw educations as a provider of solution to those problems and a positive
science which could be used to improve the French society through systematic and rigorous
approach of comparative analysis. In 1817, he published a book entitled "Plan and Preliminary
views of work in Comparative Education". His plan gave a comprehensive scheme for a
comparative study of foreign systems of education. The purpose of his visits to other countries
was to use foreign examples, to stimulate the French system of education. However he was
concerned that the ability of individual school system to improve themselves was limited. He
actually proposed the established of an Educational commission to collect and distribute
information among member educational states. The collection of facts and observations arranged
in analytical charts would permit both to be related and compared. The establishment of a
National Institute of Education as a demonstration centre for the best teaching methods in
Europe.
As a result of his recommendations Jullien is said to have impacted greatly on the development
of comparative education in the following ways;
i) From his works "Comparative Educational Plans and Preliminary View on Comparative
Education" comparative methodologies and analytical methods emerged. These have continued
to influence the development and study of comparative education to date.
ii) From the recommendation that a Bureau of Education be started in Europe, which came to
being, this latter culminated into the establishment of UNESCO as part of the United Nations
programmes.
iii) From the recommendation of collection of facts and observations arranged in analytical
charts, which enable one to relate and compare issues, educational borrowing became a method

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in comparative education. The aim was transplanting. This kind of borrowing involves
cataloguing of data and lessons on borrowing.
iv) Scholars such as Victor Cousin and others used his recommendations to study foreign
education system with an intention to transplant. However their studies were more descriptive
and not analytical.
v) Following the industrial Revolution, came Imperialism and the Missionary movements. These
took their education systems and planted them in the new lands. They were actually influenced
by the work of Jullien.
vi) Educational administrators, reformers, politician, and experts in various field no longer
traveled for general curiosity, but they did this to specifically discover what was happening in
education overseas in order to improve their own systems.
vii) From his recommendations also, various national agencies were established for the
collection and distribution of information about education, for example, the United States Office
of Education (1867), the Mussee Pedagogigue in Paris (1879), and the Office of Special
Inquiring and Reports in London (1895).
viii) Also by the end of the 19th century most governments were increasingly funding and
encouraging studies on foreign education system and as a result promoting the development of
comparative education.
The Phase of Cultural Context or the Period of Philosophers (1900-1945)
This phase or period is also referred to as the period of cultural analysis. There was general
uneasiness by many scholars about descriptive studies. During this period emphasis in
comparative education shifted from description to analysis. Scholars at this time were mainly
interested in the relations between education and the society. In practice governments were
encouraging and even sponsoring studies of foreign system of education and those who got
involved in these studies became more concerned with problems, of comparison. It was
observed that, it was not enough to only accumulate masses of information about education
practices in other countries or simply borrow practices indiscriminately. The question of
interpreting observed practices in context and of judging or predicting whether a particular
arrangement or practice could be transplanted successfully in the home situation had to be dealt
with critically.

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The desire to move from the descriptive and sometimes uncritical approach of the earlier phase
to a more analytical approach can be said to be the major motivation and characteristic of this
phase. During this phase there was an increasing trend towards analytical studies of
interrelationships between education practice and the society. This became more generally
recognized and accepted. There also grew a major concern to understand some of factors which
helped to shape systems of education in different countries. At this time the problem for
comparative educationist was no longer one of selective educational borrowing alone, but also
one of predicting the possible success of educational transplant through a thorough knowledge of
cultural contexts in both the donor and the recipient country. Many comparative educationists
were concerned with accounting for the features of existing systems of education in terms of the
forces or factors that shaped them to be the way they were. Some of the scholars who made their
contributions during these phase include;
Michael Saddler (1886-1943) - From England, he noted that "in studying foreign systems of
education we should not forget that the things outside the school matter even more than the
things inside the schools, and in most cases they actually govern and interpret the things inside
the school''. He argued that education and society are closely related and that schools must be
studied in the context of the society. He further stated that comparisons cannot be made on
statistics only, but that the social, political, economic and other factors should be looked into as
well. He pointed out that a national system of education is a living thing. It often lays special
emphasis on those parts of training which the national character particularly needs. He argued
that the value of studying foreign systems of educationist often results in our being better fitted
to study and understand our own system. He cautioned on the dangers of piecemeal education
borrowing while maintaining the importance of the schools cultural context. His main
theoretical emphasis was that schools of society must be studied in the context of the society. He
used sociological and historical data to explain trends in education.
William Torrey Harris (1835-1909) - From America, he cautioned on the need for care in the
use of statistics in education particularly statistics of foreign systems of education. He argued
that each individual state puts its own stamp on its education system. According to him, it is not
possible to borrow from another system as easily and as really as one might like to, because,
what may work in one social situation may not be suitable for another. He further argued that

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comparative studies could reveal universal relations between education and society. This is
because a nation's system of education is strongly affected by its culture and consequently
embodies ideals reflecting that culture and in turn it gives a basis for comparative enquiry for
those who are interested in the outcome of educational policies in different countries. To a great
extent, he said that education does break down the caste system and also brings democracy in
society.
Isaac Kandel (1881-1965) - From America, at Teachers' college in Columbia University. He
published many journals and wrote numerous books. In 1933, he published a book entitled
"Studies inComparative Education" which for a long time was a standard textbook in
comparative education. In 1954 he revised and published the first work and entitled it "The New
era in Education: A comparative study". His main concern was on the forces and factors
which shaped and account for the existing system education. To him he sought to find out why
events occurred, when and as they did occur, and which characteristics occurred in the place they
did. He argued that every nation has a character, which is a result of its history and philosophy.
This he emphasized it should be studied because the character of the school can only be
understood through understanding the country's national character. He also argued that the
school cannot be understood outside society. He also observed that broad social movements and
political wars across national boundaries affect national systems differently. To him he did not
believe in borrowing.
Nicholas Hans (England) - He worked at the University of London, King's college and he
published a work on "World Year book of Education" He became a regular contributor to the
annual issues of the year book of education. In 1949, he published his book entitled
"Comparative Education: A study of Educational Factors and Traditions". This book has
also been used as a textbook of comparative education in many institutions of learning. Hans,
like his contemporarily Saddler and Kandel was also more concerned with accounting for the
existing systems of education in terms of the force and factors which shape these systems of
education of different countries.
With the works of Kandel and Hans courses in comparative education became part of teacher
training programmes, in many colleges and universities around the world during this period. In

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fact those that taught comparative education tend to follow the format, content and style of
textbooks authored by scholars during this period.
As more scholars and individuals got interested in the development of comparative education
some national and international agencies were also formed. For example, the International
Bureau of Education (IBE) was established in Geneva in (1925). Some of the main functions of
these agencies included; to study education problems of international concern and dissemination
of education data world-wide.
The Phase of Social Science Perspectives -1945 to present
This is the period that is presumed to have just started after the Second World War. It brought
about a completely new scenario. In essence there has been an increase in interest and activity in
comparative education. Two main aspects stand out in this phase. The first one is the
establishment of new and influential national and international agencies that are involved in
educational inquiry, planning and programme implementation. Also closely related are
comparative educationists who see the field of comparative education as most productive in the
future in terms of more involvement in international projects in education that are potentially of a
reformative kind. The second aspect is the recognition and increased activity in the study and
teaching of comparative education as a discipline in colleges, universities and establishment of
comparative educational centers for research. With this new emphasis, there was a shift from
descriptive accounts to a social science approach.
In this period, concern for the analysis of the antecedent factors became less and more
emphasis lay on analyzing the relationship of the contemporary issues in society and education.
In terms of methodology the mode of analysis has shifted from historical to more quantitative
and empirical, using techniques such as sociology, economics, philosophy and political science
approaches. Comparative educationists emphasize the need to organize and interpret facts
collected so that, the collected information or data can be translated into systems that offer
explanation and theories regarding the collected data. As a result, comparative educationists
have been pre-occupied with debates in an effort to identify the best method of conducting
comparative education studies so as to yield the most valid data and information that can be used
by all stake holders in terms of education practice and reforms.

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 With the emergencies of a new scenario in the world order, a new generation of scholars
also emerged. Faced with the problem of educational reforms, the scholars and educational
administrators took a new look and interest in comparative education. This has also brought in
various experts who prefer to use their own techniques as they deal with comparative education
issues. Among them are those scholars who still use the historians' mode of analysis,
philosophers who use philosophical techniques, sociologists who use sociological techniques and
even the psychologists and economists have entered into the field of comparative education and
are known to use their research techniques. This therefore calls for the use of inter -disciplinary
method of inquiry where social scientists collaborate with comparative educationist to analyze
common problems and examine various national solutions with the intention of increasing the
theoretical insight that will promote education reform. Some of the scholars who have made
substantial effort in the development of comparative education during this phase include;
Vernon Mallinson (Britain) - He uses the concept of national character as a means of
explaining the similarities and differences that exist in systems of education. In 1957, he
published a book entitled "An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Education"where he
explains the concept of "national character" and how it determines the kind of education that a
country follows. In this concept of national character he shows how differences between
education systems come about. He also published several other articles that mainly emphasized
aspects, of the French, Belgian, German, Dutch and Italian education systems.
Joseph A. Lauwerys (Britain) - He was a professor of comparative education at the University
of London, Institute of Education (1947). He is known for his devotion and contribution to the
continuation of the World year book of Education period in association with Columbia
University, New York, This work contributed to the support of the much needed international
data collection and expansion of comparative education courses. He actually stressed the need to
collect reliable data on an international scale in orders to facilitate comparisons in education.
George Z. F. Beredy (1920-1983) - An American professor of comparative education at the
Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York. He edited many publications including
"Comparative Education Review" and "Yearbook of Education". In 1964 he published a
book entitled "Comparative Methods in Education." In this book he stated clearly his beliefs
about the purposes that comparative education should seek to achieve and the methods it should

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follow. He is actually remembered for the "Systematic Area Studies Approach" in comparative
education that he popularized as a scholar.
Brian Holmes (England) - He was a professor of comparative education and worked closely
with Hans and Lauwerys, at the University of London, Institute of Education. His major
contribution was in the search for a comparative education methodology. He eventually
popularized the "Problem Solving Approaches as a Methodology in comparative education
research. He published two books one in 1965, entitled "Problems in Education: A comparative
Approach" and the second one in 1981, entitled "Comparative Education: Some consideration of
Methods". Both books reflect his major interest in the methodology of comparative education
and are major textbooks used by students of comparative education even today.
Edmond J. King (England) - He was a professor of Education, at the University of London,
King's college. He inherited the legacy of Nicholas Hans who was also at the King's College. He
wrote several books including "Other schools and ours" (1958) and "Comparative Studies and
Educational Decision" (1968). He was the general editor of the Pergamon press "Society and
school Progress" series which covered a number of countries by way of area studies. He
distinguished between what was appropriate for students who were beginners in the field of
comparative education and those who already had some background in comparative education,
and those who were engaged in research work.
Harold Noah form Columbia University and Max Eckstein from the City University of New
York. They advocated for methods of comparative education which they offered to be
characterized by systematic, controlled, empirical and where possible apply quantitative
investigations. They co-authored two books i.e. "Towards science of comparative
Education'' (1969) and "Scientific Investigations in Comparative Education'' (1969), which
was a collection of readings that illustrated their general approach. These works also contributed
to the refinement of methodology in comparative education. Institutions of higher learning also
contributed to the development of comparative education during this phase. Some of the renown
universalities that established comparative education studies included among others, London,
Columbia, Berlin, Chicago, Syracuse, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Hamburg, Nashville, Reading
and Salzburg. In African, Asia and Latin America, many universities have also established
comparative education centers and they even teach it as an academic discipline today.

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Sheikh Mustafa (Assistant Professor) Institute of Advanced Studies In Education, M.A
Road Srinagar
Other players to the development of comparative education during this phase include;
International, regional and national agencies, for example, the International Bureau of Education,
UNESCO, UNICEF among others. Their main functions include, collecting analyzing and
disseminating educational documentation and information. These are also involved in
undertaking surveys and project studies in the field of comparative Education. A number of
Education Societies have also been formed by individuals, interested in the field of comparative
education. Their main aims include; initiating and coordinating researched and also to co-operate
with other persons, and organizations interested in international and comparative studies. Some
of the comparative education societies that were established include comparative education
society New York (1958). British and German sections of the society were also established.
Canada, Korea, Japan and Africa have also established similar comparative education societies.
All these societies are affiliated to the World Council of Comparative Societies.
Besides the contribution of individual, and educations organizations to the development of
comparative education during this phase, this phase was and is also marked by very many
characteristics which include;
 An explosion of knowledge - the challenge of this is how this knowledge ought to be
disseminated. This would imply that teachers have to acquire new roles.
 Drive for knowledge world wide - a common phenomenon where everybody everywhere
wants education both in the developed and developing world.
 Drive for liberty through liberation struggles both political and ideological. Education has
been at the centre of these struggles. This has also witnessed the emergence of education
for the masses, for political, economic, cultural and intellectual liberalization.
 Rapid urbanization and Industrialization which has greatly impacted on education.
 Population explosion - this has led to population related problems. For example, in Kenya
over 50% of the population is of school-going age. This means that their education and
upkeep has to be catered for by a very small working population.
 Increasing concern for quality education. There has been need to emphasis on education
that is relevant to the life and needs of the students and the society they are to serve. This
has created a lot of interest in education worldwide. Comparative educationists have been
called upon by international agencies to help solve these myriad educational challenges.

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Sheikh Mustafa (Assistant Professor) Institute of Advanced Studies In Education, M.A
Road Srinagar
  Comparative education as an academic discipline has become part f the development of
specialized interdisciplinary fields of study that emerged with the expansion of graduate
education in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa among others.
 The world power shifts. After the two world wars, there was an accelerated shift of world
power from the Great Britain to the U.S.A. and U.S.SR. Communism and Capitalism
took centre stage and the world was divided accordingly. This had a big effect on national
systems of education.
 As time went by the U.S.A assuming centre place in world politics, there has been great
need for American presence in and understanding of the cultures and education of other
countries. In this regard many universities have established departments of comparative
education.
 With the collapse of communism in the mid 1980s the power structure in the world
changed. The new world order has the U.S.A. in a steering position with its loyal
lieutenants, i.e. IMF and World Bank. Their policies have made significant impacts in
education the world over. For example the Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPS) led to
the freezing of employment of teachers in Kenya in 1998 among other impacts.
 Arising from the cold war there was a great concern for scientific and technological
development especially after the launch of the Sputnik in 1957 by Russia. This concern
led to massive funding of research in science education. The third world countries also
experienced increased funding and as such comparative educationists were in the centre
of these endeavors. In this regard many agencies such as the Ford Foundation, Carnegie
foundation and many others funded research and development of comparative education
as part of a wider U.S.A. foreign policy.
 A major issue on methodology in comparative education emerged and researchers and
scholars like Beredy, Holmes and Arnold Noah were engaged in active debate on this.
 Today comparative education is taught in many universities at both undergraduate and
graduate levels. There are also many publications i.e. books, journals and magazines on
comparative education. This has been propagated by the numerous national, regional and
international comparative education societies and associations that bring together
scholars in comparative education.

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Sheikh Mustafa (Assistant Professor) Institute of Advanced Studies In Education, M.A
Road Srinagar