Bangalore Institute of Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

Design Concept of Building Services (18CV742)

 DESIGN CONCEPT OF BUILDING SERVICES (18CV742)

Module -1:
Water Supply, Drainage and Solid Waste Disposal: Water requirements for different types
of buildings, simple method of removal of impurities, water saving practices and their potent
ial. Service connection from mains, sump and storage tank, types and sizes of pipes, special
installation in multistoried buildings. Material, types of fixtures and fitting for a contemporar
y bathroom- taps -quarter turn, half turn, ceramic, foam flow etc, hot water mixer, hand
shower.

Rainwater harvesting to include roof top harvesting, type of spouts, sizes of rainwater pipes
and typical detail of a water harvesting pit.
Principles of drainage, surface drainage, shape and sizes of drains and sewers, storm water o
ver flow chambers, methods of laying and construction of sewers.
Approaches for solid waste management, Solid wastes collection and removal
from buildings. On-site processing and disposal methods

Module -2:
Heat Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC): Behaviour of heat propagation, thermal in
sulating materials and their co-efficient of thermal conductivity. General methods of thermal
insulation: Thermal insulation o f roofs, exposed walls.
Ventilation: Definition and necessity, system
of ventilation. Principles of air conditioning, Air cooling, Different systems of
ducting and distribution, Essentials of air-conditioning system.

Module -3:
Electrical and Fire Fighting Services: Electrical systems, Basics of electricity, single/Three
phase supply, protective devices in electrical installation, Earthing for safety, Types of earthi
ng, ISI Specifications. Electrical installations in buildings, Types of wires, Wiring systems an
d their choice , planning electrical wiring for building, Main and distribution boards, Principl
es of illumination,
Classification of buildings based on occupancy, causes of fire and spread of fire,
Standard fire, Fire fighting, protection and fire resistance, Firefighting equipment and
different t methods of fighting fire., means of escape, alarms, etc., Combustibility of materials,
Structral elements and fire resistance, Fire escape routes and elements, planning and design. Wet
risers, dry risers, sprinklers, heat detector, smoke detectors, fire dampers, fire doors, etc.
Provisions of NBC.

Module -4:
Plumbing and Fire Fighting Layout of Simple Buildings: Application of above studies in
preparing layout and details - Plumbing layout of residential and public buildings, Fire fighti
ng layout, Reflected ceiling plan of smoke detectors / sprinklers, etc.

Module -5:
Engineering Services: engineering services in a building as a system, Lifts,
escalators, cold and hot water systems, waste water systems and electrical systems.
Pumps and Machineries: Reciprocating, Centrifugal, Deep well, Submersible,
Automatic pumps, Sewerage pumps, Compressors, Vacuum pump - their
selection, installation and maintenance - Hot water boilers - Classification and
types of lifts, lift
codes, rules structural provision: escalators, their uses, types and sizes, safety
norms to be adopted - Social features required for physically handicapped and
elderly, DC/AC motors, Generators.
Building Maintenance: Preventive and protective maintenance, Scheduled and
contingency maintenance planning, M.I.S. for building maintenance.
Maintenance standards. Economic maintenance decisions.
MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

BUILDING SERVICES:
Building services are the systems installed in buildings to make them comfortable, functional,
efficient and safe. Building services are what make a building come to life.

Building services engineers are responsible for the design, installation, and operation and
monitoring of the mechanical, electrical and public health systems required for the safe,
comfortable and environmentally friendly operation of modern buildings. The term Building
Services Engineering is widely used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada and Australia.

Building Services is all about making buildings meet the needs of the people who live and
work in them. Like all other engineered products buildings must do what they were designed to
do. They do more than provide shelter from the heat and cold, or from sun wind and rain; they
must also provide a safe and healthy environment in which people can live, work and achieve.
They creatively apply scientific principles to design the buildings we need and to do so they
focus on aspects of buildings such as:
1. Safety
 Daylight and artificial lighting
 Escalators and lift
 Ventilation and refrigeration
 Security and alarm systems
 Fire detection and protection

2. Efficiency
 Energy supply and use
 Communications networks
 Facade engineering
3. Comfort
 Heating and ventilating
 Water, drainage and plumbing
 Air conditioning and refrigeration

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Building services comprises of:

 Communication lines, telephones and IT networks (ICT)

 Energy supply - gas, electricity and renewable sources
 Escalators and lifts
 Fire detection and protection
 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
 Lightning protection
 Low voltage (LV) systems, distribution boards and switchgear
 Natural lighting and artificial lighting, and building facades
 Security and alarm systems
 Ventilation and refrigeration
 Water, drainage and plumbing

Necessity of services for buildings:

Imagine yourself in the most fabulous building in the world. Now take away the lighting, heating
and ventilation, the lifts and escalators, acoustics, plumbing, power supply and energy
management systems, the security and safety systems and you are left with a cold, dark,
uninhabitable shell.

Everything inside a building, which makes it safe and comfortable to be in, is considered as
‘Building Services’. A building must do what it was designed to do – not just provide shelter but
also be an environment where people can live, work and achieve. Building services are what
make a building come to life. Building services are the dynamics in a static structure, providing
movement, communications, facilities and comfort. The capital and installation costs of building
services in modern buildings can take up 50% of the total construction budget. For highly
serviced buildings such as sports centres, this figure can easily exceed 75%. Services can also
take up 15% of a building’s volume. Therefore building services cannot be ignored.

Building service systems encompass mechanical, electrical, security, safety, information and
communication systems, among others. The systems are installed to support the required
business

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functions of the building, here office buildings are mainly focused, and the needs of the
occupiers. It is therefore essential that maintenance be carried out with minimal interruption to
this, whilst still meeting the users' needs, either through reliability or maintainability to optimize
whole life cost. The ability of the building service systems to continually perform interactively is
of vital importance to the operational requirements.

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MODULE 1:

Water Supply, Drainage and Solid Waste Disposal:

Water supply system

 Water requirements for different types of buildings

 Simple method of removal of impurities
 Water saving practices and their potential.
 Service connection from mains, sump and storage tank
 Types and sizes of pipes
 Special installation in multistoried buildings.
 Types of fixtures and fitting for a contemporary bathroom
 Taps –quarter turn, half turn, ceramic, foam flow etc, hot water mixer, hand shower

 Rainwater harvesting to include roof top harvesting

 Typical detail of a water harvesting pit

Drainage system
 Principles of drainage,
 Surface drainage,
 Shape and sizes of drains and sewers,
 Storm water over flow chambers,
 Methods of laying and construction of sewers

Solid Waste Disposal

 Approaches for solid waste management
 Solid wastes collection and removal from buildings.
 On-site processing and disposal methods

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Water Supply System

Water requirements for different types of buildings:

Water requirement may be divided into following categories

a. Domestic Water Requirements

Domestic water requirement may be divided as:

 In-house requirement
 Sprinkling requirement

In-house requirement includes drinking, cooking, sanitation, house cleaning, clothes washing etc.
Sprinkling requirement includes water requirement for garden watering, lawn sprinkling, car washing
etc. Domestic consumption under normal condition in an Indian city as per National Building Code, has
been taken as 135 litres per capita per day (lpcd).

Recommended Per Capita Water Supply Levels for Designing Schemes

Recommended Maximum
Sl.
Classification of towns / cities Water Supply Levels
No.
(lpcd)
Town provided with piped water supply but
1 70
without sewerage system
Cities provided with piped water supply
2 135
where sewerage system is existing
Metropolitan and mega cities provided with
3 piped water supply where sewerage system is 150
existing

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a. Institutional Water Requirements:

A well developed city or town has hospitals, schools, restaurants, hotels, railway stations, bus
terminus and offices of different departments. To cater to need for water of these
establishments, consideration has to be given for water requirements of these units while
planning for water supply system of a town or city. On an average additional per capita
demand for these units may

S. No. Institutions Liters per head per day

1. Hospital (including laundry)
(a) No. of beds exceeding 100 450 (per bed)
(b) No. of beds not exceeding 100 340 (per bed
2. Hotels 180 (per bed)
3. Hostels 135
4. Nurses homes and medical quarters 135
5. Boarding schools / colleges 135
6. Restaurants 70 (per seat)
7. Air ports and sea ports 10
8. Junction Stations 70
9. Terminal station 45
10. Intermediate stations 45
11. Day schools/ colleges 45
12. Offices 45
13. Factories 45
14. Cinema, concert halls and theatres 15

requirement for a few industries located in a town may be taken around 60 litres/head/day but
the demand may go as high as 500 litres/head/day depending on type of industry. Below table
gives an idea of water consumption for different kinds of manufacturing industrial units.

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Industrial Needs of Water

Industry Unit of Production Water Requirement in

Kilolitres per unit
Automobile Vehicle 40
Distillery (Kilolitre Alcohol) 122-170
Fertilizer Tonne 80-200
Leather 100 Kg(tanned) 4
Paper Tonne 200-400
Special quality Paper Tonne 400-1000
Straw Board Tonne 75-100
Petroleum Refinery Tonne(crude) 1-2
Steel Tonne 200-500
Sugar Tonne(Cane crushed) 1-2
Textile 100 Kg (goods) 8-14

d. Requirement for Public Use:

This includes requirement for Traffic Terminals, Fire, and Public Gardens etc. The water
requirements for traffic terminals, such as railway stations, but stations, harbours, airport etc.
include provisions for waiting rooms and waiting halls. For retiring rooms, additional provisions
are to be done.
e. Fire demand:
Very often we hear of fires breaking out and destroying properties. To counter this again
water is mostly used. So when every a fire breaks out the fire fighters connect their hoses to
these & douse the fire by shooting the jet of water at a head of 10-15m for constant use of
beyond 4-5 hrs. Quantity of water required for firefighting is generally calculated by
following empirical formulae.
 National Board of Fire under Writers Formula, Q= 4640√P (1-0.01√P)
 Freeman formula, Q= 1135.5 ([P/10] +10)
 Kuching’s formula, Q=3182√P
 Buston’s formula Q=5663√P

Q = quantity of water required in l/min and P = population of town in 1000’s (under 2 lakhs)

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f. Compensation of losses:

This includes the water lost in leakage due to bad plumbing or damaged meters, stolen water due
to unauthorized water connections, and other losses and wastes. These losses should be taken
into account, while estimating the total requirements. Careful maintenance and universal
metering can reduce these losses. Even in the best managed water works, this amount may,
however, work to be as high as 15% of the total consumption.

Simple method of removal of impurities

It is not possible to find pure water in nature. The rainwater as it drops down to the surface of
earth absorbs dust and gases from the atmosphere. It is further exposed to the organic matter on
the surface of earth and by the time, it reaches the source of water supply, it is found to contain
various other impurities also.
For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into the
following three categories:
1. Physical impurities
2. Chemical impurities
3. Bacteriological impurities.

The various methods or the techniques that may be adopted for purifying the public water
supplies are:
 Screening
 Plain sedimentation
 Sedimentation aided with Coagulation
 Filtration
 Disinfection
 Aeration
 Softening
 Miscellaneous treatments, such as fluoridation, re-carbonation liming, desalination, etc.

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Most of the big and visible objects, such as trees, branches, sticks vegetation, fish, animal life,
etc. present in raw waters of surface sources can be removed by screening.
The coarser suspended materials can they be removed by letting the water settle in sedimentation
basins. The process is called plain sedimentation.
The effectiveness of sedimentation may however be increased by mixing certain chemicals with
the water, to form flocculent precipitate, which carries the suspended particles as it settles. The
process is called chemical coagulation.
The finer particles in suspension, which may avoid settling in sedimentation basins even after
using chemical coagulation, may then be removed by filtering the water through filters. The
process is called filtration.
The filtered water, which may still contain pathogenic bacteria, is then made bacteria-proof by
adding certain chemicals such as chlorine, etc. This process of killing of germs is called
disinfection.
The resulting water, though now becomes safe, yet may not be attractive to the tongue of the
consumers. Unpleasant tastes and odours may then, therefore, have to be removed by adding
certain chemical compounds such as activated carbon or by using ozone. This process is called
aeration.
The resulting water may sometimes be much harder than permissible and may, therefore, have to
be softened by a process called softening.
Sometimes, the resulting water may be given further treatment, such as fluoridation (i.e. the
addition of soluble fluoride for controlling dental caries), liming (i.e. addition of lime in order to
control acidity and reduce corrosive action), re-carbonation (i.e. addition of carbon dioxide so as
to prevent deposition of calcium carbonate scale), desalination (i.e. removal of excess salt, if at
all present) etc.

Water saving practices and their potential:

Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities to sustainably manage the
natural resource of fresh water, to protect the hydrosphere, and to meet the current and future
human demand. Population, household size, and growth and affluence all affect how much water
is used.

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There are a number of strategies that can be employed to reduce the amount of water consumed
in a buildind. In general terms, these methods include:
 System optimization (i.e., efficient water systems design, leak detection, and repair);
 Water conservation measures; and
 Water reuse/recycling systems.

System optimization:
Contrary to the popular view that the most effective way to save water is to curtail water-using
behavior (e.g., by taking shorter showers), experts suggest the most efficient way is replacing
toilets and retrofitting washers.
Water-saving technology for the home includes:
1. Low-flow shower heads sometimes called energy-efficient shower heads as they also use
less energy
2. Low-flush toilets, composting toilets and incinerating toilets. Composting toilets have a
dramatic impact in the developed world, as conventional Western flush toilets use large
volumes of water
3. Dual flush toilets includes two buttons or handles to flush different levels of water. Dual
flush toilets use up to 67% less water than conventional toilets
4. Faucet aerators, which break water flow into fine droplets to maintain "wetting
effectiveness" while using less water.
5. Raw water flushing where toilets use sea water or non-purified water (i.e. greywater)
6. High-efficiency clothes washers
7. Weather-based irrigation controllers
8. Garden hose nozzles that shut off the water when it is not being used, instead of letting a
hoserun.

9. Low flow taps in wash basins

10. Automatic faucet is a water conservation faucet that eliminates water waste at the faucet.

Water conservation measures:

1. Put plastic bottles or float booster in your toilet tank if you have an older model toilet:

Water reuse/recycling systems:

1. On-site water reuse or recycling: this process relies on reusing water from the same purpose
at the same location, and usually involves minimal treatment or filtration to make it

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acceptable for its intended reuse.
2. Reclaimed/treated water: this non-potable water resource is developed by treating used water
to wastewater treatment standards and then redistributed for on-site use. This strategy can be
costly.
3. Grey water: this resource is derived from water captured from uses such as showers, baths,
sinks, and then filtered to remove solids. Grey water may be used to serve such end uses as
landscape irrigation and toilet flushing.
4. Water catchment systems: this resource includes non-potable water captured from rainwater
sources that have not been treated to meet potable standards. Rooftop rainwater collection
systems is the cost effective system which can be adopted.
Service connection from mains, sump and storage tank
The distribution of water within a building from the city mains or other, sources such as ground
water, can be obtained by several piping systems. Each method has its own merits and demerits
depending upon the local conditions. Such piping systems must, however, be designed to provide
uniform flow and pressure in all floors and places within certain practical limitations, of course.
The piping systems to be adopted will differ, when the main supply is used, or when the
overhead tank supply is used, or when the underground-overhead tanks supply is used.
Service connection from mains:
In this system, water is supplied to all the fixtures at all floor levels of a building directly from
the city main, through the house connection, as shown in figure. Such a system is, however,
successful only when the water supply is available at adequate pressure round the clock. The
minimum pressure available will, however, limit the number of floors to which water can be
supplied.

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Service connection from mains

Service connection from sumps:

Water can be distributed by an automatic pumping system (such as a hydro pneumatic system)
directly to the supply-point, similar to that shown for direct supply. The pressure in the system
is boosted by pumping sets that pump water from an under-ground tanks

The main advantage of such a system lies in the fact that it eliminates the need for overhead
tanks and is ideal for existing buildings when new overhead tanks cannot be constructed, and
also for low buildings when the tanks placed on roof cannot generate enough pressure at upper
floors.

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Service connection from sumps

Service connection from storage tanks:

When the municipal water supplies are at low pressure, whether intermittent or continuous, then
it becomes necessary to store water in under-ground tanks (since direct connection of pumps to
the mains is prohibited). The water collected in the underground tank is finally lifted to the
overhead tank.

Service connection from storage tanks

Types of Pipes:
Pipes convey raw water from the source to the treatment plants in the distribution system.
Water is under pressure always and hence the pipe material and the fixture should withstand
stresses.

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Requirements of Pipe Material

 It should be capable of withstanding internal and external pressures
 It should have facility of easy joints
 It should be available in all sizes, transport and installation should be easy.
 It should be durable
 It should not react with water to alter its quality
 Cost of pipes should be less
 Frictional head loss should be minimum
 The damaged units should be replaced easily.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIPES

The following are the different types of pipes:
1. Cast Iron
2. Steel
3. Concrete Pipes
4. Galvanised Iron (G.I)
5. P.V.C pipes

Cast Iron Pipes:

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Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Cost is moderate 1. Breakage of pipes are large
2. The pipes are easy to join 2. The carrying capacity of these pipes
3. The pipes are not subjected to corrosion decreases with the increase in life of
4. The pipes are strong and durable pipes.
5. Service connections can be easily made 3. The pipes are not used for pressure
6. Usual life is about 100 years greater than 0.7 N/mm2.
4. The pipes are heavier and uneconomical
beyond 1200 mm dia.

Steel Pipes:

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. No. of Joining are less because these are 1. Maintenance cost is high
available in long lengths. 2. The pipes are likely to be rusted by
2. The pipes are cheap initially acidic or alkaline water.
3. The pipes are durable and strong enough 3. The pipes require more time for repairs
to resist high internal water pressure during breakdown and hence not
4. The pipes are flexible to some extent suitable for distribution pipes
and they can therefore laid on curves 4. The pipes may deform in shape under
5. Transportation is easy because of combined action of external forces
lightweight.

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Concrete Pipes:

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. The inside surface of pipes can be made 1. The pipes are heavy and difficult to
smooth. transport
2. Maintenance cost is low 2. Repairs of these pipes are difficult
3. The pipes are durable with life period 75 3. The pipes are likely to crack during
years transport and handling operations
4. No danger of rusting 4. There pipes are affected by acids,
5. These pipes do not collapse or fail under alkalies and salty waters.
normal traffic loads

Galvanized Iron Pipes (G.I Pipes):

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Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. The pipes are cheap 1. The pipes are affected by acidic or
2. Light in weight and easy to handle alkaline waters
3. The pipes are easy to join 2. The useful life of pipes is short about 7 to
10 years.

P.V.C. Pipes:

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. The pipes are cheap and durable 1. It is difficult to obtain the plastic pipes
2. The pipes are flexible of uniform composition
3. The pipes are free from corrosion 2. The pipes are less resistance to heat
4. The pipes are light in weight 3. Some types of plastic impart taste to the
water.

Size of Service Pipes:

The sizes of service pipes are determined based on the following:
1. the minimum pressure in the distribution main at the proposed point of connection,
2. length of service pipe required,
3. elevation of the highest point of delivery above the distribution main
4. number and types of plumbing fixtures in the building and the maximum rate of flow
required.
The maximum rate of flow may be estimated by considering what the average householder
expects
at his plumbing fixtures. Guidance may be taken from the following table:
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Flow required (liters/min)

Plumbing Fixture
Good Reasonable
Kitchen Tap 10 7
Bath Tap 25 15
Water closet flushing 10 7

If it is assumed that one of each of these is in operation simultaneously, a maximum demand rate
of 29 to 45 litres/min is obtained. Knowing the rate of flow and the desired velocity, pipe
diameter can be found.
Alternatively, the diameter of service pipe can also be fixed on the basis of occupants in the
house,
as given in table below
No. of occupants 4 8 24 60

Dia. of Service pipe (mm) 12.5 20 25 30

As per National Building Code, the minimum size of pipe for various fixtures is 15mm.

Pipe Fittings:
The various pipe fittings, such as bends, crosses, tees, elbows, wye unions, caps, plugs, flanges
etc. are frequently used in making service connections and also sometimes in bigger sized mains
or sub-mains. Various types of bends and other important pipefittings are shown in figure

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Special installation in multistoried buildings:

High-rise buildings reflected the need to make the best possible usage of a relatively small area
of land in densely populated urban spaces across the world. This poses a huge challenge when it
comes to design of efficient water distribution systems in these high-rise structures.

For water supply system, special installation is required in multistoried buildings such as:
1. Booster Pumps:
Water distribution to buildings is vital for several reasons. People who live in multi-story
buildings always need sufficient water and so does industrial processes. Therefore, high-quality
pumps are crucial in booster systems.

2. Pressure reduction valves (PRV):

To equalize pressure on all floors, PRVs are often used in multi-story buildings. The pressure is
mechanically reduced directly by the spring, making it possible to adjust the pressure precisely
for each floor. The PRV can either be used individually with one on each floor or in a branch of
a riser supplying 2-3 floors.

A properly sized, zone divided booster system would be more efficient for the operating life of a
high-rise building when compared to other systems.

Types of fixtures and fitting for a contemporary bathroom:

A Bathroom is primarily used for washing hands and face, grooming, elimination at the WC,
bathing and storage of bathroom supplies. It is also used for other activities sometimes, such as
infant care, hand laundering, dressing etc.

So the typical fixtures and accessories in a Bathroom include the 4 basic fixtures namely:
 wash basin,
 toilet or water closet
 shower stall and
 bathtub

Ideally each bathroom should be located near a Bedroom. In addition, one should consider the
wind directions and the sun position, in order that the sunrays dry up the bathroom quickly and
the wind flow allows for fresh air to enter the bathroom and the humid air to leave it.

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1. Wash Basin (Sink):

In plumbing, a Sink or Washbasin is a bowl-shaped fixture that is used for washing hands or
small objects. Sinks are made of many different materials such as Stainless steel, Enamel over
steel or cast iron, Ceramic, Plastic, Concrete, Terrazzo, Stone, Copper or Glass. The Washbasin
is fixed such that the top of the basin is at a height of 2’9″ from the floor. The typical accessories
found at the washbasin are Faucet (Tap), Mirror etc.

2. Toilet (WC) in a Bathroom:

A toilet disposes of human waste by using water to flush it through a drainpipe to another
location. There are different types of toilets such as the sitting type called the “western”, the
squatting type called the “Squat”, the combination of squatting and sitting called the “Anglo-
Indian”.

3. Shower Stall (Shower Cubicle) in a Bathroom:

A shower (also called shower bath) is a booth for washing, having an overhead shower nozzle
that sprays water down on the body. The standard sizes are 2’8″ x 4’0″, 3’0″ x 3’0″, 3’0″ x 5’0″
etc. The standard fittings found in a shower cubicle are showerhead, towel bars etc.

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4. Bathtub in a Bathroom:
Bathtub is a plumbing fixture used for bathing. Most modern bathtubs are made of acrylic or
fiberglass, but alternatives are available in enamel over steel or cast iron, and occasionally wood.
The standard sizes are 5’0″ x 2’8″, 5’6″ x 2’8″ and 6 ’0″ x 3’ 0″. This may be in combination
with a shower. The standard fittings that are found along with a bathtub are showerhead, towel
bar etc.

Taps:
Water taps are the types of valves provided at the end of house service pipes for withdrawing
water at the consumer’s house. Several varieties of water taps are available, and the most
common of them is a water taps. A typical water tap is shown in figure. By rotating the handle of
the water taps, the orifice opening, through which the water passes, can be increased or
decreased, thereby controlling the outflow through the spout. They are available to be fitted in
different pipe sizes from 10 to 50 mm dia.
The water taps may also be of the push type, which opens from a slight push given vertically
upward, and closes down automatically due to self-weight when the push is removed. Such
valves are used in public taps in order to avoid wastage of water from handle type water tap,
which may be left open by the irresponsible people.

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The water taps should be watertight and should not leak, as it may lead to considerable wastage
of water. The rubber or leather washers used in them may get damaged and lead to leakage, and
hence should be replaced as and when needed.

Quarter Turn Tap:

These are the water taps where the handle can be rotated to 90 degrees
On the advantage side, they are easy to turn on with the back of the wrist if you have dirt hands
or for people with restrictive movement. On the disadvantage side, if you are used to traditional
washer taps, you might try to turn the tap handle more vigorously than needed and get a blast of
full pressure water.

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Half Turn Tap:

These are the water taps where the handle can be rotated to 180 degrees

Ceramic Taps:
Ceramic taps have several advantages over the more traditional rubber washers:
 No need of replacing washers that have worn out, as the ceramic taps are stronger and
will last longer.
 A steady flow of water will come out of your spout with just a simple quarter turn of the
handle, making it a lot easier to turn the tap on and off.
 Because there is no need to constantly turn the tap, it means overall less wear and tear on
your taps.
There are some disadvantages:
 Tap washers cost less than ceramic taps.
 You may experience water splashing all over the place because of the unpredictable
intensity of the water. To ensure a less intense water flow with ceramic tap, use a disc
with a half or three quarter turn.

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

Rainwater harvesting to include roof top harvesting

Rain water harvesting is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater into natural reservoirs
or tanks, or the infiltration of surface water into subsurface aquifers (before it is lost as surface
runoff). One method of rainwater harvesting is rooftop harvesting. With rooftop harvesting, most
any surface — tiles, metal sheets, plastics, but not grass or palm leaf — can be used to intercept
the flow of rainwater and provide a household with high-quality drinking water and year-round
storage. Other uses include water for gardens, livestock, and irrigation, etc.

Advantages of rain water harvesting

 Promotes adequacy of underground water
 Mitigates the effect of drought
 Reduces soil erosion as surface run-off is reduced
 Decreases load on storm water disposal system
 Reduces flood hazards
 Improves ground water quality / decreases salinity (by dilution)
 Prevents ingress of sea water in subsurface aquifers in coastal areas
 Improves ground water table, thus saving energy (to lift water)
 The cost of recharging subsurface aquifer is lower than surface reservoirs
 The subsurface aquifer also serves as storage and distribution system
 No land is wasted for storage purpose and no population displacement is involved
 Storing water underground is environment friendly

Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater:

1. Surface runoff harvesting

2. Roof top rainwater harvesting

Surface runoff harvesting:-

In urban area, rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used for
rec

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742
harging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.

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 MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

Rooftop rainwater harvesting:-

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be
stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very
ffective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area.
Components of the Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
A rooftop rainwater harvesting system consists the following elements:
1. Collection area,
2. Conveyance system,
3. Filtration /treatment
4. Storage
5. Usage/ Recharge

Collection area or Catchment area:

The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting system. It may
be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The terrace may be flat RCC/stone roof
or sloping roof. Therefore, the catchment is the area, which actually contributes rainwater to the
harvesting system.

Conveyance System or Transportation:

Rainwater from rooftop should be carried through down take water pipes or drains to
storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI HDPE/PVC pipes) of
required capacity. Water from sloping roofs could be caught through gutters and down take pipe.
At terraces, mouth of the each drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating material.

First Flush:
First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower. The first shower of
rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable water by the probable
contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It will also help in cleaning of silt and
other material deposited on roof during dry seasons Provisions of first rain separator should be
made at outlet of each drainpipe.

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

Filtration or Treatment:
Filters are used for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, colour and
microorganisms. After first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through filters. A gravel, sand
and ‘netlon’ mesh filter is designed and placed on top of the storage tank. This filter is very
important in keeping the rainwater in the storage tank clean. It removes silt, dust, leaves and
other organic matter from entering the storage tank.
There are different types of filters in practice, but basic function is to purify water. Different
types of filters are:

 Sand Gravel Filter

 Charcoal Filter
 PVC –Pipe filter

Storage:
In this, rainwater collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a storage tank. The storage
tank has to be designed according to the water requirements, rainfall and catchment availability.

Each drainpipe should have mesh filter at mouth and first flush device followed by filtration
system before connecting to the storage tank. It is advisable that each tank should have excess
water over flow system.

Usage or Recharge:
Groundwater aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure percolation of
rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from the surface. Commonly used recharging
methods are:-
a. Recharging of bore wells
b. Recharging of dug wells.
c. Recharge pits
d. Recharge Trenches
e. Soak ways or Recharge Shafts
f. Percolation Tanks

Typical detail of a water-harvesting pit (recharge pit):

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742
Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular, contracted with brick or
stone masonry wall with weep hole at regular intervals. Top of pit can be covered with
perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter media.

The capacity of the pit can be designed on the basis of catchment area, rainfall intensity and
recharge rate of soil. Usually the dimensions of the pit may be of 1 to 2 m width and 2 to 3 m
deep depending on the depth of pervious strata.

These pits are suitable for recharging of shallow aquifers, and small houses. A schematic
diagram of recharge pit is shown in fig.

Solid Waste Disposal

Approaches for solid waste management
Three approaches can be adopted to attain a sustainable management of Solid Wastes. These
include:
 Reduction Approach - which calls for lower levels of material consumption in society.
 Reuse and

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742
 Recycling Approach - which attempts to maximize the life span of a material in the
production-consumption cycle.

Reduction Approach:
This approach calls for reduction in the per capita consumption of natural resources through one
or more of the following approaches.
 Purchase more durable items
 Buy more efficient products - automobiles, houses and appliances.
 Cut consumption by reducing luxury items.
 Manufacturers can reduce the sizes of their products so to cut down on material used per
unit

Reuse and Recycle Approach

 Japan, Mexico, North Korea and Netherlands are leaders in Paper Recycling.
 Advocates of the Reuse approach calls for a continuous use of materials in an attempt to
cut down on the consumption of new resources. For example, boxes, clothes, appliances
that may be trash-bound could be donated to others for reuse.
 Recycling is another form of Reuse but usually involves some form of conversion from
one state of the material to another. For example, in recycling, a glass will have to be
crushed and melted before it will be used to make a new glass.

Solid wastes collection and removal from buildings.

Types of Collection Systems

1. Hauled Container Systems (HCS)

The container is sited at a location. In accordance with some cycle, the container is picked up
and hauled off to the disposal area where the container is emptied and returned to the original
location. The truck had no container, per se; the container is carried by the truck. A variation is
start with an empty container.

Advantages:

 Useful when the generation rate is high and the containers are large.
 May eliminate spillage associated with multiple smaller containers.

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742
 Flexible. Need more capacity, use a larger container.

Disadvantage: If the containers are not filled, low utilization rate.

Types: Hoist truck, Tilt-frame and Trash-trailer

2. Stationary Container System(SCS):

The waste container remains near where the waste is generated. The waste is unloaded into a
bigger truck. A large container is an integral part of the truck. When fully loaded from multiple
waste containers, the truck travels to and from the landfill as opposed to the waste container.

The major advantage is that the vehicle does not travel to the disposal area until it is full yielding
higher utilization rates.

The major disadvantages include:

 The system is not flexible in terms of picking up bulky goods.

 Wastes e.g. demolition, that make damage the relatively delicate mechanisms.
 Large volume generations may not have room for storing large

containers Types: Manually loaded and Mechanically loaded

The major dichotomy is between HCS and SCS. In HCS the container is carried to and from the
disposal area. With SCS, the container is emptied into a truck and the truck travels to and from
the disposal area.

On-site processing and disposal methods

Dry refuse requires careful disposal otherwise results in the unhygienic conditions and puts
public health in danger. Following are methods adopted for disposal of dry refuse or solid waste:

1. DUMPING - The method of filling low laying areas by refuse is called dumping. This
method is suitable if the refuse contains ashes, street sweepings and rubbish. If the refuse
contain garbage, it causes serious problems to the public health due to the breeding of
mosquitoes, flies, scattering of papers and bad smell,
2. SANITARY LANDFILL - This method is better than dumping method. This is the simple
effective and cheap method of refuse disposal. This is an efficient method but requires
constant supervision for proper carrying out of filling operations. If proper care not taken

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742
sanitary landfill is reduced to ordinary dumping.
3. INCINERATION: This is the best method of disposal of combustible refuse. This process is
carried out in an incinerator, which consists of a furnace provided with grating and a
chimney. This method is particularly suitable for thickly populated area where the site for
land filling is not available and used to reduce volume of refuse can be destroyed. The main
disadvantage of this method is, its emission of large amount of smoke causes air pollution.
4. COMPOSTING: The process of making of organic matter along with cattle dung, night soil
by the controlled microbial reactions to stable product, which is used for reclaiming
wasteland or growing crops, is known as composting. In India, two methods namely
Bangalore method and Indore method popular.

Drainage system:
In order to maintain in healthy environment, the waste water coming from the kitchens,
bathroom, water closet, urinals of the building has to be drained properly. If the waste is not\
drained properly, it leads to stagnation in and around the building causing nuisance, effect on the
health. Hence, necessary arrangements have to be provided in the building for effective drainage
of waste water.

Principles of drainage
For the proper design and construction of house drainage system, the following general
principles are adopted.
1. It is advisable to lay sewers by the side of building rather than below the building.
2. The drains should be straight between the inspection chambers or manholes.
3. The entire system should be properly ventilated.
4. The house drain should connect to the public sewer only if the public sewer is deeper
than house drain otherwise reverse flow from public sewer to the house drain.
5. The house drain should contain enough number of traps at suitable points for efficient
functioning of it.
6. The joints of sewers should be watertight.
7. The lateral sewers should be laid at proper gradient so that they develop self-cleaning
velocity.

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742
8. The layout of house drainage system should permit easy leaning and removal of
obstructions.
9. The material of sewer should not absorb the sewage and should be provided to protect
them from external loads by earth cushioning.
10. The possibilities of formation of air locks, siphonage, undue deposits etc. should be
properly studied and adequate remedies should be accommodated in the design to avoid
them.
11. The rainwater from houses is collected from roofs and convey it to storm water drain
through catch basins or inlets.
12. The sewage formed should be conveyed as early as possible after its formation.
13. The size of lateral sewers should be such that they will not overflow at the time of
maximum discharge.

Surface drainage
The sullage from kitchens, bathrooms and storm water, which passes through the surface drains,
is called Surface Drainage. They are less hygienic as they are open and exposed to atmosphere
Requirements:
1. The inner surface of surface should be plastered
2. The joints of drains should be properly and neatly finished
3. The drain should be laid such a gradient that self-cleansing velocity is developed
4. They should be laid on easy curves
5. They should be properly designed with reasonable provision of free board

SHAPES OF SURFACE DRAINS:

The following are the four shapes, which are commonly adopted in the construction of surface
drains.
1. Rectangular surface drains
2. Semi-circular surface drains
3. U-shaped surface drains
4. V-shaped surface drains

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742
Rectangular Surface Drains: These drains are suitable for carrying heavy discharge. They
however, do not develop the required velocity when depth of flow is small and they get easily
deposited.

Semi-Circular Surface Drains: These are suitable for streets where the discharge to be
accommodated is of small quantity. These drains are readymade semi-circular sections of
stoneware or concrete or asbestos cement pipes.

U-Shaped Surface Drains: These drains are easy to construct and they combine the advantages of
semi-circular drains and rectangular surface drains.

V- Shaped Surface Drains: These drains posses better hydraulic properties but they are difficult to
construct. These drains will carry fluctuating to construct. These drains will carry fluctuating
discharge without depositing solids at any point and capable of producing a good velocity.

Shape and sizes of drains and sewers

Generally the sewers of circular shape are adopted because of following facts
1. Circular shape affords least perimeter and hence construction cost is minimum for the
same area of other shape
2. Deposition of organic matter are reduced to minimum because of no corners
3. They are easy to manufacture or construct and handle

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742
The circular sewers prove to be best when the discharge does not vary too much and the chances
of sewers running with very low depths (less than half) are less.

However, the sewers of non-circular shapes are also used for the following reasons

1. To bring down the cost of construction

2. To improve the velocity of flow when the depth of sewage is low
3. To secure more structural strength
4. To simplify the process of construction
5. To make them large enough for a man to enter for cleaning or repairing

SHAPES OF NON-CIRCULAR SHAPES:

The following are the non-circular shapes, which are commonly, used for sewers.

1. Basket Handle Section: In this type of sewer, the upper portion of sewer has the shape of a
basket-handle as shown in fig. The bottom portion is narrower and carries small discharges
during monsoon and combined sewage is carried through the full section. This shape of
sewer is not generally used at present.

2. Catenary-Shaped Section: In this type of sewer, the shape of sewer is in the form of a
catenary and only gravity force is acted upon this sewer. This is suitable for tunneling work.
3. Egg-Shaped or Ovoid Section: This type of sewer is suitable for carrying combined flow.
The main advantage of this type of sewer is that it gives slightly higher velocity during low
flow than a circular sewer of the same capacity. However, construction of this section is
difficult and less stable than circular section. The details are as shown in fig

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

4. Horse-Shoe Section: This type of sewers are used for the construction in tunnel to carry
heavy discharges, such as truck and outfall sewers. This is also suitable when the available
headroom for the construction of sewer is limited.

5. Parabolic Section: This type of sewers are suitable for carrying comparatively small
quantities
of sewage and economical in construction.

6. Rectangular or Box Type Section: The rectangular or box type section of sewer is stable and
it
is easy to construct as shown in fig. It is sometimes used to work as a storage tank during the
tide it becomes necessary to store the sewage for some period.

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

7. Semi-Circular: This type of sewers are suitable for constructing large sewers with less
available headroom and it possess better hydraulic properties as shown in figure.

8. Semi-Elliptical Section: This type of the section is suitable to carry heavy discharges and
adopted for soft soil, as it is more stable. The dia. of sewer may be more than 1.8m.

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

Sizes of Sewers:

The minimum size of a sewer depends upon the practice followed in the locality. Usually the
sewers of 100 mm diameter are allowed up to a maximum length of 6 meters or so. However,
when the length of sewer line exceeds about 6 meters, a sewer of minimum diameter 150 mm is
allowed. The smaller the diameter of sewer, the greater will be the slope and hence, in order to
take advantage of available fall, the sewers of larger diameter are sometimes used.

The design of sewers should be made in such a way that it ends in sections of sewers, which are
commercially available. The non-commercial sizes are difficult to obtain and they prove to be
costly. For sewers to be constructed on site of work, this problem does not arise.

There is no upper limit for the size of a sewer. It is however submitted that it is desirable to lay
duplicate sewer line when sewer diameter exceeds about 3 meters or so.
Storm water over flow chambers
The structures constructed to divert part of sewage in the case of combined sewers are known as
the storm water regulators.

The main object of providing a storm water regulator is to divert the excess storm water to the
natural stream or river.

TYPES:

1. Leaping Weir: Leaping weir is used to indicate the gap or opening in the invert of a
combined sewer. The intercepting weir runs at right angles to the combined sewer. If the
discharge exceeds certain limit, the excess sewage leaps or jumps across the weir and it is
carried to the natural stream or river.
2. Overflow Weir: The excess sewage is allowed to overflow in the channel made in the
manhole as shown in fig and conveyed to the storm water sewer or channel

3. Syphon Spillway: The arrangement of diverting excess sewage from the combined sewer by
the syphonic action is most effective because it operates on automatically and requires least
maintenance. However it is likely to be clogged due to narrow passage as shown in fig

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

Methods of laying and construction of sewers

The construction of sewer consists of the following works:
a) Marking centerlines of sewers.
b) Excavation of trenches.
c) Preparation of bedding.

EXCAVATION TRENCHES: After marking the layout of the sewer lines on the ground, the
first step is the removal of pavement, which starts from the lower end of the sewers and
proceeds upwards. After removing pavements, the excavation of trenches is done manually or
machinery.

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

PREPARATION OF BEDDING: Trenches are excavated with proper gradient so that sewage
may flow in sewer due to gravitational flow only. The center line of sewers and their grades are
transferred from the ground by means of sight rail and boning rod shown in fig.

The width of trench depends upon the dia. of sewer and depth of sewer line below the ground
level. The width of sewer line is 15cm more than external diameter of sewer for easiness in
lowering and adjusting the sewer pipe. The minimum trench width of 60 to 100cm is necessary
for conveniently laying and jointing of even very small size sewers. The excavation of trench
sides require shoring and shuttering and also dewatering is done by gravity method or pumping
method as shown in fig.

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

LAYING OF SEWERS:
Smaller size pipes can be laid by the pipe-layers directly by hand only. But heavier and larger
size pipes are lowered in the trenches by passing ropes around them and supporting through
hock. It is the common practice to lay the pipes with their socket end upgrade for easiness in
joining. After lowering the pipes these are brought near and spigot end of one pipe is placed in
the socketed end

QUESTIONS

1. Define Building Service. Explain the necessity or importance of services in buildings.

2. Explain water requirements for different types of buildings
3. Explain methods used for removal of impurities in water
4. Discuss water saving practices adopted in water supply and its potential.
5. With neat sketches, explain service connection from mains, sump and storage tank provided
in water supply for buildings
6. Explain types of pipes provided for water supply in buildings with advantages and
disadvantages.
7. Write a note on size of service pipes provided for water supply in buildings
8. Discuss briefly pipe fittings provided for water supply in buildings with neat figures
9. Write a note on special installation provided in multistoried buildings for water supply
10. Explain types of fixtures and fitting provided in a bathroom
11. Define Tap. Explain the types of taps used in water supply system in buildings.
12. Explain rain water harvesting system adopted in a building with neat sketch
13. Explain rain water harvesting system and mention its advantages
14. Write a note on water-harvesting pit or recharge pit with neat sketch
15. Explain approaches adopted in solid waste management system
16. Explain various methods adopted for collection and removal of solid waste
17. Explain briefly types of disposal methods adopted in solid waste management system
18. List out the principles of drainage system
19. Explain with neat sketches, shapes of drains
20. Write a note on Storm water over flow chambers with neat sketch
21. Explain method of laying and construction of sewers with neat sketch

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MODULE 1- WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 18CV742

Assignment -1
1. Explain water requirements for different types of buildings
2. With neat sketches, explain service connection from mains, sump and storage tank provided in
water supply for buildings
3. Explain types of pipes provided for water supply in buildings with advantages and
disadvantages.

4. Discuss briefly pipe fittings provided for water supply in buildings with neat figures
5. Define Thermal Insulation. Explain the behavior of heat propagation in buildings

6. With a neat diagram explain the insulation for roof and exposed walls
7. Describe the need of thermal insulation in building and discuss the general methods of thermal
insulation
8. Discuss the various types of thermal insulating materials and factors affecting selection of thermal
insulations in building.

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MODULE 2- HEAT, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC): 15CV743

MODULE 2:

Heat,Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC):

Heating (Thermal Insulation):

 Behaviour of heat propagation,

 Thermal insulating materials and their co-efficient of thermal conductivity.
 General methods of thermal insulation: Thermal insulation of roofs, exposed walls.

Ventilation: Definition and necessity, system of ventilation.

Air-conditioning:

 Principles of air-conditioning,
 Different systems of ducting and distribution,
 Essentials of air-conditioning system.

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MODULE 2- HEAT, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC): 15CV742

Thermal Insulation
Heat transfer is the process of thermal exchange between different systems. Generally, the net
heat transfer between two systems will be from the hotter system to the cooler system.

Heat transfer is particularly important in buildings for determining the design of the building
fabric, and for designing the passive and active systems necessary to deliver the required thermal
conditions for the minimum consumption of resources.

Behavior of Heat Propagation:

The mechanisms of heat transfer happens by following mechanisms:
1. Conduction.
2. Convection.
3. Radiation.
Conduction: It is the property of heat transfer from the elements of the body at higher
temperature to those at lower temperature. All substances, which are solid, liquid, or gases
conduct heat. Some of them conduct more rapidly than others, depending upon the thermal
conductivity of the substance. The basic equation of heat conduction is:

K ∗ A ∗ (Th − Tc)
Q=
L
where
K = thermal conductivity of the material in W/mK.
A = area in m2
L = thickness in m,
Th = temperature of the hot surface in K,
Ts= temperature of the cold surface in K, and
Q = quantity of heat flow in W.

Convection - It is used to describe the mechanism whereby heat energy is transferred by mixing
one portion of a fluid, that is, gas or liquid with another. Heat transfer by convection takes place
at the surface of walls, floor and roofs.

The rate of heat transfer by convection can be expressed by the equation as:

Qc = f * A* (Ts-Tf)

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MODULE 2- HEAT, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC): 15CV742

where
QC = the quantity of heat flow in W,
f = coefficient of heat transfer in W/m2K,
A = area in m2, and

Ts-Tf = temperature difference between the surface and the fluid in K

Radiation: It is the exchange of heat energy between two or more building surfaces at different
temperatures and separated by space. In this mode of heat transfer, the space or medium through
which heat waves pass is not heated to any significant extent. An example of this type of heat
transfer is the radiation received by the earth from the sun. The intensity of radiation emitted by a
body depends upon the nature and temperature of the body.

Thermal Insulating Materials & their co-efficient of thermal conductivity:

Thermal Conductivity (K) - This is the quantity of heat in the ‘steady state’ conditions flowing
the unit time through a unit area of a slab of uniform material of infinite extent and of unit
thickness, when unit difference of temperature is established between its faces. Its unit is W/mK.

The thermal conductivity is a characteristic property of a material and its value may vary with a
number of factors including density, porosity, moisture content, fiber diameter, pore size, type of
gas in the material, mean temperature and outside temperature range.

Thermal Properties of Building Materials & Insulating Materials

Building Materials
Sl. No Materials Thermal Conductivity(K)
1 Asbestos cement sheeting 0.248
2 Asphalt 1.052
3 Brickwork 0.695
4 Concrete 1.24
5 Glass 0.905
6 Plastering 0.495
7 Granite 2.52
8 Lime Stone 1.315
9 Sand Stone 1.115
10 Terrazo 1.363
11 Timber 0.124

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MODULE 2- HEAT, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC): 15CV742

Insulating Materials
Sl. No Materials Thermal Conductivity(K)
1 Asbestos Felt 0.067
2 Asphalt slab 0.045
3 Granulated Cork 0.041
4 Fiber Glass 0.029
5 Hair Felt 0.034
6 Saw dust 0.05
7 Slag wool 0.037
8 Vermiculite 0.056
9 Cellular Glass 0.061
10 Cellular plastics 0.032

Types of Thermal Insulating Materials:

Thermal insulating materials maybe in form such as:
1. Slabs and Blocks: These are small rigid units about 2.5 cm thick and 60 cm x 120 cm in area.
Slab insulators are also known as blocks or boards. They are available in form of corkboard
slabs, mineral wool slabs, vermiculite slabs, cellular glass slabs, cellular rubber slabs, saw
dust and cement boards.
2. Blanket Insulation: They are flexible fibrous materials, which are supplied mostly in rolls.
They are mainly made from mineral wool, processed wood fibres, cotton and animal hair.
They are available in thickness varying from 12 mm to 8 cm.
3. Loose Fill Insulation: Loose fill insulation materials are fibrous materials like rock wool, slag
wool, glass wool cellulose or wood fibre wool. They may also be granular loose materials of
mineral or vegetable nature. Mineral wool is a fibrous material which is obtained from rock,
slag, and glass.
4. Vermiculite: It is a light weight granular insulating material manufactured by exploding
aluminum-magnesium silicate.
5. Bat Insulating Materials: These are more or less similar to blanket insulation materials except
that they are available in smaller sizes and greater thicknesses. Common thicknesses being 5
cm, 7.5 cm and 9 cm. They are available in small sizes, suitable for framing units. Structural
insulating board is manufactured by first making a pulp of wood, cane, or other materials and
then pressing them in form of boards by adding suitable adhesive to it. Various types of
insulating beards are available in market in different sizes and thicknesses.

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MODULE 2- HEAT, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC): 15CV742

6. Reflective Insulations: In this case, heat resistance through materials is obtained entirely by
giving exposed surfaces or bright metallic surface finishes. Solar energy striking reflective
surfaces are reflected and amount of heat, which may be transmitted, is greatly reduced.
7. Light Weight Aggregates: Heat resistance of the concrete can be-greatly increased by
adopting lightweight aggregates like blast furnace slag, burnt clay aggregates, vermiculite, in
place of usual aggregates.

General Methods of Insulation:

Thermal Insulation of Roofs:
The required degree of thermal insulation of exposed roof can be achieved either by treating
inside and outside both the surface or by treating from inside only.

Treatment of inside surface of the roof can be given by fixing insulating materials to the ceiling
directly. However, this is not very effective method. False suspended ceiling with an air gap as
shown in Fig. 26.1 is considered very effective measure. In this case, false ceiling is made of
thermal insulating material.

For giving external treatment to the roof, following measures may be adopted

1. Exposed surface of the roof may be shaded somehow.

2. Fix reflecting and shining surfaces on the exposed face of the roof. This measure will not
allow solar energy to have its full effect, as most of sun rays will be reflected by reflecting
surfaces.
3. An air space may be created over the roof by laying A C. sheets on flat bricks. This air space
will provide very good heat insulation effect. See fig 26.3.

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4. Top exposed surface of roof may be kept cool by periodically spraying water over it or
continuously flooding it.

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5. Top exposed surface of roof may be covered by 2.5cm thick layer of coconut pitch cement
concrete. Coconut pitch cement concrete is prepared by mixing coconut pitch with cement
and water.
6. By fixing false ceiling of insulated materials.
7. White washing of the roof before onset of summer also helps in heat insulation.

Thermal insulation of exposed walls

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Following measures may be taken for thermally insulating the walls to the required degree:
1. Thickness of wall should be sufficient, as thermal resistance is proportional to the
thickness of the wall.
2. If structurally possible, the exposed walls may be made from thermally insulated materials.
3. Wall may be constructed with suitable cavity in it.
4. Hollow air space may be created on the exposed or on both the faces of the wall by fixing
hard boards on battens secured in the wall. See Fig. 26.4.
5. Exposed and inside faces of the wall should be covered by fixing thermal insulating
materials directly to the walls.
6. Light colored white wash or distemper may be applied to the exposed surface of the wall
to increase thermal insulation value.

Ventilation:
Ventilation may be defined as "supply of fresh outside air into an enclosed space or the removal
of inside air from the enclosed space"
It can also be described as "removal of all vitiated air(spoilt air) from a building and its replacement
with fresh air"
Ventilation may be achieved by natural or by artificial (mechanical) means.

Necessity of Ventilation:
1. Creation of air movement
2. Prevention of undue accumulation of CO2
3. Prevention of flammable concentration of gas-vapour
4. Prevention of accumulation of dust and bacteria-carrying particles.
5. Prevention of odour caused by decomposition of building material
6. Removal of smoke, odour and foul smell generated/liberated by the occupants.
7. Removal of body heat generated/liberated by the occupants
8. Prevention of condensation or deposition of moisture on wall surface.
9. Prevention of suffocation conditions in conference halls, rooms, cinema halls etc.

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System of ventilation:
It is divided into two categories:
1. Natural Ventilation
2. Artificial or Mechanical Ventilation

Natural Ventilation:
It is the one in which ventilation is effected by the elaborated use of doors, windows and
ventilators. It is usually considered suitable for residential and small houses. However, it is not
useful for big buildings, offices, conference halls, auditoriums etc. In natural ventilation, cross
ventilation is normally relied to secure air movement. It is economical since no equipment is
required for keeping the room ventilated.

The rate of natural ventilation depends on two effects:

a. Wind effect: In this the rate of ventilation depends upon the direction and velocity of wind
outside and sizes & position of openings. Such an effect is known as "Ventilation due to wind
action"
Rate of ventilation due to wind effect is given by
Q= K*A*V
where,
Q= rate of airflow in m3/hr
K= co-efficient of effectiveness
A= area of the opening, m2
V= wind speed in m/hr

System of ventilation:
It is divided into two categories:
3. Natural Ventilation
4. Artificial or Mechanical Ventilation

Natural Ventilation:
It is the one in which ventilation is effected by the elaborated use of doors, windows and
ventilators. It is usually considered suitable for residential and small houses. However, it is not
useful for big buildings, offices, conference halls, auditoriums etc. In natural ventilation, cross

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ventilation is normally relied to secure air movement. It is economical since no equipment is
required for keeping the room ventilated.

The rate of natural ventilation depends on two effects:

a. Wind effect: In this the rate of ventilation depends upon the direction and velocity of wind
outside and sizes & position of openings. Such an effect is known as "Ventilation due to wind
action"
Rate of ventilation due to wind effect is given by
Q= K*A*V
where,
Q= rate of airflow in m3/hr
K= co-efficient of effectiveness
A= area of the opening, m2
V= wind speed in m/hr

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b. Ventilation due to stack effect: In this, the rate of ventilation is affected by the convection
effects arising from temperature difference between inside and outside of the room and the
difference in the height between the outlet and inlet openings.
Rate of ventilation due to stack effect is given by
Q= 640*C*A*√(h(ti-to))

where
Q= rate of airflow in m3/hr
C= co-efficient of effectiveness
A= Area of inlet openings, m2
h= vertical height difference b/w inlet and outlet in
m ti= avg. temperature of inside air in 0c
to= avg. temperature of outside air in 0c

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The types of mechanical ventilation are:

1. Extraction System
2. Plenum System
3. Extraction-Plenum System
4. Air-conditioning
Extraction System: This system is based on the creation of vacuum in the room by exhausting
the spoilt inside air by means of propeller type of fans (exhaust fans). This system is more useful
in removing smoke, dust, odours etc. from kitchens, bathrooms, industrial plants etc.

Plenum System: In this fresh air is forced into the room by means of air blowers and the spoilt air

2. Mechanical Ventilation:
It involves the use of some mechanical equipment for effective air circulation. It is provided
when satisfactory ventilation cannot be obtained by natural means.

AIR-CONDITIONING
Air-conditioning may be defined as the process of treating air to control simultaneously its
temperature, humidity, purity and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space.

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The various requirements of a conditioned space may be comfort and health of human beings,
needs of certain industrial processes, efficient working of commercial premises etc.

Objectives of Air-Conditioning:

 To provide comfort to the occupants.

 To improve the efficiency of commercial establishments like offices, shops,
stores, banks.
 To provide comfortable conditions in restaurants, cinema houses, auditoriums etc.
 To provide comfortable conditions during travelling by air, railway, road, etc. In
this case, compact air-conditioning devices are used.
 To improve the quality of products in manufacturing processes such as cotton cloth,
artificial silk etc.

Advantages & Disadvantages of air-conditioning:

Advantages:

 Improves comfort levels at work as well as leisure.

 Enhances job performance.
 Results in augmented intellectual and physical activity.
 Lower or chilled temperature diminishes the existence of parasites and insects.
 Lower temperature means less sweating, decreasing the dehydration risk.
 Air conditioning system also assists in excluding external allergens like pollen.
 Good installation and maintenance of air conditioner, renews &enhances the quality
of air

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Disadvantages:

 Unexpected changes in humidity & temperature affects individual’s respiratory system

 Regular usage of air Conditioner dries skin & mucous membranes
 Its ambient noise, leads to noise pollution.
 Air circulation even transmits infectious respiratory diseases
 Airborne dust & fungi cause allergic reactions
 Air conditioning is related with chronic rhinitis & pharyngitis, hoarseness and
throat irritation
 Air conditioning can worsen eye conditions like conjunctivitis & blepharitis
 Spending long hours in air conditioned of offices or home you may cause also suffer
heat intolerance when you go outside

Classification of AC System:

Classification based on function: It is classified into two types:

1. Comfort air-conditioning:
In this, system aims at giving maximum human comfort to the users of the conditioned
space.

2. Industrial air-conditioning:
In this, the conditioning creates controls and maintains such an environment inside the
conditioned space that would suit best to the needs of the industry.

Classification based on season and temperature:

1. Summer air conditioning:
In summer, outside temperature is more, and hence cooling of air is required for greater
comfort.

The cycle of operations consists of

i. air cleaning,

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ii. air cooling,

iii. dehumidification, and
iv. air distribution/circulation.
This is shown diagrammatically in below fig.

2. Winter air conditioning:

In Winter, outside temperature is low, and hence heating of air is required for comfort.

The cycle of operations consists of

i. air cleaning,
ii. air heating,
iii. humidification, and
iv. air distribution/circulation, as shown in below fig.

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3. Composite air conditioning:

In this, the same air conditioning is done throughout the year, irrespective of outside
temperature

Principles of Air-Conditioning or Air-cooling:

Principles of air conditioning involve proper control of temperature, humidity, and velocity
of the air being thrown into the room.

1. Temperature Control:
The temperature range which is liked by majority of the people is called the Comfortable
zone. The comfortable zones are different for winter and summer, due to the changes in the
body. The effective temperature zones for summer and winter range between 20°C to 23°C
and 18°C to 22°C respectively. A temperature of 21°C to 25°C is regarded as most likely
comfort temperature in a room regardless of outside temperature.
2. Air Movement or Velocity:
The control on air velocity is also an important factor in air conditioning. Increase in air
velocity decreases the inside effective temperature which upsets the regulation of conditioned
air. The velocity of conditioned air should be between 6 to 9 m/minute.
3. Humidity Control:
Humidity control of conditioned air is also important. Dry air puts strain on nasal passages
and causes irritation. An average value of relative humidity between 40%-60% is considered
desirable. For summer, it may be 40%-50% and for winter 50%-60%. Humidity in air is
added by passing air through filters and extracted if required by passing air through
condensers or desiccators.

Different systems of ducting and distribution:

1. Single Duct System
2. Dual Duct System
Single Duct System: It may serve one or many zones. In small buildings, a single-zone (small
isolated) area air-distribution system with a master thermostat regulates the temperature for the
whole building. Such a system has a very low first cost.

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A multizone (large common area) single-duct system is a collection of up to eight single-zone

systems served by one supply fan. Separate ducts from the central air-handling unit serve each
zone with its own centrally conditioned air stream. Multizone systems are used in medium-sized
buildings or in large buildings with central equipment on each floor.

The constant air volume (CAV) system is the simplest central air-conditioning system. Single-
duct CAV systems supply conditioned air at a constant temperature through a low-velocity duct
system.

In the 1990s, single-duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems became the most popular. Single-
duct VAV systems are the most common system for new institutional and office buildings where
precise control is not critical.

Dual Duct System: The dual duct low pressure system (Figure) was also designed to meet the
comfort needs of different zones. A dual duct system has two separate supply ducts from the
HVAC unit to the outlets in the spaces. One duct supplies cold air, and the other supplies heated
air. In this system, both the heating and cooling coils operate at the same time, just as with the
multizone system. The hot air and the cold air are mixed with dampers at each zone in order to
obtain the air temperature needed for that zone. This system is intended to be constant volume-
variable temperature (CV-VT).

The dual duct system has few problems. The cold duct usually requires most of the supply air.

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This results in less flow in the hot duct at times.

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Dual Duct System

Essentials of Air Conditioning System:
The following are the essentials of an air conditioning system:
1. Filtration
2. Heating (in winter season)
3. Cooling (in summer season)
4. Humidification
5. Dehumidification
6. Air circulation or distribution
1. Filtration: The aim of the filters is to exclude from incoming air dust particles, ash, chemical
soot, bacteria and other microorganisms, so that clean air is obtained.
The filters should possess the following qualities:
 They should be capable of removing dust, ash, chemical soot, bacteria etc., from the
incoming air.
 They should be capable of holding a moderate amount of dust, cleaned from incoming
air, on their surface without affecting their working efficiency.
Filters may be of the following types:

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Viscous type filters: These are made of mats or screens of split wire or glass wool or of
similar material, and coated with non-drying viscous oil so that dust in the incoming air can
be caught and removed.

Dry filter: They are made of cloth such as flannel, cellulose, felt, etc., which is discarded
when it becomes dirty.

Spray washers: The Incoming air is allowed to pass through water sprays, where the dust and
fumes are removed by drops of water.

Electric precipitators: These remove the dust by subjecting it to a strong electric field and
then getting it attached to negative electrode.

2. Heating:
Heating of air is necessary in winter, to compensate the heat loss from the room. Pre-heating
of incoming air may be done by passing it over warm air furnaces, or by coils around which
hot water or steam is circulating.
3. Cooling:
Cooling of incoming air is necessary in summer, there are two methods of cooling the air (i)
direct expansion system, and (ii) chilled water system.
4. Humidification
Humidification or addition of water to air is necessary in winter when air, because of its low
temperature, has very low humidity. For ordinary conditions, humidification can be done by
allowing the incoming air to pass through pans of water or wetted cloth strips. However,
when large volumes of air is handled, humidification is accomplished by spray humidifiers.
5. Dehumidification:
In this process certain required amount of water, is extracted from air. This is done in
summer when the incoming air is cooled and dehumidified before the entry into the room.
It’s accomplished by condensation, or by desiccation.
6. Air circulation or distribution:
This is one of the most essential requirement and the efficiency of the system depends largely
on the air circulation or distribution system.
Air circulation is achieved by the following:
i. air pumps,

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ii. air delivery system consisting of supply and return ducts, and
iii. air distribution system consisting of inlets and outlets.
Air pumps: It may be of two types:

(a) Axial flow, propeller or fan type; and

(b) Radial flow, centrifugal or blower type.

Air delivery system: This consists of the following components:

 supply ducts,
 return ducts,
 dampers, and
 duct insulation.
Air distribution system:

This consists of outlets for the supply of conditioned air into the room, and inlets for the
collection of return air, each in the form of grill registers.

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QUESTIONS

1. Define Thermal Insulation. Explain the behavior of heat propagation in buildings (OR)
Explain the modes of heat transfer in buildings.
2. Define Thermal Conductivity. Mention thermal conductivity values of at least 10 building
materials and insulating materials

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MODULE 2:

Electrical and Fire Fighting Services:

Electrical Services: Electrical systems, Basics of electricity, single/Three phase supply,

protective devices in electrical installation, Earthing for safety, Types of earthing, ISI

Specifications. Electrical installations in buildings, Types of wires, Wiring systems and their

choice , planning electrical wiring for building, Main and distribution boards, Principles of

illumination,

Fire fighting Services: Classification of buildings based on occupancy, causes of fire and

spread of fire, Standard fire, Fire fighting, protection and fire resistance, Firefighting

equipment and different methods of fighting fire., means of escape, alarms, etc.,

Combustibility of materials, Structural elements and fire resistance, Fire escape routes and

elements, planning and design. Wet risers, dry risers, sprinklers, heat detector, smoke

detectors, fire dampers, fire doors, etc. Provisions of NBC.

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Need for electrical supply system design for buildings:

Electricity has become the lifeline of modern society. Homes, Offices, Industry, Schools,
Hospitals, Transportation, Communication, Road Lighting, Markets all depend on reliable
Electric Supply. Life comes to a standstill without electricity. Electricity has become an integral
and inevitable part of every body’s life.

It is also necessary to remember that electricity becomes destructive and dangerous, if not
handled with care, safety conforming to lay down safety standards and norms. In case of building
fires, which often destroy property and lives causing sufferings to the affected people, the first
culprit is

Planning of Electrical Installation

The design and planning of an electrical installation involve consideration of all prevailing
conditions and is usually guided by the requirement of the consumer. A competent Electrical
Engineer should take the responsibility of detailed designing and planning to meet the
requirement of various functional needs, efficiency, economy, energy conservation, aesthetics,
appropriate technology, safety and avoidance of possible fire hazards.

The electrical services installation shall comprise Electrical Supply, Electricity Centre and Main
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Distribution, Power Distribution Services, Lighting Services, Communication Services,

Transport Services and Protective Services. The design of the Electrical Services must take into
account the building form, the characteristics of the building, the occupancy trends and
orientation of spaces.

The National Electrical Code (NEC), or NFPA 70, is a regionally adoptable standard for the safe
installation of electrical wiring and equipment. The National Electrical Code (NEC) is the most
widely adopted Code in the world. Approved by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), the NEC is the most complete set of electrical Code requirements that govern electrical
installations in the interest of safety for persons and property.

It is easy to transfer electricity into the final product whether this is home electricity or a
substation. If this is carefully constructed and designed, you will have a good electronic system.
The disadvantage of a poorly designed electrical system is that it will be destructive to the
wellbeing of humans and property. Safety is the most important thing to an electrical engineer
because they are in charge of the design.

Single/Three Phase Supply:

Single Phase Supply
In the field of electrical, single phase supply is the delivery of AC power by a system in which
all the supply voltages change in simultaneously. This type of power supply sharing is used when
the loads (home appliances) are generally heat and lighting with some huge electric motors.

Single Phase Waveform

The benefits of choosing a single phase supply include the following.
 The design is less complex
 Design cost is less

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 Most efficient AC power supply for up to 1000 watts

 Single Phase AC Power Supply is most competent for up to 1000 watts.
Three Phase Supply
The three-phase power supply includes four wires such as one neutral as well as three
conductors. The three conductors are away from phase & space 120º distant from each other.
Three phase power supplies are utilized as a single-phase AC power supply. For the small load,
1-phase AC power supply, as well as neutral, can be chosen from the 3-phase AC power supply
system.

Three Phase Waveform

The benefits of choosing a three-phase supply include the following.
 Lessening of Security Risks for Employees
 The efficiency of the Conductor is Greater
 Facility to Run High Power Loads

Protective Devices in Electrical Installation:

Electrical Protective Device: A device used to protect equipment, machinery, components and
devices in electrical and electronic circuit against short circuit, over current and earth fault is
called as protective devices.

Necessity of Protective Devices

Protective devices are necessary to protect electrical appliance or equipment against
 short Circuit

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 Abnormal variations in the supply voltage

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 Overloading of equipment
 To protect operator against accidental contact with the faulty equipment falling which
the operator may get a severe shock.

Types of Protective Device

Different types of the protective device that are commonly used in electrical and electronic circuit
1. Fuse Wire or Fuse
2. MCB – Miniature circuit breaker
3. ELCB – Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
4. ELCB & MCB
5. Earthing or Grounding

1. Fuse Wire or Fuse

Fuse generally means a fuse wire placed in a fuse holder. It is a safety device which protects
electrical and electronic circuit against over loads, short circuit and earth faults. The fuse link or
fuse wire is made of low resistivity material and low melting point. Fuse is a short length of wire
designated to melt and separate in case of excessive current. When the current drawn by the
circuit exceeds the rated current of the fuse wire, the fuse wire melts and breaks. This
disconnects the supply from the circuit and thus protects the circuit and the components in the
circuit

2. MCB – Miniature circuit breaker

It is safety device, which work magneto thermic release principle. It is connected in the phase
between the supply and load. It is manufactured in standard rating of 6A to 40 A. When the
current

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drawn by load exceeds the rated value it acts and trips the circuit the protecting the apparatus,
operator and appliance.

Advantages of MCB
 They act and open the circuit in less than 5 milli seconds.
 Automatic switch off under overload and short circuit condition
 No fuse to replace or rewire. It needs no repairs.
 Supply is restored by resetting it again.

3. ELCB – Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

This is a domestic safety device, which trips the circuit when there is a small leakage to earth or
body of the appliance. Thus, it protects the operator from shocks and accidents. This is connected
in the circuit of the appliance to be protected.
There are two types of ELCB
1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
2. Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

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4. MCB & ELCB

It is the combination of both MCB and ELCB palced in one unit.It acts on both the occasion of
earth leakage and overload and protect the circuit, appliance and the operator.

5. EARTHING OR GROUNDING
Connecting the metal body of an electrical appliance,machinery or an electrical installation to
earth,through a low resistance wire,is called Earthing or Grounding

EARTHING
To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations to the earth
(ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.

In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the earth plate
or earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick conductor wire (which
has very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing or grounding

Necessity of Earthing:

 To protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and appliances
from leakage current.
 To keep voltage as constant in the healthy phase (If fault occurs on any one phase).
 To Protect Electric system and buildings form lighting.
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 To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.

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 To avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.

Components of Earthing System

A complete electrical earthing system consists on the following basic components.
 Earth Continuity Conductor
 Earthing Lead
 Earth Electrode

Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire

That part of the earthing system which interconnects the overall metallic parts of electrical
installation.

Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint

The conductor wire connected between earth continuity conductor and earth electrode or earth
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plate is called earthing joint or “Earthing lead”.

Earthing Electrode or Earth Plate

A metallic plate, pipe or rode can be used as an earth electrode which has very low resistance
and carry the fault current safely towards ground (earth).

Types of Earthing
Earthing can be done in many ways. The various methods employed in earthing (in house wiring
or factory and other connected electrical equipment and machines) are discussed as follows:

1) Plate Earthing:
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm x
3.18mm or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 6.35 mm is buried vertical in the
earth (earth pit) which should not be less than 3m from the ground level. For proper earthing
system, follow the above-mentioned steps to maintain the moisture condition around the earth
electrode or earth plate.

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2) Pipe Earthing:
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed vertically in a
wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of earthing.

The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The dimension
of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for ordinary soil or
greater
for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the length of the pipe to be buried
but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).

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3) Rod Earthing
It is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm
(0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above
2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

4) Earthing through the Waterman

In this method of earthing, the waterman (Galvanized GI) pipes are used for earthing purpose.
Make sure to check the resistance of GI pipes and use earthing clamps to minimize the resistance
for proper earthing connection.

5) Strip or Wire Earthing:

In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x
0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-
section of 25mm x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3mm 2 if it is a galvanized iron
or steel.

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Electrical installations in buildings:

Following materials are commonly used while doing the house wiring:
1. Main switches 15A, 300V
2. PVC wire
3. Earthing wire
5. Conduit wiring

1. Cleat Wiring:
Cleat wiring is recommended only for temporary installations. The cleats are made in pairs
having bottom and top halves. The bottom half is grooved to receive the wire and the top half is
for cable grip. Initially the bottom and top cleats are fixed on the wall loosely according to the
layout. Then

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the cable is drawn, tensioned and the cleats are tightened by the screw. All cleats shall consist of
two parts, a base piece and a cap. Cleats shall be fixed at distances not more than 60 cm apart
and at regular intervals.

Advantages:

• Easy installation.
• Materials can be retrieved for reuse.
• Flexibility provided for inspection, modifications and expansion.
• Relatively economical.
• Skilled manpower not required.

Disadvantages:
• Appearance is not good.
• Open system of wiring requiring regular cleaning.
• Higher risk of mechanical injury.

Cleat Wiring
2. CTS wiring or TRS wiring or batten wiring: In this wiring system, wires sheathed in tough
rubber are used which are quite flexible. They are clipped on wooden battens with brass clips
(link or joint) and fixed on to the walls or ceilings by flat head screws. These cables are
moisture and chemical proof. They are suitable for damp climate but not suitable for outdoor
use in sunlight. TRS wiring is suitable for lighting in low voltage installations.

Advantages:

1. Easy installation and is durable

2. Lower risk of short circuit.
3. Cheaper than casing and capping system of wiring
4. Gives a good appearance if properly erected.

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Disadvantages:

1. Danger of mechanical injury.

2. Danger of fire hazard.

3. Should not be exposed to direct sunlight.

4. Skilled workers are required.

3. Metal sheathed wiring or lead sheathed wiring:

The wiring is similar to that of CTS but the conductors (two or three) are individually insulated
and covered with a common outer lead-aluminum alloy sheath. The sheath protects the cable
against dampness, atmospheric extremities and mechanical damages. The sheath is earthed at
every junction to provide a path to ground for the leakage current. They are fixed by means of
metal clips on wooden battens. The wiring system is very expensive. It is suitable for low voltage
installations.

Advantages:
1. Easy installation and is aesthetic in appearance.

2. Highly durable.

3. Suitable in adverse climatic conditions provided the joints are not exposed.
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Disadvantages:
1. Requires skilled labor.

2. Very expensive.

3. Unsuitable for chemical industries.

4. Casing and Capping:

It consists of insulated conductors laid inside rectangular, teakwood or PVC boxes having
grooves inside it. A rectangular strip of wood called capping having same width as that of
casing is fixed over it. Both the casing and the capping are screwed together at every 15 cms.
Casing is attached to the wall. Two or more wires of same polarity are drawn through
different

Advantages:
1. Cheaper than lead sheathed and conduit wiring.
2. Provides good isolation as the conductors are placed apart reducing the risk of short circuit.
3. Easily accessible for inspection and repairs.
4. Since the wires are not exposed to atmosphere, insulation is less affected by dust, dirt and
climatic variations.

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Disadvantages:
1. Highly inflammable.
2. Usage of unseasoned wood gets damaged by termites.
3. Skilled workmanship required

5. Conduit wiring:

In this system PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or VIR cables are run through metallic or PVC pipes
providing good protection against mechanical injury and fire due to short circuit. They are either
embedded inside the walls or supported over the walls, and are known as concealed wiring or
surface conduit wiring (open conduit) respectively. The conduits are buried inside the walls on
wooden gutties and the wires are drawn through them with fish (steel) wires. The system is best
suited for public buildings, industries and workshops.

Advantages:
1. No risk of fire and good protection against mechanical injury.
2. The lead and return wires can be carried in the same tube.
3. Earthing and continuity is assured.
4. Waterproof and trouble shooting is easy.
5. Shock- proof with proper earthing and bonding
6. Durable and maintenance free
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7. Aesthetic in appearance

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Disadvantages:
1. Very expensive system of wiring.
2. Requires good skilled workmanship.
3. Erection is quiet complicated and is time consuming.
4. Risk of short circuit under wet conditions (due to condensation of water in tubes).

Planning electrical wiring for building:

Electric Supply to Domestic Buildings:
• From a pole of overhead lines through service line or from sub-main in the street through
underground cable to the house, electric supply enters our house.
• The supply comes direct in energy meter fixed by supply authority.
• After energy meter the live and neutral wires are controlled in fuse and link supplied by
supply authority.
• Then comes owner’s main switch .After passing through main switch., wires are again
controlled in distribution box which may be three, four, five or more ways. Separate
phase and neutral, from distribution board, goes in different rooms for every eight to ten
points

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Electric Supply to a Domestic Building

Electric Supply to Commercial Buildings:
• In commercial buildings, 3-phase four-wire supply comes through overhead lines or
cables to the factory in 3-phase meters, supplied by supply company.
• From there, as shown in Fig, supply comes in main switch from which supply enters in
bus bar section. From there it is distributed to different sections through main switches to
give supply to 3 phase motors etc. and main for single phase to give supply to lighting
load.

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Electric Supply to a Commercial Building

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Power Distribution Boards

Power Distribution is a system, consisting of a Main Distribution Board (MDB), Sub Main
Distribution Boards (SMDBs) and Final Distribution Boards, by which the electrical energy is
transmitted via branches to reach the exact end user.

1. Main Distribution Boards

An MDB is a panel or enclosure that houses the fuses, circuit breakers and ground leakage
protection units where the electrical energy, which is used to distribute electrical power to
numerous individual circuits or consumer points, is taken in from the transformer or an upstream
panel. An MDB typically has a single or multiple incoming power sources and includes main
circuit breakers and residual current or earth leakage protection devices. A MDB is comprised of
a freestanding enclosure, a bus bar system, MCB's, metering and support equipment and required
current transformers. Panels are assembled in a systematic manner such as incomer section and
outgoing section.

2. Sub-Main Distribution Boards

The MDB then feeds SMDBs, which is installed generally at the point where a large distribution
cable terminates and several smaller sub-circuits start. These are the switchboards that although
similar construction, are larger than a final distribution board circuit. The boards are installed
midway through the power distribution system, at the point in a large distribution cable ends, and

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several smaller starting sub-circuits.

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3. Final Distribution Boards

The Sub-Main Distribution Boards feeds the Final Distribution Board, which then feeds
electrical energy to the end user.

Illumination:
It is the deliberate use of light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect. It is defined as
“luminance flux per unit area at any point on a surface exposed to incident light”. The SI unit of
illumination is lux.

Principles of Illumination –
Good lighting aims at providing adequate illuminance for the execution of task, a good
distribution of the work plane illuminance, flicker and glare free lighting, suitable brightness
ratios, a good diffusion of light with appropriate modelling effect and acceptable colour
environment.
 Quantity of Lighting - One of the most obvious measures of the adequacy of light is the task
illuminance. IS 3646 (Part l)-1966 recommends that the illuminance of all working areas
within a building should generally by 150 lux.
 Distribution of Work Plane Illuminance - It is usually desirable to provide reasonably
uniform general illumination over the entire utilizable area of a room. IS 3646 (Part l)-1966
recommends that the diversity ratio of minimum to maximum work plane illuminance should
not be less than 0.7.

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 Flicker - The combination of light from lamps on two electrical circuits, one lagging and the
other leading in phase, reduces the stroboscopic effects arising out of cyclic variation of light

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output.
 Glare Free Lighting-Glare is caused by bright sources seen either directly or by reflection in
polished surfaces. The higher the brightness of a source in the field of view, the greater is the
visual discomfort caused by it. Glare is, however, reduced by shifting the source away from
the line of vision and by decreasing the contrast between the source and its surroundings.

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Introduction
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion,
releasing heat, light, and various reaction products.

According to the law of triangle of combustion, following three basic things are necessary for
creating a fire.

o Fuel
o Oxygen
o Heat or Temperature

Fig: Fire Triangle

The definition of fire safety of building is “to convey the fire resistance of buildings in terms of
hours when subjected to fire of known intensity”. It should have structural time interval so that
adequate protection to the occupants is afforded.

FIRE LOAD
Fire load is the amount of heat in kilocalories (kcal) which is liberated per square meter of floor
area of any compartment by the combustion of the contents of the building and any combustible
part of the building itself. This amount of heat is used as the basis of grading of occupancies.

The fire load is determined by multiplying the weight of all combustible materials by their calorific
value, and dividing the floor area under consideration.

AMOUNT OF HEAT LIBERATED (kcal)

FIRE LOAD =
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T
O
T
A
L

A
R
E
A
(
S
q
.
m
)

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For example, if a section of a building, having an area of 80 sq. metre has 1200 kg of combustible
material having a calorific value of 4000 kcal/kg,

1200 x 400
FIRE LOAD= = 60000 kcal/m2
80

Classification of buildings based on occupancy

Based on fire load, occupancies are graded into the following three classes:

1. Occupancies of low fire load:

Under this fall those occupancies whose the fire load does not exceed an average of
275000 kcal/m2 of net floor area of any compartment, nor an average of 550000 kcal/m 2 on
limited isolated areas.
Domestic buildings, hotels, boarding houses, restaurants, schools, hospitals, temples,
mosques, commercial office come under this category. Also, the factories and workshops in
which materials and processes are of a recognized non-hazardous nature (such as an
engineering workshop) come under this.

Fig: Office building

2. Occupancies of moderate fire load:
Under this fall those occupancies whose the fire load exceeds an average of 275000 kcal/m2
of net floor area of any compartment but does not exceed an average of 550000 kcal/m 2 nor
on average of 1100000 kcal/m2 on limited isolated areas.
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Examples of occupancies that fall under this category are retail shops, emporium, bazaars,
factories and workshops generally.

Fig: Factory
3. Occupancies of high fire load:
Under this fall those occupancies whose fire load exceeds an average of 550000 kcal/m2 of
net
floor area of any compartment but does not exceed an average of 1 100000 kcal/m2 of net
floor area, nor an average of 2200000 kcal/m2 on limited isolated areas.

Examples of occupancies that fall under this category are godowns and similar buildings used
for bulk storage of non-hazardous materials and goods.

Fig: Godown

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Causes of fire and spread of fire

CAUSES OF FIRE
Most fires are caused by carelessness.

Common instances of carelessness are:

(i) careless discarding of lighted ends of cigarettes, cigars, matches and tobacco,
(ii) smoking in unauthorized places,
(iii) indifferent maintenance of machinery including overloading and under or over
lubricating of bearings,
(iv) general indifference to cleanliness,
(v) incorrect storage of materials,
(vi) faulty workmanship and inattention to electrical installations
(vii) un-approved equipment and layout,
(viii) inattention of persons concerned with inspection and patrol of the premises under
their jurisdiction, and
(ix) Inattention of fire safety regulations, etc.

SPREAD OF FIRE

Once started, a fire can spread in three ways: conduction, convection and radiation.

Fire Spread by Conduction: Conduction refers to the spread of fire through direct contact
between materials. Some materials are better conductors of heat than others, metal is a good
example. A fire spreading through conduction in a commercial property might involve heat
transferring through structural materials such as steel beams. Combustible elements which come
into contact with the beams can ignite, and fire can spread from there. Conduction can be
responsible for the spread of fire between rooms in larger buildings, as well as the failure of
load- bearing structural supports.

Fire Spread by Convection: Convection is the most dangerous way in which fire can spread
through a property. The heat generated by a fire naturally rises, but in an enclosed space such as
an office, this heat becomes trapped when it hits the ceiling. The heat then travels horizontally,
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spreading the fire across the entire space. Combustible elements in the room can quickly ignite,
and an entire room can be engulfed in just a few minutes. Convection is the most common cause
of fire spreading in domestic and commercial buildings.

Fire Spread by Radiation: Radiation transfers heat via electromagnetic waves in the air. Heat
transmits in every direction until it reaches an object, which absorbs it. Radiation can spread fire
from building to building, igniting combustible materials nearby, and can also penetrate through
windows, gaining access to the interior of adjacent properties.

FIRE PROTECTION & FIRE RESISTANCE:

Fire protection in buildings is typically achieved by the following means
 Passive fire protection – fire resistant construction
 Active fire protection - manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires, such as
fire sprinkler systems and (fire alarm) systems.
 Education - the provision of information regarding passive and active fire protection
systems to building owners, operators, occupants, and emergency personnel so that they
have a working understanding of the intent of these systems and how they perform in the
fire safety plan.

FIRE RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION : In a fire resistant construction, the design should be

such that the components can withstand fire as an integral member of structure, for the desired
period. We shall consider the construction of the following components:

1. Walls and columns.

2. Floors and roofs.
3. Wall openings.
4. Escape elements.
5. Strong room construction.

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Walls and Columns

The following points should be observed for making walls and columns fire-resistance:

1. Masonry walls and columns should be made of thicker section so that these can resist fire
for a longer time, and can also act as barrier against spread of fore to the adjoining areas.
2. In the case of solid load-bearing walls, bricks should be preferred to stones.
3. If walls are to be made of stones, granite and lime stone should be avoided.
4. In the case of building with framed structure, R.C.C. should be preferred to steel.
5. If steel is used for the framed structure, the steel structural components should be properly
enclosed or embedded into concrete, terracotta, brick, gypsum plaster board, or any other
suitable material.
6. Cavity wall construction has better fire resistance.
7. All walls, whether load bearing or non-load bearing, should be plastered with fire resistive
mortar.

Floors and Roofs

The following points are note-worthy for fire-resistant floors and roofs:

1. For better fire resistance, slab roof is preferred to sloping or pitched roofs.
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2. If it is essential to provide sloping roof, trusses should be either of R.C.C. or of protected

rigid steel with fireproof covering.
3. For better fire resistance, the floor either should be of R.C.C. or of hollow tiled ribbed floor
or of concrete jack arch floor with steel joists embedded in concrete.
4. If floor is made of timber, thicker joists at a greater spacing should be used, and fire stops or
barriers should be provided at suitable interval.
5. The flooring materials like concrete tiles, ceramic tiles, bricks etc. are more suitable for fire
resistance.

Wall Openings

1. From the point of view of fire spread, openings in the walls should be a bare minimum.
2. Openings serve means of escape. Hence, these should be properly protected by suitable
arrangements, in case of fire.
3. Doors and Windows should be made of steel. Fire-resistance doors can be obtained by fixing
steel plates to both the sides of the door.
4. Wire-glass panels are preferred for windows.

5. Rolling shutter doors should be used for garages, godowns, shops etc.

Escape Elements

1. All escape elements, such as staircases, corridors, lobbies, entrances etc. should be
constructed of fire-resistant materials.

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2. These escape elements should be well separated from the rest of the building.

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3. Doors to these escapes should be fireproof.

4. Staircases should be located next to the outer wall and should be accessible from any floor in
the direction of flow towards the exits from the building.
5. The lift shafts connecting various floors should be surrounded with the enclosure walls of
fire- resisting materials.
6. Lift shafts should be vented from top to permit escape of smoke and hot gases.
7. An emergency ladder should be provided in the fire-resisting building..
8. All escape routes over roofs should be protected with railings, balustrades or parapets not
less than one metre in height.

Strong room construction

A strong room construction is found to be useful in case of safe deposit vaults in banks.

Following are the important features of construction:

1. The walls, floors and ceilings of a strong room are made of at least 30 cm thick cement
concrete.
2. Doors and Windows are well anchored to concrete walls by large number of steel hold fasts
longer in length.
3. Doors and windows should be fireproof. It is preferable to have double fireproof door.
4. Windows and ventilators should be covered by special grills made of 20 mm steel square
bars. These grills should be well fixed to concrete walls by means of long steel hold fasts.

STRONG ROOM
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Fire Protection Systems:

Each building should have suitable fire protection arrangements, depending upon the importance
of the building and the associated fire hazards. Following are usual equipment’s required for fire
extinction.

1. Manual fire extinguishing equipment

A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small
fires, often in emergency situations. These devices are useful for extinguishing fire as soon as
it starts. They are not so useful when once the fire has spread. Under this category comes the
portable extinguishers of carbon dioxide type or foam generation type etc. The discharge
from a portable fire extinguisher lasts only for a short duration of 20 to 120 seconds. In some
cases, especially in small buildings buckets of water, sand and asbestos blanket may be kept
ready at all times to extinguish fire. These buckets are installed at convenient locations for
taking care of fire of minor size.

2. Fire hydrants or Fire Hydrant Pillar

These fire hydrants are provided on a ring main of 150 mm dia., in the ground around the
building periphery. The ring main gets water from underground tank with pressure so that
available pressure at each hydrants is of the order of about 3.5 to 4 kg/cm2

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3. Wet riser system

The system consists of providing 100 to 150 mm dia. vertical G.I. pipes (risers) at suitable
locations in the building. A fire pump is used to feed water from underground tank to these
pipes, to ensure a pressure of 3 kg/cm2 at uppermost outlet.

WET RISER SYSTEM

4. Automatic sprinkler system
This arrangement is adopted for important structures like textile mills, paper mills etc. The
system consists of a net work of pipes 20 mm dia. fixed to the ceiling of the room. These
pipes are spaced at 3 m centre to centre. Heat actuated sprinkler heads are fixed to these
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pipes at

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regular interval. The pipes get supply from a header. Each sprinkler head is provided with
fusible plug. In the event of fire, the fusible plug in the sprinkler nearest to the wire melts
due to rise of temperature, and water gushes out of the sprinkler head. The fire is thus
brought under control in a short period.

5. Fire Alarms
Fire alarms are installed to give an alarm and to call for assistance in event of fire. The fire
alarms give enough time to the occupants to reach to a safe place. Fire alarms can be either
manual or automatic.

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 Manual alarms
These are of a hand-bell type or similar other sounding device, which can emit distinctive Sound
when struck. These are sounded by watchmen and the occupants are thereby warned to have safe
exit in shortest possible time. Manually operated alarms shall be provided near all main exits and
in the natural path of escape from fire, at readily accessible points, which are not likely to be
obstructed.
 Automatic alarms
These alarms start sounding automatically in the event of fire. It is used in large industrial
buildings, which may remain unoccupied during night. The automatic fire alarm sends alarm to
the nearest control point. The system can also perform the function of sending message to the
nearest fire brigade station.

MANUAL ALARM AUTOMATIC ALARM

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Means of Escape or Egress:

It is a safe route or routes is or are provided for persons to travel from any point in a building to a
place of safety. A means of escapee or egress consists of three separate and distinct parts: the exit
access, the exit and the exit discharge
The principle on which means of escape provisions are based is that, the time available for
escape is greater than the time needed for escape. In order to achieve this, it may be necessary to
protect the route, i.e. by providing fire-resisting construction. If the premises is small and has a
simple layout, the normal entrances and exits may be sufficient. There should be no possibility of
anyone being cut off by smoke or flames before they can make their escape.

Where the building increases in size and complexity, escape routes need to become more
sophisticated. The general rule is that people should be able to turn their back on a fire, wherever
it may start in a building, and move away from the fire to a safe place. Usually this means
outside the building and a safe distance from it in case the fire grows

Escape routes should be kept clear of all obstructions. Generally, escape routes should be at least
one meter wide. The escape route should lead to a place of safety, normally outside and away
from the building. Doors on escape routes must always be available for use without the use of a
key.

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Combustibility of Materials
In relation to fire, building materials can be divided into two types:

(i) non-combustible materials, and

(ii) combustible materials.

Non-combustible materials are those, which if decomposed by heat will do so with absorption of
heat (i.e. endothermically) or if they oxidize, do so with negligible evolution of heat. These
materials do not contribute to the growth or spread of fire, but are damaged and decomposed
when high temperatures are reached. Examples of non-combustible materials are stones and
bricks, concrete, clay products, metal, glass etc.

Combustible materials are those, which, during fire, combine exothermically with oxygen,
resulting in evolution of lot of heat and giving rise to flame or glow. Such materials burn are also
contribute to the growth of fire. Examples of these materials are wood and wood products,
fiberboard, straw board etc.

Combustibility or Fire resisting properties of common building materials

1. Stone
Stone is a non-combustible building material and also a bad conductor of heat and does not
contribute to the spread of fire. However, it is a bad fire-resisting material since it is liable to
disintegrate into small pieces when heated and suddenly cooled, giving rise to failure of
structure.
Granite, on exposure to severe heat, explodes and disintegrates. Limestone is the worst, since
it is easily crumbled even under ordinary lire. Sand stone of compact composition (fine
grained) can however stand the exposure to moderate fire without serious cracks.

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GRANITE SANDSTONE

LIME STONE
In general, the use of stone in a fire-resisting construction should be restricted to a minimum.

2. Bricks
Brick is a poor conductor of heat. First class bricks moulded from a good clay can stand
exposure to fire for a considerable length of time, up to temperatures of about 1200°C. Brick
masonry construction, with good mortar and better workmanship, is the most suitable
for safeguarding the structure against fire hazards.

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3. Concrete
The behaviour of concrete during exposure to heat varies with the nature of coarse aggregate
and its density, and the quality of cement. It also depends upon the position of steel in
concrete. Aggregates expand on heating while ordinary cement shrinks on heating. These two
opposite actions may lead to spalling of the concrete surface. In general, concrete offers a
much higher resistance to fire than any other building material. Reinforced concrete
structures can withstand fire lasting for several hours with a temperature of 1000°C without
serious damage.

4. Steel
Though steel is non-combustible, it has very low fire resistance, since it is a good conductor
of heat. During fire, it gets heated very soon, its modulus of elasticity reduces and it loses its
tensile strength rapidly. Hence, unprotected steel beam sags and unprotected columns or
struts buckle, resulting in the collapse of structures. If the surface paint on these steel
components is not fire resistant, it is essential to protect structural steel members with some
coverings of insulating materials like brick, terracotta, concrete etc.

5. Glass
Glass is poor conductor of heat, and its thermal expansion is also less. When it is heated and
then suddenly cooled, cracks are formed. These cracks can be minimized if glass is
reinforced with steel wire netting. Thus, reinforced glass is more fire resistant, and can resist
variations in temperature without serious cracks. Reinforced glass is therefore commonly
used for fire- resisting doors, windows, done sky-lights, etc.

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6. Timber
Timber is a combustible material. It ignites and gets rapidly destroyed during fire, if the
section is small. However, if timber is used in thick sections, it possesses the properties of
self- insulation and slow burning.

7. Cast-iron and wrought iron

Cast iron behaves very badly in the event of fire. On sudden cooling, it gets contracted and
breaks down into pieces or fragments, giving rise to sudden failure. Hence, it is rarely used in
fire-resistant building unless suitably covered by bricks, concrete etc. Wrought iron behaves
practically in the same way as mild steel.

CAST-IRON WROUGHT-IRON

8. Asbestos cement
It is formed by combining fibrous asbestos with Portland cement. It has low coefficient of
expansion and has property of incombustibility. It has, therefore, great fire-resistance.
Asbestos cement products are largely used for construction of fire-resistant partition walls,
roofs, etc. It is also used as protective covering to other structural members.

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9. Aluminium
It is very good conductor of heat. It has very poor fire-resistant properties. Its use should be
restricted to only those structures, which have very low fire risks.

10. Plaster or mortar

Plaster is non-combustible. Hence, it should be used to protect walls and ceilings against fire
risks. The fire-resistance of plaster can be increased by using it in thick layers or reinforcing
it with metal laths.

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Structural elements and fire resistance

Structural elements of buildings are graded, for fire resistance, by the time for which they resist a
standard fire of given time temperature grading.

The time-temperature grading is based on observations in actual fires. The relationship between
the actual fire expressed as fire load and the standard fire is established by burning down weights
of combustible material corresponding to different classes of fire loads, to match the time
temperature grading of the standard fire.

From the results, it follows that the different grades of fire resisting structural elements will resist
the corresponding fire loads shown against them in Table (IS: 1641-1988).

Table: Classification of Structural Elements

Fire load and class of fire which the

Grade Time in hours (min resistance
structure can withstand
no. against standard fire)
Fire load in kcal/sq. m Class of fire
1 6 1100000 and over Very high
2 4 500000 to 1100000 High
3 2 275000 to 500000 Medium
4 1 Less than 275000 Low
5 ½ - Very low

Thus, a structural element classified as of grade 4 will successfully withstand the standard fire
severity and comply with other conditions for an hour. If that structural element is incorporated
in a building of which the fire load gives rise to a fire, equivalent in severity to one-hour severity
in the test, then the structural element should resist the building fire without failure.

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Fire Escape Routes and Elements- planning and design:

According to fire safety norms, a fire escape or exit may be a corridor, internal passage,
doorway, internal staircase or a passage leading to an open terrace, roof or the outside street. A
horizontal crossover from one building to another adjoining building is also considered an fire
escape or exit.

The Planning and Design parameters for fire escape routes are:
1. Lifts and escalators should not be treated as fire escape or exits. Small spiral stairs should
also not be considered as regular exit.
2. All fire escape or exits should be kept neat and clean, free from all obstructions, so that the
full area of the exits is available to the occupants during emergency evacuation.
3. No fire escape or exit should be utilized for living purpose, be rented for storage of materials
and should not be illegally encroached upon by the occupants.
4. All fire escape or exit points should be properly illuminated.
5. The staircases should be preferably of reinforced concrete and should be wide enough for
quick evacuation of occupants, particularly for educational institutions and cinema halls.
6. All fire escape or exits should be so arranged that they are accessible without passing through
other occupied units.
7. The number of occupants should be pragmatically assessed by the designer to decide upon
the number of fire escape or exits required in a particular building.
8. The location of the staircases should be so fixed that the occupants may not have to travel/run
more than 20-25 metres to reach a staircase in case of a fire alert. As a general guide, it is
suggested that at least two staircases should be provided when the floor area exceeds 500
sqm; The design of the staircases, their width, tread, rise, landing dimensions, headroom,
handrail details etc. should follow the norms laid down by the municipal authorities.

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Smoke Detectors:

These detectors detect fire, based on the products of combustion, Smoke detectors are classified
into:
1. Ionization Detector: This type of detector consists of one or more chambers, which has a
radioactive element to ionize the air inside the chamber. The detector operates when smoke
enters into the chamber and reduces the conductivity of the air inside below a pre-defined
level.
2. Photoelectric Detector: This type of detector employs the light scattering principle of smoke
for detection. When smoke particles enter the light path inside the chamber, the light is
scattered and this scattered light falls on the sensor, which converts it into a signal for further
action.
3. Beam type Detector: This type of detector operates on the principle of obstruction of light.
When the received beam intensity goes below the present level due to smoke particles, the
detector issues a signal for further action.

Heat Detectors:

1. Fixed Temperature Detector: This type of detector initiates a signal when the air surrounding
it goes above a present temperature.
2. Rate of Rise Temperature Detector: This type of detector operates when the rate of rise of
temperature of the air surrounding the detector exceeds the preset rate of rise. This is
normally and electronic type of detector, which has two sensing elements.
3. Linear Heat Sensing (LHS) Cables: These are unique heat sensing cables made of polymer

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insulating material having a negative temperature coefficient of electrical resistance. These

cables and associated systems can detect heat anywhere along the length of the cable.
4. Quartzoid Bulb: This is the most common type of heat-sensing device used in water sprinkler
systems. This quartz bulb contains a special volatile liquid. The volumetric expansion of the
liquid breaks the bulb when its temperature increases beyond a certain temperature.

Dry Riser:
Dry riser is a normally empty pipe that can be externally connected to a pressurized water source
by firefighters. It is a vertical pipe intended to distribute water to multiple levels of a building or
structure as a component of the fire suppression systems. Most buildings have a "wet riser"
system where the pipes are kept full of water for manual or automatic fire fighting operations.
Dry risers are used when the water pressure of a building would not be enough for fire
suppression and in unheated buildings where the pipes could freeze. Dry risers must allow fire
engine access within 18 m of the dry riser inlet box. Dry risers in occupied buildings must be
within a fire-resistant shaft, usually one of a building's fire escape staircase enclosures.

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Fire Dampers:
Fire dampers are passive fire protection products used in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) ducts to prevent the spread of fire inside the ductwork through fire-
resistance rated walls and floors. Fire dampers are similar to fire dampers in fire resistance
rating, and prevent the spread of smoke inside the ducts.
When a rise in temperature occurs, the fire damper closes, usually activated by a thermal
element, which melts at temperatures higher than ambient but low enough to indicate the
presence of a fire, allowing springs to close the damper blades.

Fire Door:

A fire door is a door with a fire-resistance rating used as part of a passive fire protection system
to reduce the spread of fire and smoke between separate compartments of a structure and to
enable safe egress from a building or structure.

Fire doors may be made of a combination of materials, such as:

 Glass sections (including vision panels)
 Gypsum (as an endothermic fill)
 Steel
 Timber
 Vermiculite-boards
 Aluminium
Door components includes:
 Automatic closing devices or objects
 Ball-bearing hinges
 Gas seals
 Positive latching mechanisms

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 Smoke seals

Shut Off Nozzle:

In firefighting, it is a device for generating and directing a stream of water, foam, powder, or
other fire-extinguishing substance. The simplest type of shut off nozzle is a tube with a terminal
attachment that adjusts the stream. Shut off Nozzles can generate narrow or dispersed streams,
and they make it possible to stop the flow without shutting off the supply. The output of fire-hose
nozzles varies from 1 to 200 kg of fire-extinguishing substance per sec.

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Foam Inlet:
These cabinets house the connections, which allow fire fighters to pump foam down the foam
circuit and onto a fire. They are required when it is known that the local fire brigade use
mechanical foam generators
The function of foam inlet is to give access to fire service personnel to a system of pipework to
allow pre-formed low expansion foam to be applied to a fire inside a building from outside the
building.

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QUESTIONS
1. Explain the necessity or importance of electrical supply system design for buildings.
2. Explain single phase and three phase electrical supply for buildings
3. Write a short notes on protective devices in electrical installation
4. Define Earthing. Explain the necessity of Earthing
5. Explain the components of Earthing System
6. Explain types of Earthing in detail with neat sketches
7. List various electrical installations in buildings
8. Explain systems of wiring.
9. Write a short note on planning for electrical supply for domestic and commercial buildings
10. Write short notes on Power Distribution Boards
11. Define Illumination. Explain principles of illumination
12. Define Fire. Explain briefly fire triangle.
13. Define Fire load. Explain the classification of buildings based on fire load
14. List the causes of fire in buildings
15. Write short notes on spread of fire
16. Explain in detail, fire resistant construction in buildings
17. Explain types of fire extinguishers used in buildings
18. Explain types of fire protection systems in detail
19. Explain wet riser system and dry riser system
20. Write short notes on fire alarms
21. Write short notes on Means of Escape
22. Explain fire resisting properties of common building materials
23. Write short notes on structural elements and fire resistance
24. Explain planning and design of fire escape routes and elements.
25. Explain smoke detectors and heat detectors
26. Write short notes on fire dampers, fire door, shut-off nozzle and foam inlet.

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MODULE 4- PLUMBING AND FIRE FIGHTING LAYOUT OF SIMPLE BUILDINGS 15CV743

MODULE 4:

Plumbing and Fire Fighting Layout of Simple Buildings:

Application of above studies in preparing layout and details –

All buildings are planned, taking into consideration their requirements with regard to adequate

water supply, drainage and sanitation. Plumbing drawings are prepared showing piping systems

that supply water and carry waste water to the sewer. Much of the residential plumbing is

standardized by the local authorities. Engineer should understand the principles underlying good

plumbing practices.

Plumbing is a general term which indicates the practice, materials and fixtures used in the

installation or maintenance of all piping, fixtures, appliances, and other appurtenances used in

connection with both public private water supply systems as well as sanitary or drainage

systems, within or adjacent to any building or its connection with any point of public disposal.

The entire system of piping, fixtures, appliances, etc. used in providing water supply and

drainage facilities in a building is, therefore, called a plumbing system. Hence, a ‘plumbing

water supply system’ in a building consists of supply and distribution pipes (called service

pipes), connections, domestic storage tanks, flushing storage tanks, etc., while a ‘plumbing

sanitary or drainage system’ includes water closets, urinals, and other such appliances like traps,

soil waste and vent pipes and stacks, anti-siphonage pipes, house drains and house sewers,

flushing cisterns, etc.

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Water Supply Layout for a residential building

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DRAINAGE OR SANITARY PLAN:

REQUIREMENTS OF DRAINAGE PLAN

The drainage plan of the building should show the following :

 Every floor of the building in which the pipes or drains are to be used

 The position, forms, level and arrangement of the several parts of such building including

the roof thereof.

 All new drains as proposed with their sizes and gradients.

 Invert levels of the proposed drains with respect to the ground level.

 The position of every manhole, gulley, soil and waste pipe, ventilating pipe, rain water

pipe, water-closet urinal, latrine, bath, lavatory, sink, trap, wash-basin or other appliances

in the premises proposed to be connected to any drain.

Following colours are used in showing the various lines:

 Sewer lines- Red colour

 Existing work- Black colour

 Waste water pipes and rain water pipes- Blue colour

Residential Buildings. Individual residential buildings should have at least the following sanitaly

fittings:

 One bathroom with one water tap.

 One water closet.

 One Nahani or sink either in the floor or raised from the floor.

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Sanitary or Drainage Layout for a residential building

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PLUMBING LAYOUT FOR A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

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Fire Fighting Layout

FIRE FIGHTING LAYOUT

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Reflected ceiling plan of smoke detectors or sprinklers

Reflected ceiling plan is part of the overall architectural drawings. It shows the lighting,

sprinklers, smoke detectors, and any other objects that are located in or on the ceiling, such as the

mechanical air diffusers and grilles

Note: For Reflected ceiling plan of smoke detectors or sprinklers show only smoke detector or

sprinklers in the below provided plan.

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QUESTIONS

1. Write a note on plumbing system in a building.

2. Prepare/Draw a plumbing(water supply & sanitary) layout for a residential building
3. Prepare/Draw a plumbing(water supply & sanitary) layout for a public building
4. Write a note on fire water supply system in a building.

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MODULE 5: Engineering Services

Engineering services in a building as a system,
 Lifts and escalators : Classification and types of lifts, lift codes, rules
structural provision: escalators, their uses, types and sizes, safety norms to
be adopted – Social features required for physically handicapped and elderly
 Cold and hot water systems
 Waste water systems and
 Electrical systems and DC/AC motors, Generators
Pumps and Machineries: Reciprocating, Centrifugal, Deep well, Submersible,
Automatic pumps, Sewerage pumps, Compressors, Vacuum pump – their
selection, installation and maintenance
Building Maintenance:
 Preventive and protective maintenance,
 Scheduled and contingency maintenance planning,
 M.I.S. for building maintenance.
 Maintenance standards and Economic maintenance decisions.

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Elevator
An Elevator or Lift is a transportation device used to move goods or people vertically. It is a type
of vertical transport equipment, which is generally powered by electric motors that either drive
traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a piston like
jack
Components of an Elevator or Lift:
The components of a basic elevator or lift are:
1. Car
2. Hoist way
3. Machine/Drive System
4. Control System
5. Safety System
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Car: The vehicle travels between different floors carrying passengers and/or goods.
The components of car are:
• Car Sling, a metal framework connected to the means of suspension
• Elevator Cabin
• Mechanical Accessories like guide shoes, car doors etc.
Hoist way: It is the space enclosed by wall for the car to travel. It is the shaft that encompass the
elevator car
The components of hoist way are:
• Guide Rails
• Counter Weight
• Suspension Ropes
• Landing Doors
• Buffers in Pit
Machine/Drive System: It is the power unit of the elevator, and usually located at the elevator
machine room.
There are three types of Driving Machines:
1. Gearless Machine
2. Geared Machine
3. Drum Machine
Control System: It is the system responsible for coordinating all aspects of elevator service such
as travel, speed etc. It accepts inputs and produces output
Types of control system are:
• Single Automatic Operation
• Selective Collective Operation
• Group Automatic Operation
Safety system: The following list describes all the safety components used in safety system:
• Device for locking landing doors
• Progressive safety gear.
• Over speed governor.
• Buffers.
• Final Limit switches.
• Other safety devices and switches.
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Types of Lifts

1. According to Drive System

2. According to function or use

According to Drive System

 Hydraulic type
 Traction type

Traction (Machine) Hydraulic

Traction (Machine) Hydraulic

 lifted by ropes, which pass over a  supported by a piston at the bottom of the
wheel attached to an electric elevator that pushes the elevator up as an
motor above the elevator shaft. electric motor forces oil or another hydraulic
fluid into the piston.

 used for mid and high-rise  used for low-rise applications of 2-8 stories.
applications.
 Much higher travel speed than
hydraulic.
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 Principle : see – saw  Principle : Pascal’s pressure principle

 Components: control system,  Components : tank, motor, valve, actuator.

sheave, motor, counterweight,
guiding rail.

 The machine room is located at  The machine room is located at the lowest
the upper most level, i.e., on the level adjacent to the elevator shaft.
terrace.

According to function or use:

 Passenger lift
 Hospital or Bed lift
 Goods or Freight lift
 Service lifts or Dumbwaiters
 Paternoster
 Stair lifts

Passenger Lift: These are meant for vertical transportation of human beings exclusively. These
are intended to move passengers up and down. They are designed for carrying passengers
generally in residential and commercial buildings. The speed of the elevator should not exceed
5m/sec.

Hospital Lifts: These are generally used to transport patients who are not well enough to sit up
even in a wheel chair. The speed of the elevator less than 2.5m/sec is desirable. It should be
located near to the operation theatre.

Goods or Freight lift: These are generally used to transport goods from floor to floor. Goods lift
with speed of 0.25m/sec to 1m/sec are available with loads varying from 500-5000 kg.

Stairs lift: These are generally installed in residential buildings for people who have problem
with walking. These type of elevators runs in a rail up and down beside the existing staircase.

Service lifts or Dumbwaiters: These are slow speed mini lift to carry material in vertical direction,
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generally used in hotels.
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Paternoster: It is a special type of elevator, which consists of a chain of open compartments that
moves slowly in a loop up and down inside a building without stopping. It was widely used in
20th century, but now it has become obsolete.
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Escalator:

An escalator is a power-driven, continuous moving stairway designed to transport passengers up

and down short vertical distances.

Escalators are used around the world to move pedestrian traffic in places where elevators would
be impractical. It is the moving step type of lifts operating at constant speed between two levels in
an inclined angle. The speed of escalators, up to about 0.75m/sec are generally used.

Components of an Escalator:

1. Landing Platforms
2. Truss
3. Tracks
4. Steps
5. Hand Rail

Landing platforms: An escalator consists of top and bottom landing platforms connected by a
metal truss. The top platform consists of motor assembly and drive gear.

Truss: A hollow metal structure bridges the lower and upper landings. The truss carries all the
straight track sections connecting upper and lower sections
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Tracks: The track system is built into the truss to guide the step chain, which continuously pulls
the steps from the bottom platform and back to the top in an endless loop.

There are actually two tracks: step-wheel track and the trailer-wheel track.

Steps: The steps themselves are solid, one-piece, die-cast aluminum. Rubber mats may be affixed
to their surface to reduce slippage, and yellow demarcation lines may be added to clearly indicate
their edges
Hand Rail: It provides convenient handhold for passengers while they are riding the escalator

Hot Water Supply System:

A source of hot water for residences and public and industrial enterprises to satisfy domestic and
production needs; also, the complex of equipment and structures that provide it. Hot water
supply systems consist of heat sources, water treatment apparatus, water heaters, pipelines to
transport the water, and devices to regulate and control the water’s temperature.

Hot water supplies may be either centralized or local (decentralized). In centralized systems, heat
and electric power plants generate the heat; and the so-called waste heat of industrial enterprises,
underground sources, and other sources is used. The heat is transmitted to consumers through
heating system pipelines. The treatment of hot water is carried out at the heat sources themselves
and at central heating points or right in the home. In local systems, the source of heat for
warming the water is located at the place where the water is used. A centralized hot water supply
may be a closed system in which the water is warmed by a heat-transfer medium (water or
steam) from heating networks in water heaters that have been installed at central heating points
or directly within the home. In hot water supplies built as open systems, the consumer obtains
hot water directly from a heating network. This does away with the need to install water heaters
in homes or at centralized heating points and lessens the possibility of corrosion in local
pipelines. However, the maintenance of a demand level in such systems requires large volumes
of water that have undergone preliminary treatment to prevent scaling and corrosion in the
pipelines and the heat- transfer equipment. The maximum water temperature in hot water
supplies is 75° C and the minimum (at water faucets) is 60° C.
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To prevent cooling of the water in hot water supply delivery pipelines, a constant circulation is
maintained during low-demand periods with the help of so-called circulation pipelines. In baths
and showers there are heaters connected to the circulating system; with these the rooms are
warmed and the towels are dried.

In order to even out the high- and low-demand loads and to cut the costs of heat sources, heat
exchangers, heating networks, and water treatment, hot water accumulator tanks are used in
centralized systems to store the hot water during low-demand periods, for its distribution during
high-demand periods.

Cold Water Supply System:

Cold water supply is nothing but an external water supply. However, cold water supply system
can also use filter, water softener appliances, or any other fixture. The connection for the cold
water system is done in such a way that other appliances could receive it through fixtures and
taps. Such appliances include sinks, hot water heaters, faucets, bathtubs, showers etc. A Cold
water supply system is one where the raising main feeds directly the cold water taps and a multi-
point water heater. The mains water comes in via a rising main and directly feeds all the cold
taps and a multi-point water heater - so all the taps and other water feeds are at mains water
pressure.

Cold Water Supply System

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Hot-Water Boiler
It’s an equipment for heating the water used in the heating, ventilation, and hot-water supply
systems of buildings and other types of structures. Cast-iron sectional hot-water boilers, which
heat the water to temperatures no higher than 115° C, are used for heating residential and public
buildings. The heat-generating capacity of these boilers does not exceed 1.5 gigacalories per hour
(1 gigacalorie per hour = 1,163 megawatts), and the pressure does not exceed 0.4 mega newtons
per sq m (MN/m2), or 4 kilograms-force per sq cm (kgf/cm2). There are several different cast-
iron hot-water boiler designs, but they are all assembled from separate, specially shaped tubular
sections. The inner chambers of each section, in which the heated water circulates, are joined
together with sleeves on the top and bottom during the assembly of the boiler. A furnace grate
and combustion chamber (sometimes externally fired) are placed beneath the two symmetrically
positioned assembled sets of sections. Various types of fuel may be used in cast iron hot-water
boilers.

Three types of hot-water boilers are manufactured from standardized sections: the KCh-1, KCh-
2, and KCh-3 models, with a nominal heating surface ranging from 7.1 to 156 m 2. Steel hot-
water boilers are designed to heat water up to 200° C under pressures of up to 2.5 MN/m2 (25
kgf/cm2). These boilers have heat-generating capacities of 4, 6.5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 100, and 180
gigacalories per hour. Hot-water boilers rated at 30 giga calories per hour and higher are installed
in block and district boiler rooms, as well as in central heating and power plants, to handle peak
heating loads during the winter. The most commonly used steel hot-water boilers with a high
heating capacity are gas-mazut boilers. These boilers are equipped with completely shielded
combustion chambers and have convection surfaces.

Waste Water System:

Home wastewater enters the septic tank, which separates solids from liquids. Solids are held in
the septic tank and liquids are conveyed to the final soil treatment site. The septic tank is a
“bioreactor” where microorganisms break down organic matter in the wastewater to liquids,
gases and solids. Gases are vented off through the house vent stack. Solids are composed of both
scum and sludge. Scum is lighter than water and floats to the surface in the septic tank. The solid
parts are heavier than water and sink to the bottom of the tank. Bacteria feed on the wastes and
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the fraction that
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cannot be decomposed is “sludge”. Sludge accumulates in the bottom of the septic tank and must
be removed periodically.
The five parts of a sewage disposal system are:
(1) the house plumbing,
(2) the sewer line from house to septic tank,
(3) the septic tank,
(4) the septic tank outlet sewer pipe, and
(5) the final soil treatment unit, which may be a soil absorption unit or lagoon
The house plumbing system includes waste pipes, vent pipes and water traps. Waste and vent
pipes usually are the same pipe, with wastewater flowing downward and gases rising in the pipe.
A water trap must be installed in the drain line between each fixture and the main stack. The trap
prevents sewer gases from coming into the house through the fixtures. Adequate cleanouts are
necessary in the stack so the plumbing and sewer line can be serviced and cleaned. House sewer
pipe should have a slope between 1 percent and 2 percent. This is around a 1- to 2-inch drop in 8
feet. On too flat a grade, the liquid will slow down, allowing the solids to settle out in the sewer
pipe. On too steep a grade, the liquids will flow away from the solids. The sewer line from the
house to the septic tank may be plastic sewer pipe with glued joints or cast iron with stainless
steel clamps or leaded joints
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Electrical System:
Electric utilities transmit power from the power plant most efficiently at very high voltages. In
the United States, power companies provide electricity to medium or large buildings at 13,800
volts (13.8kV). For small commercial buildings or residential customers, power companies lower
the voltage with a transformer on a power pole or mounted on the ground. From there, the
electricity
is fed through a meter and into the building.
Power Distribution in Small Buildings
Small commercial or residential buildings have a very simple power distribution system. The
utility will own the transformer, which will sit on a pad outside the building or will be attached
to a utility pole. The transformer reduces the voltage from 13.8kV down to 120/240 or 120/208
volts and then passes the electricity to a meter, which is owned by the utility and keeps a record
of power

After leaving the meter, the power is transmitted into the building at which point all wiring,
panels,
and devices are the property of the building owner. Wires transfer the electricity from the meter
a panel board, which is generally located in the basement or garage of a house. In small
commercial buildings, the panel may be located in a utility closet. The panel board will have a
main service breaker and a series of circuit breakers, which control the flow of power to various
circuits in the building. Each branch circuit will serve a device (some appliances require heavy
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743
loads) or a number of devices like convenience outlets or lights.
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Power Distribution in Large Buildings

Large buildings have a much higher electrical load than small buildings; therefore, the electrical
equipment must be larger and more robust. Large building owners will also purchase electricity
at high voltages (in the US, 13.8kV) because it comes at a cheaper rate. In this case, the owner
will provide and maintain their own step-down transformer, which lowers the voltage to a more
usable level (in the US, 480/277 volts). This transformer can be mounted on a pad outside the
building or in a transformer room inside the building.
The electricity is then transmitted to switchgear. The role of the switchgear is to distribute
electricity safely and efficiently to the various electrical closets throughout the building. The
equipment has numerous safety features including circuit breakers, which allow power to be
disrupted downstream - this may occur due to a fault or problem, but it can also be done
intentionally to allow technicians to work on specific branches of the power system. It should be
noted that very large buildings or buildings with complex electrical systems might have multiple
transformers, which may feed multiple pieces of switchgear.
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AC and DC Motor
The AC Motor and the DC Motor are differentiated on the various factors like

BASIS AC MOTOR DC MOTOR

Nature of the Alternating Current is the main Direct Current is the main
Input Current input power in the AC motor input power in the DC motor

Supply Sources Three phase or single phase power Energy is obtained from
from the supply mains batteries, cells etc.

Commutation Absent in AC motor Present in DC motor

Process

Supply Phase Both single phase and three phase Only single phase supply is
supply are used used

Number of There are 3 input terminals RYB. There are two input terminals
terminals Positive and negative

Carbon brushes No carbon brushes There are carbon brushes in

the DC Motor

Applications Suitable for large and industrial DC motor is used in small and
applications domestic applications

Starting AC Motor are not self-starting. It DC Motor are self-starting

requires some external starting
equipments

Position of The Armature is stationary and the Armature rotates while the
Armature magnetic field rotates magnetic field remains
stationary.

Maintenance cost Less expensive as compared to DC DC Motor maintenance is

Motor more expensive.
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Generators:
It is an equipment used for electrical backup if there is any outage of electricity supply.
Types of generators:
1. Bases on mobility:
 Portable generators: These are mini-generators that supply power between 3000 to 8000
watts. They are ideal generators for a home or a small shop in India. They are portable,
so they can also be used for camping and outdoor trips. They usually run on petrol or
diesel.
 Standby generators: These generators need to be installed outside a building. They supply
power between 5000 to 5000 watts. They are workable even in adverse weather
conditions. They generally run on CNG/LPG, petrol or diesel.

2. Based on size:
 Small or inverter generator: These are small sized generators that provide power between
2000 to 7000 watts. They are portable generators ideal for camping and home use.
 Medium generator: These provide power between 8000 to 20000 watts.
 Large generator: They provide 20000 to 40000 watts power.
3. Based on fuel type:
 Diesel generators: These generators run on diesel. They are good for long-term use. Since
diesel is cheaper, so these are economical.
 Gas generators: These generators run on gas, which is cheaper than all fuel types. They
have a higher shelf life.
 Kerosene generators: These are the oldest types of generators but nowadays, it is difficult
to find kerosene. Otherwise, they are the cheap.
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Types of Pumps:
Pumps are classified into two types namely:
 Dynamic pumps
 Positive Displacement Pumps

1. Dynamic Pumps
Dynamic pumps are classified into Centrifugal, Vertical centrifugal, Horizontal centrifugal,
Submersible, and Fire hydrant systems.
a) Centrifugal Pumps
These types of pumps are most commonly used worldwide. This pump is strong, efficient and
fairly cheap to make. Whenever the pump is in action, then the fluid pressure will increase from
the inlet of the pump to its outlet. This kind of pump produces an enhancement within force by
transmitting mechanical power from the electrical motor to the liquid throughout the revolving
impeller. The flow of liquid will enter the center of impeller and exits along with its blades. The
centrifugal power hereby enhances the velocity of fluid & also the energy like kinetic can be
altered to force.
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b) Vertical Centrifugal Pumps

Vertical centrifugal pumps are also called as cantilever pumps. These pumps use an exclusive
shaft & maintain design that permits the volume to fall within the pit, as the bearings are external
to the pit. This mode of pump utilizes no filling container to cover the shaft however in its place
uses a throttle bushing.

c) Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps

These types of pumps include a minimum of two or more impellers. These pumps are utilized in
pumping services. Every stage is fundamentally a divide pump. All the phases are in a similar
shelter & mounted on a similar shaft.
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

d) Submersible Pumps
These pumps are also named as stormwater, sewage, and septic pumps. The applications of these
pumps mainly include building services, domestic, industrial, commercial, rural, municipal, &
rainwater recycle applications.

e) Fire Hydrant Systems

Fire hydrant pump systems are also named as hydrant boosters, fire pumps, & fire water pumps.
These are high force water pumps intended to enhance the capacity of fire fighting of
construction by increasing the force within the hydrant service as mains is not sufficient.

2. Positive Displacement Pumps: They are classified into diaphragm, gear, peristaltic,
lobe, and piston pumps.

a) Diaphragm Pumps: These also known as AOD pumps (Air operated diaphragms),
pneumatic, and AODD pumps. The applications of these pumps mainly include in
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continuous
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applications like in general plants, industrial and mining. AOD pumps are particularly
employed where power is not obtainable, otherwise in unstable and combustible regions.

b) Gear Pumps: These pumps are a kind of rotating positive dislocation pump, which means
they force a stable amount of liquid for every revolution. These pumps move liquid with
machinery coming inside and outside of mesh for making a non-exciting pumping act.
These pumps are capable of pumping on high forces & surpass at pumping high thickness
fluids efficiently.

c) Peristaltic Pumps: These are also named as tube pumps, peristaltic pumps. These are a
kind of positive displacement pumps and the applications of these pumps mainly involve
in processing of chemical, food, and water treatment industries.
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

d) Lobe Pumps
These pumps offer different characteristics like an excellent high efficiency, rust resistance,
hygienic qualities, reliability, etc. These pumps can handle high thickness fluids & solids without
hurting them
e) Piston Pumps
These are one kind type of positive dislocation pumps wherever the high force seal responds
through the piston. These pumps are frequently used in water irrigation, scenarios requiring high,
reliable pressure

Criteria for Pump Selection for water supply

• Type of pumping required, i.e. whether continuous, intermittent or cyclic.
• Present and projected demand and pattern of change in demand.
• The details of head and flow rate required.
• Type and duration of the availability of the power supply.
• Selecting the operating speed of the pump and suitable drive/driving gear.
• The efficiency of the pumps and consequent influence on power consumption and the
running costs.
• Ease in installation.
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

Building Maintenance is work undertaken to keep, restore or improve every facility i.e. every
part of a building, its services to a currently acceptable standard and to sustain the utility and
value of the facility.

The objective of maintenance is -

 To preserve machinery, building and services, in good operating condition.
 To restore it back to its original standards, and
 To improve the facilities depending upon the development that is taking place in the
building engineering

Necessity of Building Maintenance:

Maintenance aims at effective and economic means of keeping the building and services
utilizable. It involves numerous skills as influenced by occupancy and the performance level
expected of a building. Programming of works to be carried out to keep the building in a good
condition calls for high skills. Feedback from maintenance should also be a continuous process
to improve upon the design and construction stages.

Building maintenance includes a wide variety of tasks depending on the particular business or
organization. It encompasses a great deal of “behind the scenes” work to ensure that a facility or
building remains functional and comfortable for its users. Building maintenance includes
cleaning common areas, removing trash regularly, and repairing items that are broken. It can
involve inspecting, repairing, and maintaining electrical systems, heating and air conditioning
systems, and other utility services.
Maintenance can help:
 Prevent the process of decay and degradation.
 Maintain structural stability and safety.
 Prevent unnecessary damage from the weather or from general usage.
 Optimize performance.
 Help inform plans for renovation, refurbishment, retrofitting or new buildings.
 Determine the causes of defects and so help prevent re-occurrence or repetition.
 Ensure continued compliance with statutory requirements.
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

Types of Building Maintenance

There are a number of methods of maintenance; these can be grouped into two broad categories:
1. Planned maintenance, which includes planned preventive maintenance and shutdown
maintenance. Preventive maintenance further includes condition-based maintenance,
reliability centered maintenance (RCM) and total productive maintenance (TPM); and
2. Unplanned maintenance, which includes corrective maintenance, breakdown maintenance
and
emergency maintenance.

1. Planned Maintenance
 Planned preventive maintenance or scheduled maintenance
This method allows maintenance activities to be organized and carried out with forethought,
control and records to a predetermined plan, based on the results of condition surveys. This
method
failures and their associated costs. It is based on the criticality of failure to the organization and
is also known as scheduled maintenance.
Planned preventive maintenance is further classified into following categories:
a) Condition-based maintenance: This method of maintenance is based on the results of
condition monitoring of building, plant, equipment, systems and elements to avoid loss of
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743
function or failure.
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

This work can be carried out continuously, periodically or on demand in real time and is often
used for remotely monitoring plant condition.
b) Reliability centered maintenance: It is a systems-based method used to determine maintenance
tasks needed to ensure that a facility asset or system continues to function in order to fulfil its
purpose as designed in its present operating condition.
c) Total productive maintenance: It is a systematic approach to improving maintenance
effectiveness, which operates at the tactical level and normally builds on the successful
implementation of strategic methods.

 Planned shutdown maintenance

This method is normally used for continuous process production and manufacturing facilities,
where a detailed plan is produced for all assets for work to be carried out during a total
shutdown.

2. Unplanned Maintenance:
 Corrective maintenance: Maintenance initiated because of the observed or measured
condition of plant, equipment, systems, elements, before or after a functional failure, can be
used to resolve the problem and ensure correct functional performance. This work can be
planned or unplanned.
 Breakdown maintenance: It relates to the task of restoring an asset so that it can fulfil its
original function after failure. This method may result in high replacement costs over the
lifetime of the asset, but has a low initial maintenance resource requirement.
 Emergency maintenance: This maintenance method results from a sudden, unforeseen
occurrence requiring immediate corrective work to be carried out to restore to function and to
avoid potentially serious consequences.
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

Economic maintenance decisions:

Building maintenance is an expensive process both from financial aspects (operational costs, real
estate management, administration, job with debtors, legal services etc.) and environmental
aspects (climate change, greenhouse emissions, and energy efficiency measures). Businesses aim
to reduce the costs of buildings transforming them into a more efficient and sustainable
infrastructure.

The main purposes of a cost plan for building maintenance are defined as listed below:
 Determine the target cost limit for maintaining programme works.
 Inform setting the annualized maintenance budgets and available funding constraint.
 Provide cost information to assist decision makers to make informed decisions.
 Inform what asset investment are funded or not funded and then revise life cycle cost plan.
 Ensure the employer is provided with best value for money from maintenance spent.

The quality of maintenance activities is significantly influenced by the amount of budget

allocated. A common challenge is recognized in allocating maintenance budget with the
argument during the process of formulating the maintenance funding. Overestimation or
underestimation of maintenance cost could affect negatively on decision making of the hierarchy
of maintenance tasks as well as prevent using the maintenance budget effectively. Maintenance
cost includes all costs of keeping the building up to an acceptable standard. It relates to the direct
cost of maintenance such as spares, labours, equipment and tools as well as indirect costs such as
administration, management and the inevitable overhead costs.

Total maintenance cost is the sum of the cost of preventive maintenance and corrective
maintenance as shown in figure
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

Scheduled and Contingency Maintenance Planning:

Scheduled maintenance is any task that is given a deadline and assigned to a technician. It can
either be a recurring task done at regular intervals or a one-time task. Scheduled maintenance
includes inspections, adjustments, regular service, and planned shutdowns.

The primary goals of scheduled maintenance are to reduce reactive maintenance, equipment
failure, and maintenance backlog. Standard checks help increase the lifetime of assets and reduce
the number of equipment repairs and replacements. Scheduling tasks also allows you to better
allocate resources in a cost-effective and efficient manner.

Scheduled maintenance is the act of deciding when planned maintenance tasks should be
completed and who should complete them. While planned maintenance establishes a process,
scheduled maintenance is part of that process. When an issue or task is identified, it can be given
a deadline for completion and assigned to a technician. This is when it becomes scheduled
maintenance.

Maintenance plans should be prepared in consultation with stakeholders, taking account of the
following as a minimum:
a) Organization’s requirements for production and operational demands and constraints;
b) Organization’s financial circumstances and/or taxation position; and
c) Feedback data on maintenance outcomes, including associated costs.

A contingency plan is a plan of action for a facility. It is intended to be used following a forced
outage when a natural disaster, primary utility/services failure or critical/key equipment failure
causes an unplanned loss of production. In most organizations today, contingency planning will
be just one of the components of the company’s overall plans for maintaining business
continuity, recovering from disaster and managing their risk.
The following outline might be considered by any organization developing a formal contingency
plan:
 Develop the contingency planning policy statement
 Conduct a business impact analysis (BIA)
 Identify preventive controls
 Create contingency strategies
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

 Develop an information system contingency plan

 Ensure plan testing, training, and exercises
 Ensure plan maintenance

Maintenance Information System:

All buildings have some form of mechanical and electrical services in order to provide the
facilities necessary for maintaining a comfortable working environment. These services have to
be controlled by some means to ensure, availability of facilities as designed and comfort
conditions irrespective of the number of occupants or individual preferences.

The purpose of a Maintenance Information System (MIS) is to automate and take control of these
operations in the most efficient way possible for the occupiers/business, within the constraints of
the installed plants/ installations.

Maintenance Information System (MIS) is an intelligent mix of hardware devices which works as
data collecting/ warning agents and software which collates data and graphically presents same
for better and simple understanding. The following are the works as data collecting/ warning
agents and software which collates data and graphically presents same for better and simple
understanding.
The following are the key components of Maintenance Information System (MIS):
i. Centralized workstation computer with user friendly software used for everyday building
operations;
ii. Direct digital controllers (DDC): micro- processor based pre-configured/freely
programmable controllers; and
iii. Field devices: temperature sensors, humidity sensors, pressure sensors, valves, actuators,
movement sensors, etc.
The technology improvement in the building maintenance management system has been rapidly
upgraded. Technology and device development plus the availability of integration with the
system make it easier for the developer to ensure that they really are on the right current track.
The process of developing technology is likely to be on-going as the building and its facilities
become more sophisticated over the years.
MODULE 5- ENGINEERING SERVICES 15CV743

QUESTIONS
1. Explain the classification of lifts/elevators
2. Explain the components of lifts/elevators
3. Define Escalator. Explain the components of an Escalator.
4. Explain hot water and cold water supply system
USN I I I I I I I I I I I 15CV743

Seventh Semeste r B. E. Degree Examination, Dec.2018/J a n.2019

Design Concept of Building Services
Time: 3 hrs. Max. Marks: 80

Note: Answer any FWEfu/1 questions, choosing ONE full questionfrom each module.

Module-1
1 a. Explain the water requirement for different types of buildings. (08 Marks)
b. What are different types of pipe fittings? Explain with neat sketches. (08 Marks)

OR
2 a. What is rain water harvesting? With a simple sketch explain how a rain water harvesting can
be made for a building. (08 Marks)
b. Classify the different types of drainage methods. With a neat diagram draw the cross-section
of a man hole. (08 Marks)

Module-2
3 Define co-efficient of thermal conductivity. With a neat diagram, explain the insu lation for
roof and exposed walls. (16 Marks)

OR
4 a.
What are the different systems of ducting and distribution system?Explain
(Air Conditioning). (08 Marks)
b. What are the advantages and disadvantages of air conditioning? (08 Marks)

Module-3
5 a. What is the necessity of studying the electrica l systems design? (08 Marks)
b. What are the protection devices for electrical in sta llation s? Explain. (08 Marks)

OR
6 a. Define Illumination or Illuminance, write the illumination required for residential building
components. (08 Marks)
b. Define the following five fighting equipment accessories:
i) Fire Hydrant pillar
ii) Foam Inlet
iii) Rising Main (Dry Riser)
iv) Shut-off Nozzle. (08 Marks)

Module-4
7 Draw a Key plan for a plumbing system for two bed room residential house. (16 Marks)

OR
8 Draw a typical sketch of fire fighting water distribution system. (16 Ma rks)

Module-5
9 According to engineering services in a building, what are the space requirements for
different parts of buildings. (16 Marks)

OR
10 What are the different types of pumps? Ex plai n with neat sketches any 4 different types of
pumps. (16 Marks)
*****
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180 9 15CV7432979

Visvesvaraya Technological Univers1ty

Belagavi, Karnataka - 590 018

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