Signal Conditioning

Variable Conversion Elements

Chapter 9
Signal Conditioning

 Introduction to signal conditioning

 Deflection bridge circuits
 Amplifiers
 Filters
Introduction to signal conditioning
 The output signal from the sensor of a measurement system has generally
to be processed to make it suitable for the next stage of operation.
 Signal conditioning refers to operations performed on signals to convert
them to a suitable form for interfacing with other elements in the
measurement loop system.
 Signal conditioning includes
 Deflection bridges

 Amplifiers

 A.C carrier systems

SIGNAL
 Current transmitters

 Oscillators and resonators

CONDITIONING
Introduction to signal conditioning

 PROCESSES IN SIGNAL CONDITIONING

(1) Protection to prevent damage to the next element

A microprocessor, as a result of high current or voltage. Thus

there can be series current- limiting resistors, fuses to break if
the current is too high, polarity protection and voltage limitation
circuits.
Introduction to signal conditioning
(2) Getting the signal into the (3) Getting the level of the
right type of signal signal right

This can mean taking the The signal from a

signal into a d.c voltage or thermocouple might be just a
current. Thus for example, the few milivolts. If the signal is to
resistance change of a strain be fed into an analog-to-digital
gauge has to be converted into converter for inputting to a
a voltage change. This can be microprocessor then it needs to
done by the use of a be made much larger, volts
Wheatstone bridge and using rather than milivolts.
the out-of-balance voltage. It Operational amplifiers are
can mean taking the signal widely used for amplification.
digital or analogue.
Introduction to signal conditioning

(4) Eliminating or reducing (5) Signal manipulation

noise

Filter might be used to Making it a linear function of

eliminate mains noise from a some variable. The signals
signal from some sensors, e.g
flowmeter, are non-linear and
thus a signal conditioner might
be used so that the signal fed
on to the next element is linear
Deflection Bridge
 Bridges are electrical circuits for performing null measurements on
resistances in DC and general impedances in AC.
 Bridge circuits are an integral part of measurement device. The
bridges are widely used as a variable conversion element in
measurement system.
 Bridge circuits are used to convert impedance variations into voltage
variations. They produce an output in the form of a voltage.
 The bridge circuits operate on both null or balance condition and
deflection indication principles (unbalance condition).
 Bridges can be classified into types:
 Direct current (dc) bridge or Alternating current (ac) bridge
 Voltage sensitive or current sensitive
 Null or deflection
 Resistance or Impedance
 Constant voltage or current “ as an input”
Deflection Bridge
 Design of Resistive or Wheatstone bridge
1. BALANCE CONDITION
 At balance condition, the current through the galvanometer,
Ig= 0 (i=0).
 From the previous circuit and considering that R1 is
changeable due to the input, so its symbol is RI. If RI has
lower limit and higher limit then,:-

Note, R3 and R2 are R4 R3

not critical, but their V MIN  0 at I=IMIN , 
ratio is crucial. R I min R2
 Example 1
If a Wheatstone bridge nulls with Z2=1000Ω, Z3=842Ω, and
Z1=500 Ω, find the value of Z4.
R4 R3 R3
  R 4  R1
R1 R2 R2
842  500
R4  421
1000
If Z4=400, and Vs= 10 v, find the voltage offset

 500 1000 
E th  10     0.127V
 500  400 1000  842 
 Deflection-Type d.c. Bridge
nonlinear
relationship

• One special case is where the change in

unknown resistance Ru is typically small
compared with the nominal value of Ru.

• If we calculate the new voltage when

the resistance Ru changes

Such an approximation to make

the relationship linear is valid
for transducers such as strain
gauges where the typical
changes of resistance with
strain are very small compared
 Nonlinearity
 If the changes of Ru resistance are not small
compared with nominal value.
To make the relationship linear
One common solution to this problem is to
make the values of the resistances R2 and
R3 at least 10 times those of R1 and Ru
(nominal).
Design of Resistive or Wheatstone bridge
Power dissipation
Case where current drawn by measuring
instrument is not negligible
Bridge Applications

 Application of balance condition Wheatstone

bridge
 It can be used to locate faults in cables
 The principle of locating faults is the same as measuring the
resistance value.
 There are two test methods of locating the cable fault by
Wheatstone bridge:
 Murray Loop Test

 Varley Loop Test

Example 2
 Example 3
The Wheatstone bridge circuit shown is unbalanced when R1=30kΩ, R2=10kΩ, R3= 2kΩ,
R4 = 5kΩ and Vs = 5V.The internal resistance of galvanometer, Rg = 100Ω .
i) Calculate the value of Ig that will flow through the galvanometer.
ii) If R4 is replaced with new Rx , Obtain the value of Rx when the bridge is balance.

 30 10   30 150 
ETH  5 
 30  5

10  2
  0.119V

Z th      6.6k 
 13 35 
0.119
I   .002mA
6.6 1000  100
Rx R3
 
R1 R2
R3
R x  R1
R2
30k  2k
  6k
10k
 How does the bridge compensate for
nonlinearity
The resistance R(θ)of a thermistor varies non-linearly with absolute temperature θ (K)
according to the relationship

A typical thermistor has a resistance of 12kΩ at 298K (25 °C) falling to 2kΩ at 348K
(75 °C); i.e. x varies from 1.0 to 0.17 over this measurement range.

By choosing a suitable value of r, usually between 0.25 and 0.30, it is possible to use
the bridge non-linearity to partially compensate for the thermistor non-linearity; this
means the overall relationship between E and θ is reasonably linear over this range .

Supposing we require an output range of 0 to 1.0V, corresponding to a temperature

range of 298 to 348K; then almost minimum non-linearity is obtained if we design the
bridge so that Eth =0.5 V at θ=323K ,The bridge is then designed by solving the
following three equations for V, and the resistances
How does the bridge compensate for
nonlinearity
The bridge with more than one sensor

Refer to the book

Reactive deflection bridges
 EXAMPLE 4
At 20oC, the Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure 4 is in
balance condition when R1=1000Ω, R2=842Ω, and R3=500 Ω.
Meanwhile, R4 is copper Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD). The internal resistance of galvanometer, Rg=100Ω and
the temperature coefficient of the RTD, α=0.0042Ω/oC. If the
RTD is dipped into boiling water (100oC), determine the voltage
drift
SOLUTION
Textbook Principles_of_Measurement_Syst

HW 9: 1,3,4,8
 AMPLIFIER
An amplifier is an electronic circuit which makes a signal bigger. Amplifiers are
necessary in order to amplify low-level signals, e.g. Thermocouple or strain gauge
bridge output voltages, to a level which enables them to be further processed
Input Outpu
Amplifier t

Amplification is often needed in systems using analogue signals.

Example
Operational AMPLIFIER

 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (op-amp) is a

semiconductor device consisting of a dozen or so
transistors and upwards of a dozen resistors sealed in a
package.
 Simple amplifier for analog circuit can be developed
by using this op-amp.

Normally VCC is set to +15V

Operational AMPLIFIER
 Properties of Ideal Op-Amp
Operational AMPLIFIER
 Properties of Ideal Op-Amp
i  0
i  0 For idealized model
V  V 
AMPLIFIER

 Concentrate only:-
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
 NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER / BUFFER
 VOLTAGE SUMMING / SUMMER
Inverting AMPLIFIER

Vo Rf RF
AV   
Vi R1 R IN

This is to balance the d.c. bias currents to inverting and non-inverting inputs
Example

Find the Vout for both circuit shown below:

Rf=100kΩ Rf=100kΩ

- - +
R1=25kΩ + R1=25kΩ
+ +
Vout Vout
50mV 50mV
20kΩ
- -

(a) (b)
Non Inverting AMPLIFIER

Vo Rf
AV   1
Vi R1
Voltage Follower

Vo
AV  1
Vi
This circuit has unity gain, high input impedance and low output impedance and is used
as a buffer amplifier to connect a voltage signal source with high output impedance to a
low impedance load.
i.e. Can be used in isolating one circuit from loading effects of another
Voltage follower/buffer will prevent the load from drawing current
directly from a source or sub circuit modeled by Vin
Example

In the circuit below, what is voltage reading of the

voltmeter provided that the internal resistance of the
voltmeter is 100Ω?

R1=2kΩ
-
+
V
Vs=10V R2=1kΩ
VOLTAGE SUMMING/SUMMER
(ADDER)

 Rf Rf Rf 
Vo   V1  V2  V3 
 R1 R2 R3 

 Rf Rf Rf 
n input,
Vo   V1  V2    Vn 
 R1 R2 Rn 
 EXAMPLE 7

Determine the total gain produced by the network

below. Then, determine the output voltage, Vout

2kΩ
9kΩ

-
1kΩ + Vo1 -
3kΩ
+
Vin=50mV Vout
Differential amplifier
Differential amplifier
Limitations of practical operational
amplifiers
Limitations of practical operational
amplifiers

The tempreture effects have significance on the output voltage

Limitations of practical operational
amplifiers
Limitations of practical operational
amplifiers
Limitations of practical operational
amplifiers
 Instrumentation Amplifier

An instrumentation amplifier is a high-

performance differential amplifier
system consisting of several closed-loop
operational amplifiers. An ideal
instrumentation amplifier gives an output
voltage which depends only on the
difference of two input voltages
A.C. Amplifier
 PROTECTION

Problem
A unit after a sensor has a possibility of damage by high
current or high voltage

How to protect?

High Current High Voltage

a series resistor to the use of a Zener

limit the current to an diode circuit
acceptable level
a fuse to break if the
current does exceed a
safe level.
 PROTECTION CONT’D

Input

Zener diodes behave like ordinary diodes up to some breakdown voltage when
they become conducting.
Thus to allow a maximum voltage of 5 V but stop voltages above 5.1 V getting
through, a Zener diode with a voltage rating of 5.1 V might be chosen.
When the voltage rises to 5.1 V the Zener diode breakdown and its resistance
drops to a very low value.
The result is that the voltage across the diode, and hence that outputted to the
next circuit, drops.
Because the Zener diode is a diode with a low resistance for current in one
direction through it and a high resistance for the opposite direction.
 FILTER

 WHAT DOES A FILTER DO?

 In circuit theory, a filter is an electrical network that alters the
amplitude and/or phase characteristics of a signal with respect to
frequency.
 Filters are often used in electronic systems to emphasize signals
in certain frequency ranges and reject signals in other frequency
ranges/decrease the amplitude.
 FILTER CONT’D
 Elimination / reduction of noise: electromagnetic
(EM), mains, vibration etc.
 Detection of particular signal frequencies.

Low pass filter High pass filter Band pass filter

Gain Gain
Gain
fc2 fc1
fc1 fc2
frequency, f frequency, f
frequency, f

fc = cut-off frequency
 FILTER CONT’D
LOW PASS FILTER

R Av(dB)

- 3dB

Vi C Vo

f
fc

 A filter designed to pass all frequency below a given cut-off

frequency
 Approximate low frequency with w  0 and high frequency
with w  
 at low frequency, gain = 1, &

 at high frequency, gain = 0

 FILTER CONT’D

Low-pass Filter

+ +

x(t) y(t)

- -
 FILTER CONT’D
R 1
Vo  Vi
1  jRC
Vi C Vo
Vo 1
gain  
Vi 1  (RC)2

Cut off frequency is where the gain = 1/2 ( = 3 dB)

At cut-off frequency ZR= Zc. Therefore

fc  1 /( 2RC)
 FILTER CONT’D
HIGH PASS FILTER
Av(dB)
A
C m
- 3dB 0.707A
m

Vi R Vo

fc
fc f
 A filter designed to pass all frequency above a given1 cut-off frequency
 Approximate low frequency with w  0 and high frequency with w 

 at low frequency, gain = 0, &

 at high frequency, gain = 1

 FILTER CONT’D

High-pass Filter

+ +

x(t) y(t)

- -
 FILTER CONT’D

C jRC
Vo  Vi
1  jRC

Vi R Vo
Vo RC
gain  
Vi 1  (RC)2

Cut off frequency is where the gain = 1/2 ( = 3 dB)

At cut-off frequency ZR= Zc. Therefore

fc  1 /( 2RC)
 FILTER CONT’D
BAND PASS FILTER

C1 R2

Vi R1 C2 Vo

 Designed to pass all frequency that fall between fc1 and fc2
 High pass filter followed by Low pass filter
 Gain :
Vo R1C1 1 1 1
 , f c1    fc2
Vi 1  (R1C1 )2 1  (R 2C2 )2 2R1C1 2R2C2
 FILTER CONT’D

Av(dB) HP LP

- 3dB

fc1 fc2 f
 FILTER CONT’D
LP HP
ZR
Zc Vo  (Vi )
Vo  (Vi ) Zc  Z R
Zc  Z R
Vo ZR
Vo Zc 
 Vi Zc  Z R
Vi Zc  ZR
R
1 
jC 1 R
 jC
1 R
jC R

 1  jRC 
 1  
 


 j C 
  jC 
  0  jRC
 jRC 
 1  jRC  

 
 1  jRC 1  jRC
 j C 

1
Vo 0 2  (RC ) 2
1  jRC 
Vi 1  RC 
2

Vo 1
 Vo RC
Vi 1  RC  
2
Vi 1  RC 
2