MECE 227

Sensors and Actuators

Chapter 2

Analog Signal Conditioning

Dr. Amir Nobahar

ATILIM University
2023-2024 Fall Semester
 Chapter 2: Analog Signal Conditioning

We’ll study,
• Analog signal conditioning.
• Wheatstone bridge circuit to convert resistance change to voltage change.
• RC low-pass and high-pass filter circuits to eliminate unwanted signals.
• Four common Op-amp circuits and their transfer functions.
• Operation of an instrumentation amplifier
 Principles of Analog Signal Conditioning
Analog signal conditioning refers to operations performed on signals to convert them to a
form suitable for interfacing with other elements.

Some Common Types of Analog Signal Conditioning

Signal-level (magnitude) changes by amplification or attenuation
Bias (zero value) changes
Linearization
Conversions
Filtering and impedance matching
 Signal-level (magnitude) and Bias (zero value) changes
Example:
Let, a sensor’s output voltage varies from 0.2 V to 0.6 V and an equipment to which this
sensor output must be connected requires a voltage that varies from 0 V to 5 V.
Required signal conditionings are:

First, change the zero to occur when the sensor output is 0.2 V. This can be done by
simply subtracting 0.2 from the sensor output, which is called a zero shift, or a bias
adjustment. Now we have a voltage that varies from 0 to 0.4 V,
Then, make the voltages larger by multiplying by 12.5, the new output will vary from 0
to 5 V as required. This is called amplification, and 12.5 is called the gain.

In some cases, a sensor output is made smaller, which is called attenuation. The circuit,
that either amplifies or attenuates is called an amplifier.
If the gain of the amplifier is greater than one, then amplification is obtained.
If the gain of the amplifier is less than one, then attenuation is obtained.
 Linearization

Suppose a sensor output varies nonlinearly with a physical variable being measured
(Figure 1a). Sensor output is conditioned by a linearization circuit (Figure 1b), so that
voltage produced varies linearly with the measured variable (Figure 1c).
Historically, specialized analog circuits were devised to linearize signals. Such circuits are
difficult to design and usually operate only within narrow limits. The modern approach to
this problem is to provide the nonlinear signal as input to a computer and perform the
linearization using software. Virtually any nonlinearity can be handled in this manner and
in nearly real time.
Conversion from one type of electrical variation into another
Filtering and Impedance Matching
 Concept of Loading
Suppose open-circuit output (that is when nothing is connected to the output) of some
element (a sensor, a bridge circuit, an amplifier, etc.) is a voltage Vx, when the input to
the element is some variable of value x.

Loading occurs when something, a load is connected across the output, and the output
voltage of the element drops to some value Vy. Different loads result in different drops.

Loading is evaluated using Thévenin equivalent circuit model of the element.

Note: Thévenin’s theorem tells us that the output terminals of any two terminal elements
can be defined as a voltage source in series with an output impedance.

sensor input output impedance is

assumed to be resistance

open-circuit
output voltage
 Concept of Loading
If a load, RL is connected across the output of the element, then a current will flow, and
voltage will be dropped across Rx. Hence, the loaded output voltage will be given by,

Loading effects can be

reduced if RL >> Rx

RL could be input
resistance of an amplifier

Reading Assignment: Study “Section 2.2.2: Impedance and Impedance Matching” from
the reference book “Sensors, Actuators and their Interfaces: A Multidisciplinary
Introduction, Nathan Ida, SciTech, 2014”.
Concept of Loading
Concept of Loading
Passive Circuits: Divider Circuits
Passive Circuits: Divider Circuits
Passive Circuits: Divider Circuits
 Passive Circuits: Bridge Circuits (using voltage detector)
Wheatstone Bridge: is the most common bridge circuit and it is used in signal-conditioning
applications where a sensor’s resistance changes as it measures a physical quantity.

D is a voltage detector
with infinite input
impedance
Voltage difference (voltage offset) is

Voltage offset DV is a function of supply voltage V and the values of the resistors.
Bridge is said to be in null condition if DV=0 which occurs if :

Reading Assignment: Study following topics from the textbook:” Galvanometer Detector;
Bridge Resolution; Lead Compensation; Current Balance Bridge; Potential Measurements
Using Bridges; AC Bridges; Bridge Applications”.
Passive Circuits: Bridge Circuits (using voltage detector)
RC Filters
 RC Filters

Equation (23)

Equation (22)
RC Filters
RC Filters
 RC Filters

Equation (22)

Equation (24)
RC Filters
RC Filters
RC Filters
RC Filters
RC Filters
 Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)
Op-amps are widely used as the building block of signal-conditioning applications. An op-
amp is a circuit composed of resistors, transistors, diodes, and capacitors; it’ll be considered
as a functional element of some larger circuit, and all we are concerned with are its input
and output signals. Op-amp, typically requires connection of bipolar power supplies (+VS, -
VS). An op-amp is usually shown in a larger circuit using its own schematic symbol as given
below. In practice, the device is always used with feedback of output to input.

Input
Output
Input
 Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)
Op-amps have very high input impedances (higher than 1 M) and very low output
impedance (less than 100 ). Ideal characteristics of op-amps are, infinite input impedance ,
zero output impedance, no voltage difference between the op-amp input terminals.
+ saturation voltage

“-” and “+” signs must be shown differential input

Inverting Input V2 - V1
Vout Output
Noninverting Input

- saturation voltage

Saturation voltages are on the order of 10 V

and DV is less than 1mV, hence slope of the
transition between saturation levels is very
large, typically exceeding 100,000 V/V.
 Op-Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Voltage Follower

•has unity gain (Vo=Vin), Vo tracks =Vin over the range +Vsat to –Vsat.

•has very high input impedance (i.e. > 1 M).

•has very low output impedance (i.e. < 100) .

Unity gain voltage follower is essentially an impedance transformer in the sense of

converting a voltage at high impedance to the same voltage at low impedance.
 Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Inverting Amplifier

• inverts the input signal and may have either attenuation or gain, depending on the ratio of
input resistance, R1 , and feedback resistance, R2.

• the input impedance of this circuit is essentially equal to, R1 the input resistance. In
general, this resistance is not large, and hence the input impedance is not large.

• the output impedance is low.

Op-Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Op-Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)

A: differential voltage gain,

ACM: common mode voltage gain,
A good differential amplifier has higher
CMRR and CMR values.
Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)

(Common Mode Rejection Ratio)

Op Amp Circuits in Instrumentation
(assuming ideal characteristics)
 Assignment
• Study Chapter-2 Analog Signal Conditioning of your textbook.