Radiation

Safetysurvival
Officerhandbook

An introduction to radiation safety that covers basic radiation science,

radiation safety practices and procedures and federal or state regulations.
Also includes templates for various radiation safety evaluations,
assessment forms and checklists.

By Joseph Vincelli, Norman W. Henry, III

John J. Miller, and James R. Weldy

A Publication by
American Industrial
Hygiene Association
 Disclaimer
The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), as publisher, and the authors have been diligent in ensuring that the
material and methods addressed in this publication reflect prevailing occupational health and safety and industrial hygiene
practices. It is possible, however, that certain procedures discussed will require modification because of changing federal, state,
and local regulations, or heretofore unknown developments in research.

AIHA and the authors disclaim any liability, loss, or risk resulting directly or indirectly from the use of the practices and/or
theories discussed in this book. Moreover, it is the reader’s responsibility to stay informed of any changing federal, state, or local
regulations that might affect the material contained herein, and the policies adopted specifically in the reader’s workplace.

Specific mention of manufacturers and products in this handbook does not represent an endorsement by AIHA.

Copyright 2009 by the American Industrial Hygiene Association. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced in any form, by Photostat, microfilm, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior permission of the publisher.

Stock Number: ERDH09-760

ISBN: 978-1-935082-11-8

American Industrial Hygiene Association

2700 Prosperity Avenue, Suite 250
Fairfax, VA 22031
Tel: (703) 849-8888
E-mail: Infonet@aiha.org
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Printed in the United States of America

ii
Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................1

Chapter 2: Radiation, Radioisotopes, and Radioactivity...............................................................................................................3

Chapter 3: Radiation Quantities and Units....................................................................................................................................7

Chapter 4: Biological and Health Effects of Radiation ...............................................................................................................11

Chapter 5: Radiation Safety Instrumentation ..............................................................................................................................15

Chapter 6: Radiation Protection Principles and Practices ...........................................................................................................25

Chapter 7: Operational Procedures for an Effective Radiation Safety Program .........................................................................29

Chapter 8: Emergency Procedures in Response to Radiation Incidents......................................................................................33

Chapter 9: Organization and Administration of a Radiation Safety Program .............................................................................37

Chapter 10: Employee Qualifications and Performance .............................................................................................................39

Chapter 11: Regulatory and Standard Organizations ..................................................................................................................43

Chapter 12: Surveys, Audits, and Investigations .........................................................................................................................45

Chapter 13: Transportation of Radioactive Materials..................................................................................................................49

Appendix: Examples of Radiation Safety Forms ........................................................................................................................53

Chapter 1
Introduction

By Joseph Vincelli, CRSP, CRPA®

The use of radiation in research, medicine, and industry is ious academic, research, medical, radiopharmaceutical, in-
highly regulated. Safety professionals working with radiation dustrial, and manufacturing applications. The volumes with
must possess not only a good understanding of science but one or two revisions are presented in the table below.
also of regulatory requirements. Most uses of radioactive
materials or radiation producing machines require that Consolidated Guidance about Materials Licenses
someone be designated as a responsible person for radiation (NUREG-1556)
safety matters. That person is often called the Radiation Safety
File Title
Officer (RSO), or the Radiation Protection Officer (RPO).
The RSO will be asked to perform various tasks such as: Vol. 1, Rev. 1 Program-Specific Guidance About Portable
ensuring compliance with regulations and interfacing with Gauge Licenses
State and Federal regulators maintaining all records and re- Vol. 2 Program-Specific Guidance About Industrial
ports required by regulations; authorizing the use, purchase,
Radiography Licenses
and disposal of radioactive material or machines; authorizing
locations for radiation use and storage; maintaining inventory Vol. 3, Rev. 1 Applications for Sealed Source and Device
lists of radiation devices and/or facilities; organizing training Evaluation and Registration
sessions; monitoring radiation exposure and contamination; Vol. 4 Program-Specific Guidance About Fixed
providing consultation on radiation safety problems; investi- Gauge Licenses
gating accidents or incidents related to radiation; and lastly;
Vol. 5 Program-Specific Guidance About Self-
coordinating operations in case of an emergency.
The RSO handbook is designed to assist radiation facili- Shielded Irradiator Licenses
ties in meeting the need for qualified personnel. It should help Vol. 6 Program-Specific Guidance About 10 CFR
the soon–to-be RSO prepare for formal RSO training and to Part 36 Irradiator Licenses
start the job with confidence. It will provide an introduction to Vol. 7 Program-Specific Guidance About Academic,
radiation safety including basic radiation science, radiation Research and Development, and Other
safety practices and procedures, and federal or state regula- Licenses of Limited Scope Including Gas
tions. The handbook will present the new RSOs with the basic
Chromatographs and X-Ray Fluorescence
knowledge to accomplish the work while remaining in com-
Analyzers
pliance with government agencies. Use of this handbook will
not require any prior understanding or experience in radiation Vol. 8 Program-Specific Guidance About Exempt
safety. Distribution Licenses
For the purpose of regulatory compliance, the RSO hand- Vol. 9, Rev. 2 Program-Specific Guidance About Medical
book will address the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Use Licenses
(NRC) licensing guidance NUREG-1556. This large docu-
Vol. 10 Program-Specific Guidance About Master
ment called Guidance about Materials Licenses has several
volumes that are program specific and provide assistance to Materials Licenses
applicants in preparing license applications to include ra- Vol. 11 Program-Specific Guidance About Licenses of
dioactive materials and radiation producing equipment in var- Broad Scope

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Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Vol. 12 Program-Specific Guidance About Possession The work of the RSO can be wide and complex and ac-
Licenses for Manufacturing and Distribution cording to NUREG-1556 may span many disciplines, how-
Vol. 13 Rev. 1 Program-Specific Guidance About Commercial ever to maintain the simplicity of the RSO handbook, the
Radiopharmacy Licenses information provided will benefit the new RSO working in an
academic, research or medical facility.
Vol. 14 Program-Specific Guidance About Well Nevertheless for the person that may want more infor-
Logging, Tracer, and Field Flood Study mation on a certain radiation safety subject, the handbook will
Licenses also provide references and examples of forms to be used for
Vol. 15 Guidance About Changes of Control and surveys, audits or for other specific investigations.
About Bankruptcy Involving Byproduct, For the new RSO, the handbook will serve as an intro-
Source, or Special Nuclear Materials Licenses ductory tool and the starting point to an exciting and reward-
ing career in the field of radiation safety.
Vol. 16 Program-Specific Guidance About Licenses
Authorizing Distribution to General Licensees
Vol. 17 Program-Specific Guidance About Licenses for
Special Nuclear Material of Less than Critical
Mass
Vol. 18 Program-Specific Guidance About Service
Provider Licenses
Vol. 19 Guidance for Agreement State Licensees
About NRC Form 241 Report of Proposed
Activities in Non-Agreement States, Areas of
Exclusive Federal Jurisdiction, or Offshore
Waters and Guidance for NRC Licensees
Proposing To Work in Agreement State
Jurisdiction (Reciprocity)
Vol. 20 Guidance About Administrative Licensing
Procedures
Vol. 21 Program-Specific Guidance About Possession
Licenses for Production of Radioactive
Material Using an Accelerator

2
Chapter 2
Radiation, Radioisotopes,
and Radioactivity
By Norman W. Henry, III, MS, CIH

Radiation is energy in the form of heat, light, particles, and

electromagnetic waves. It is produced by the spontaneous
emission of “fragments or “bundles” of energy from unstable
nuclei in atoms creating more stable nuclei.(1) There are two
forms of radiation, ionizing radiation and nonionizing
radiation. Ionizing radiation is produced from naturally
occurring radioactive elements with unstable atoms such as
uranium and radium or can be made by man synthetically by
high energy voltage devices such as X-ray machines. Ionizing
radiation has sufficient energy (greater than 20 eV) to split
matter into charged particles (energetic electrons) to form ion
pairs. This is called ionization. It consists of alpha and beta
particles, X-rays, and gamma rays. Radiation with energy less
than 20 eV such as heat, microwave, infra-red, and visible
light are considered nonionizing radiation. This chapter will Figure 2.1 — Structure of the Atom
only focus on ionizing radiation.
The chemical properties of an atom are determined by its
charged particles, or atomic number. Therefore, an atom with
Atomic Structure _______________________ ▲ one proton is hydrogen and one with eight protons is oxygen,
and one with 92 protons is uranium. Because neutrons are
Ionizing radiation is produced from radioactive elements electrically uncharged, they have no effect on the chemical
composed of identical atoms with unstable nuclei. The atom is properties of the atom. Those atoms then, with the same
the smallest particle of an element that retains the identity of the atomic number but different atomic weights, i.e., different
element. All atoms no matter if they are hydrogen or sodium numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes of an element. For
atoms, etc. are composed of three basic atomic particles: example, all hydrogen atoms have one proton but may also
electrons, protons and neutrons. Each atom has a densely packed have zero, one, or two neutrons. Some atoms are radioactive.
center called the nucleus, which contains protons and neutrons A radioactive atom has an unstable nucleus, which it changes
(nucleons) and the electrons revolve around the nucleus in orbits to a stable nucleus by actually ejecting a part of the nucleus.
(Figure 2.1). Protons are relatively large particles, carrying one This action is sometimes accompanied by a release of elec-
positive charge of electricity, and neutrons, which are about the tromagnetic energy. This ejected nuclear material and release
same size, are electrically neutral. Electrons have a weight of of energy is called radiation.
about 1/1840 of the proton and carry one negative charge. Thus
the protons and neutrons of the nucleus constitute the major
portion of the atom’s weight and the sum of these two particles
is called the atomic mass or weight. The atom is electrically Radioisotopes _________________________ ▲
neutral because it contains the same number of protons as Ionizing radiation is given off by radioisotopes which are
electrons. The number of protons (or, for that matter, the number atoms with the same atomic number but different atomic mass.
of electrons) is called the atomic number of the element. There are approximately 350 radioisotopes of which 50 are

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Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Types of Radioactive Decay Modes

H-1, H-2, H-3 (radioactive) There are numerous decay schemes for radioisotopes, but only
three main types of radioactive decay modes. They are alpha,
Figure 2.2 — Radioisotopes of the element hydrogen (H) beta and gamma emission. Alpha radiation is particulate
radiation. It is the emission of a heavy very short- range
particle that consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons; actually, it
naturally occurring such as H-3, C-14, K-40, Ra-226 and U- is an ejected helium nucleus with a +2 charge. Beta radiation
238. They all are unstable (radioactive) and eventually decay is also particulate radiation. It is the emission of a light, short-
(disintegrate) with time to stable atoms with different atomic
range particle that originates when a neutron transforms to
numbers and mass. H-1, H-2 and H-3 are radioisotopes of
create a proton, and is actually an ejected electron with a
hydrogen all having an atomic number of one, but only H-3 is
negative charge. Gamma radiation (rays) is released energy,
unstable and radioactive (Figure 2.2). The time it takes for
belonging to the same family of electromagnetic radiation as
unstable atoms in a radioisotope to decay to stable atoms is
light, radio waves, and ultraviolet radiation, etc. It originates
called the half-life. It is the time it takes for radioactivity to
decrease to one-half of its initial value.(1) in the nucleus, travels at the speed of light, is without mass,
Radioisotopes can also be artificially produced by nuclear and is a highly penetrating form of electromagnetic waves. X-
accelerators to make man-made or synthetic isotopes such as rays are the same as gamma radiation except that they are
H-3 and Tc-99m both used in research and medical diagnosis produced differently. A fourth type of radiation, neutron
respectively. All of the transuranic elements, having atomic radiation involves the release of neutrons from atomic nuclei
numbers greater than 92 are synthetic radioisotopes. When and is encountered in nuclear power plant reactors. An
radioisotopes decay and transform by spontaneous internal understanding of the types of radioactive decay processes,
change they emit radioactivity in the form of particles and half-life and energies associated with them is necessary to
electromagnetic waves with different energies. This radioac- work safely, with radioisotopes. Figure 2.4 gives the decay
tivity is produced from the spontaneous disintegration of ra- scheme for Ra-226, H-3, and I-131 and the energy associated
dioisotopes. Table 2.1 below lists common naturally occurring with their nuclear reaction decay products.(2) Notice that the
and synthetic radioisotopes, their half-life, decay mode and decay products from alpha and beta emissions form new
energies. The radioactivity that is emitted from radioisotopes elements, while there is no change in the element with gamma
is measured in number of disintegrations per second (dps). emission.
The time it takes for radioactivity to decrease to one-half of its Also note that the energy is released in the form of parti-
initial value is called the physical half-life. Each isotope has cles and waves (rays). Gamma rays are able to pass through
a specific half-life, decay mode and energy associated with solid materials because of their very low probability of inter-
the decay process. acting with electrons. Therefore, they are more penetrating

Table 2.1 — Common Radioisotopes, their Half-lifes, Radiation Decay Modes and Energies
Element Isotope Half-life Radiation Decay Mode Energy Mev

Naturally Occurring Radioisotopes

Carbon* C-14 5,700 yrs Beta 0.156
Potassium K-40 1.3 x 10E9 years Beta, gamma 1.3
Radon Rn-222 3.82 days alpha 5.5
Radium Ra-226 1,590 yrs alpha, gamma 4.8
Uranium U-238 4.51 x 10E9 years alpha 4.2
Man-made (Synthetic) Radioisotopes
Tritium* H-3 12 years Beta 0.018
Carbon* C-14 5,700 yrs Beta 0.156
Phosphorus P-32 14 days Beta 1.71
Technicium Tc-99m 6 hrs gamma 0.14
Iodine I-131 8 days Beta 0.61
gamma 0.36

*Carbon exists naturally in the atmosphere as C-14 in the form of Carbon Dioxide, but can also be made synthetically as C-14 too. Tritium, H-3 is
also a naturally occurring isotope that can be synthetically produced.

4
 Chapter 2 — Radiation, Radioisotopes, and Radioactivity

Alpha emission:
226
Ra → 222Rn + alpha particle (4He+2 ) energy 5 MeV
Beta emission:
3
H → 3He + B- beta particle (e-) energy 0.018 MeV
Gamma emission:
131
I → 131I + B- beta particle (e-) energy 0.61 MeV gamma ray energy 0.36 MeV

Figure 2.3 — Radioactive Decay Schemes

and need greater shielding for protection. Even though the

alpha particle above has a higher energy, it is less penetrating Given: A0 = 1 mCi H-3 At = A0 e – ^ t
because of its larger size and plus 2 charge. Therefore, it is t = 6 years
considered only an internal hazard, because it can not pene-
trate the skin. It should also be noted that in some cases more T1/2 = 12 years ^ = decay constant = 0.693/ T1/2
than one type of radiation is given off. Radium, Ra-226, for
example, decays in a disintegration series by giving off alpha, Find: At = remaining activity after 6 years
beta and gamma rays before becoming stable Pb-206.
At = 1 mCi x e – ( 0.693/ 12 yrs) x 6 yrs)
Radioactivity At = 0.71 mCi
Radioactivity is the process by which an unstable nucleus tries
to become more stable by emitting energy from the nucleus. Figure 2.5 — Activity Calculation for H-3 with a Half-life
It is a measure of the amount of radiation emitted when of 12 Years
isotopes decay and transform by spontaneous internal change
(disintegrate) to form particles and electromagnetic waves
with different energies. French chemists Marie and Pierre
Curie are credited with coining the term “radioactivity” when Determining the amount of radioactivity of radioisotopes
they discovered the element Radium in 1898. Prior to that in after they decay is an important calculation and is based on
1896, Henri Becquerel, a French physicist, observed radiation the half-life. (Figure 2.4) illustrates the decrease of radioac-
in pitchblende (a naturally occurring rock sample with tivity with time. (Figure 2.5) gives an example of calculating
uranium). Today, units of radioactivity dps (disintegrations per the remaining radioactivity from H-3 with a half-life of 12
second) are expressed in either Curies (Ci) or the S.I. unit years and an initial activity of 1 mCi using the Activity
Becquerel (Bq) where 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 dps = 3.7 × 1010 Bq. Calculation equation.
After 12 years (1 half-life) there would be 0.5 mCi H-3.

Half - Life Man-made (Synthetic) Radiation

The time required for the radioactivity to decrease to X-Rays are another form of ionizing radiation. They were
one-half of its initial value discovered by William Roentgen, a German physicist, in 1895.
They can be produced at any energy, according to the voltage
100 Initial activity
of the power supply. Their energy typically is in the 0.1 MeV
% of Radioactivity

range for medical equipment used for treatment and diagnosis.

X-rays are produced by bombarding a metallic target with fast
Decrease in radioactivity electrons in a vacuum tube. They are also given off from the
50 with time
electronic part of the atom in some isotopes as well when an
electron has enough energy to knock an orbital electron out
of the inner shell of a metal atom. X-ray equipment is also
0 used in research and industry for structural analyses of
1 2 3 4 5 6 compounds, crystals and buildings. Units of radiation
Number of Half-Lives exposure (dose equivalents) from X-Rays are expressed as
Roentgen, R and are the radiation absorbed dose (rad) or the
Radiation Safety Officer 23
amount of energy deposited per unit mass. It is useful for
Figure 2.4 — Illustrates decrease in radioactivity with time measuring any radiation in any material. A more complete
(Figure courtesy of Radiation Safety Academy. Moe, H.J.: description of the units of radiation dose can be found in
Operational Health Physics Training. Springfield, VA: Dade Chapter 3.
Moeller & Assoc., 2007).

5
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Summary _____________________________ ▲ machines and discrete sources of naturally occurring

radioactive materials (NORM). By understanding how
Industrial hygienists with radiation responsibilities who are ionizing radiation is produced, knowing the units of
designated RSO’s for their radiation safety program need to radioactivity and energy released in the decay processes of
know the difference between ionizing and non-ionizing radioisotopes and from X-ray machines, dose can be
radiation, the types of radioisotopes they are using and the controlled. The next chapter will discuss radiation units.
amount of radioactivity of the isotopes that they possess on
their license and in sealed sources. They also need to know
the energy produced from analytical X-ray equipment used
for research and structural analyses in radiography. In References ____________________________ ▲
addition, they are accountable for keeping track of radiation
sources in gauges used in industry to monitor tank levels and 1. Moe, H.J.: Operational Health Physics Training.
thickness of materials produced during production and in Springfield, VA: National Technical Information
devices used for sterilization of food and medical equipment Service, 1992.
used for diagnosis and treatment. In the healthcare industry 2. Effiok, B.J.S.: Basic Calculations for Chemists and
they are responsible for monitoring exposure from medical Biological Analyses. Gaithersburg, MD: AOAC
and dental equipment (X-rays). The NRC (Nuclear Regulatory International, 1993.
Commission) is responsible for regulating the quantity, use 3. Health Physics Society (HPS): http://hps.org/
and dose limits to ionizing radiation from radioisotope publicinformation/ate/q1272.html. FAQ’s answer to
sources, by-product materials and special nuclear materials, question # 1272. [Accessed January 12, 2009].
while state regulatory agencies regulate safety of X-ray

6
Chapter 3
Radiation
Quantities and Units
By Norman W. Henry, III, MS, CIH

There are three main quantities used for measuring radiation. 1 volt. All radioactive emissions have an eV greater than 20
These are activity, energy, and dose. The quantity of radiation eV and are considered ionizing radiation since they have
is expressed in activity or number of disintegrations per enough energy to cause ionization (knock off electrons from
second (dps). The amount of radiation is proportional to the atoms or molecules). The S.I. unit for energy is the joule (J).
number of radioactive atoms and the activity of the atoms as One eV is equal to 1.602 × 10-19 J.(2) Alpha and beta particles
they decay or transform into new isotopes, with the release of and gamma rays exhibit characteristic energy spectrums that
energy in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves. are used to identify their type of radiation. There are high and
When radioactivity was first discovered by Henri Becquerel low energy alpha and beta particles and high energy X and
in1896, he was working with a naturally occurring rock gamma rays. Typical ranges of energy for the different types
sample (pitchblende) with uranium that gave off radiation in of emission are given below(4):
the form of alpha particles and gamma rays.(1) He measured
the amount of activity of 1 gram of the material and found that Alpha emission 1 – 5 MeV
it gave off 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second. Later in 1898, Beta emission 0.02 – 2 MeV (3H is weak beta emitter,
32
Marie Curie and her husband Pierre discovered radium, P a strong beta)
another radioactive material, and coined the term radioactivity. X-rays 0.001 – 30,000 MeV
The standard unit of activity then became 1 gram of radium -226, Gamma 0.1 – 10 MeV
which was equal to 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.(2)
For her discovery, Madame Curie’s name was used for the unit The third quantity used to measure radiation is dose. It is
of activity. Thus, 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second the energy equivalent to the quantity of radiation absorbed by
= 3.7 × 1010 Bq. Both the S.I. Bq unit and Ci unit are used some material in defined units of absorbed dose. It is the ra-
today for measuring activity, although the Bq unit is more diation absorbed dose (“rad”) and is the energy deposited per
recognized internationally. unit mass. It is useful for measuring any radiation in any ma-
The quantity of radioactivity of each radioisotope that de- terial. In the United States, radiation absorbed dose “rad,” dose
cays and decreases with time is measured in units of curies or equivalent, and exposure are often measured and stated in
becquerels. The constant time period required for the disinte- older units called rad, rem, or roentgen “R”. Most instruments
grations of half of the atoms in a radioisotope is called the in use today read out in mR/hr, where a mR is 1/1000th of a
half-life, t1/2. R. Typical background levels of radiation are in the uR range,
The half-life of H-3 is 12 years, C-14 5,700 years, or 1/1,000,000 of a R. The gray (Gy) is the official S.I. unit of
Ra-226 1602 years and U-238 4.5 × 109 years. Some ra- absorbed dose, and 1 gray corresponds to 1 joule of energy
dioisotopes have half-lives in seconds, minutes and hours. To absorbed per kilogram of absorbed material. The rad is an
illustrate what happens in one half life, if there are 10 atoms older unit of absorbed dose, where 1 rad is the absorption of
of C-14 with an initial activity of 10 Ci , after 5,700 years 10-2 joules per kilogram of tissue. Therefore, 1 Gy is equal to
there will only be 5 atoms of C-14 with an activity of 5 Ci. 100 rad. Since the gray unit is not a good basis for comparing
and 5 atoms of N-14 the decay product from C-14. biological effects of radiation in tissue and because these ef-
The second unit for measuring radiation energy is the fects depend not just on energy absorbed, but also on the kind
electron volt (eV). It is the energy an electron receives when of radiation and tissue itself, the Sievert (Sv) unit of dose
accelerated under the influence of a potential difference of equivalent was invented to resolve this problem. So in order to

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Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

get the dose equivalent in sieverts, let D stand for dose in grays Exposure - Roentgen (R) international unit of X or gamma
(rads) and multiply it by QF, a quality weighing factor, Wr, radiation equal to the amount of radiation that
that relates to relative effectiveness for causing harm in tis- produces in one cubic centimeter (cc) of dry air at
sue. The equation is given below: 00C and standard atmospheric pressure ionization
of either sign equal to one electrostatic unit of
Dose (rad) × QF = dose equivalent (Sv) charge.

Where NRC Regulatory Exposure Unit Guidelines for Dose are given
below for reference.(5–8)
QF = 20 for alpha emitters
= 1 for beta Occupational Dose Limits:
= 1 gamma and neutron
= 1 X-rays 5 Rem/year Total Effective Dose Equivalent
= 2–11 for neutrons depending on energy (TEDE) or 5000 mrem/yr

The classical unit of dose equivalent commonly used in Extremities 50 rem organs, skin
medicine is the rem. Eye 15 rem
It is taken as being equal to 10-2 Sv. The rem is used in Pregnant woman 500 mrem during course of
many of the regulatory guidelines for exposure, but the med- pregnancy or
ical community is gradually changing over to international 50 mrem/month
units. Also keep in mind that the dose is equal to the rate times
time. ALARA principle 500 mrem/yr based on 10% of the occupa-
tional allowed dose.
Dose = mrem/hr × time (hr)
Public Dose Limits:
A summary of the units used to measure radioactivity, en- 2 mrem/hr
ergy, and dose equivalent (exposure) is given on the next page 100 mrem/yr
along with conversion units. The NRC Regulatory Guidelines Natural exposure
for dose limits are also included. A typical dose is about 1 360 mrem/yr or 1 mrem/day
mrem/day from normal background radiation (cosmic radia- Cosmic radiation and radon 1 mrem/day
tion and radon), while the dose from medical and dental pro- X-Rays typically produce 7 mrem doses for medical and
cedures is 5–10 mrem, depending on the procedure. The dental procedures.
occupational dose limit is 5000 mrem/yr, but most radiation
programs adopt the ALARA principle (As Low As Reason-
References ____________________________ ▲
ably Achievable) and set the limit at 10% (of 5000), or 500
mrem/yr. This dose limit is called the TEDE (Total Effective 1. Health Physics Society (HPS): Radiation Terms and
Dose Equivalent) and is reported to individuals annually in Definitions. McLean, VA: HPS, 2007. Available at:
NRC form 5. http://hps.org/publicinformation/radterms/. Accessed
March 5, 2008.
Summary of Units(4): 2. Brady, J.E. and F.A. Senese: Chemistry, Matter and
Change, 4th Edition. New York: Wiley, 2003. p. 978,
Activity - 1 gram of radium is equal 3.7 × 1010 dps 987.
1 Bq is equal to 1 dps 3. Bureau of Radiological Health: Radiological Health
Handbook, Revised Edition, Washington, DC: U.S.
1 Ci is equal to 3.7 × 1010 dps = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1970.
p. 50.
Energy - eV
4. Efiok, B.J.S.: Basic Calculations for Chemical and
1 eV = 1.602 × 10-19 J Biological Analyses. Gaithersburg, MD: AOAC
1000 eV = 1 keV International, 1993. p. 86.
1 x 106 eV = 1 MeV 5. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC): Units
of Radiation Dose, 10 CFR 20.1004. Washington, DC:
Dose - NRC, 1991.
Absorbed dose gray or rad 1 gray = 100 rads 6. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC): Units
Equivalent dose Sievert or rem 1 Sv = 100 rem of Radioactivity, 10 CFR 20.1005. Washington, DC:
1 rem = 0.01 Sv NRC, 1991.

8
 Chapter 3 — Radiation Quantities and Units

7. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC): 8. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC):
Occupational Dose Limits for Adults, 10 CFR 20.1201. Occupational Exposure Limits to Members of the
Washington, DC: NRC, 1991 Public, 10 CFR 20. 1301. Washington, DC: NRC,
1991.

9
Chapter 4
Biological and Health
Effects of Radiation
By John J. Miller, CHP

Not long after its discovery, ionizing radiation was linked to to organs and tissues that may result in irreparable damage or
deleterious effects. Over the course of the century animal even death. Such harm occurs in individuals who are exposed
studies and observations of exposed populations have greatly to radiation above a certain threshold level. Other radiation
enhanced our knowledge about the mechanisms in which damage may occur in cells that are not killed, but modified.
radiation interacts with biological systems and the effects Usually this damage is repaired. However, if the repair is
which these interactions produce. flawed, the resulting cell modifications may be transmitted to
further cells and may eventually lead to long-term effects,
such as cancer. The biological effects of high levels of
Radiation Interactions at the radiation exposure are fairly well known, however the effects
of low levels of radiation are more difficult to assess because
Cellular Level _________________________ ▲
there is no definitive correlation between low-level radiation
Radiation exposure has the potential to damage living cells, exposures and a biological effect, nor is there a method to
causing death in some and modifications in others. It is differentiate between cancers resulting from low level
generally assumed that these effects result from both direct radiation exposures and other sources.
and indirect action of radiation. Direct effects are produced
by the initial action of the radiation itself, such as a strand
break in DNA caused by an ionization event within the Stochastic vs. Deterministic
molecule. Indirect effects result through later chemical action
of free radicals (a chemically unstable atom, ion, or molecule) (Non-Stochastic) Effects ________________ ▲
and other radiation products. Direct and indirect effects of The effect of radiation on a person can be divided into two
radiation on living cells may result in three outcomes: 1) general categories, stochastic and deterministic. A stochastic
injured or damaged cells repair themselves, resulting in no effect is one that occurs in a statistical manner, where the
residual damage; 2) cells die, and are replaced through normal probability of the effect occurring increases with exposure
biological processes; or 3) cells incorrectly repair themselves, while the severity of the effect should it manifest in an
resulting in a viable but mutated cell which may not be individual does not, an example here is cancer.
capable of performing its intended function. All cells are not A deterministic effect is one in which a threshold must
equally sensitive to radiation damage. In general, cells which be exceeded before the cell killing is observed, increasing in
divide rapidly and/or are relatively non-specialized, such as severity as the radiation exposure increases above the given
the ovaries, testes, and intestines, tend to show effects at lower threshold, i.e. cataracts and skin erythema.
doses of radiation then those which are less rapidly dividing
and more specialized, such as brain tissue.
Acute vs. Chronic Dose _________________ ▲
An acute radiation dose is a large dose delivered to the whole
Effects of Radiation on Man _____________ ▲ body within a short period of time. If the dose delivered is
Most organs and tissues of the human body can survive a significant, harmful deterministic effects may be observable
significant loss of cells. However, if the number lost in a short within hours, the severity of which are dependent on the total
period of time is great enough, there will be observable harm dose and the rate at which the dose was delivered. The greater

11
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Table 4.1 — Acute Radiation Syndrome for Gamma Radiation

Whole body
Dose (rad) Symptoms Remarks

0–25 None No detectable effects

25–100 Limited, a few individuals may exhibit precursor Bone marrow damaged, decrease in red and white blood cells and
symptoms such as nausea and anorexia. platelets. Lymph nodes and spleen damaged
These may be psychosomatic.
100–300 Mild to sever nausea, malaise, anorexia, Hematological damage more severe. Death in susceptible individuals
infection.
300–600 Hemorrhaging, infection, diarrhea, epilation, Fatalities within 30 days in about 50% at 450–500 rad, (LD50/30)
temporary sterility
> 600 Impairment of central nervous system, Death expected in 100% of individuals
incapacitation at dose ≈ 1000 rad

the dose rate, the more severe the response. Acute doses result exposures are received. Most radiation-induced cancers are
in readily identifiable symptoms which are referred to in a thought to have a latency period of 10 years or more following
general sense as Acute Radiation Syndrome. exposure. Other examples of delayed effects include cataracts,
As the term implies, a chronic dose is a fairly uniform life-shortening and degenerative changes in the bone, skin,
rate of exposure over an extended period of time. Mankind lungs, kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract. It is difficult to link
has evolved surrounded by natural sources of radiation. In a the appearance of these diseases in specific individuals with
sense, everybody on earth is exposed to a chronic low dose of chronic radiation exposures because these diseases have
radiation. On average the worldwide dose from non-occupa- multiple causes.
tional radiation sources totals about 300 mrem per year. A Hereditary or genetic effects are those that occur in the
breakdown by source is summarized in the table below de- offspring of people exposed to radiation. While this possibil-
rived from Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, United ity exists and has been observed in various plant and animal
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radi- species, radiation induced mutations passed on to subsequent
ation (UNSCEAR) 2000 Report to the General Assembly: generations have yet to be detected in human populations ex-
posed to radiation.
Table 4.2 — Sources of Background Radiation Dose
Source Dose
mSv/ yr mrem/yr The Linear No-Threshold Model and Radiation
Radon 1.2 120 Hormesis _____________________________ ▲
Terrestrial (other than radon, including 0.8 80 A linear no-threshold (LNT) dose-response relationship is the
internal exposures) predominate model used by regulatory bodies to assess the
Cosmic 0.4 40 risk of low doses of radiation and provides the foundation for
Medical 0.4 40 occupation radiation exposure limits. The LNT model
Other (including nuclear power and fall-out) <0.1 <10 assumes that there is no dose below which the risk from
exposure becomes zero, i.e. no threshold. An illustration of
Occupational radiation exposure would be categorized as the LNT model is provided by Curve 1 in the graph below
a chronic exposure. Because deterministic effects are not typ- (Figure 4.1). This implies that the risk of cancer increases
ically associated with chronic exposures, the chronic dose risk linearly with increasing exposure above zero. Conversely,
assessment considers stochastic effects, such as cancer. some scientists suggest the risk is reduced to zero at some low
dose, i.e. a threshold effect reference, refer to Curve 3. For
radiation protection purposes, risk estimates are made using
the straight line portion of the linear quadratic model,
Somatic vs. Hereditary Effects ____________ ▲ illustrated by Curve 2.
A somatic effect is one that appears in the person exposed and The LNT model is not without criticism: some authorities
can be divided into two classes based on the rate at which the contend that it is overly conservative, claiming there is no ev-
dose was received. Prompt somatic effects due to cell killing idence to support it. Recent studies, particularly concerning
are those that occur soon after an acute dose. These occur in Chernobyl effects, contradict the hypothesis.
as little as a few hours after the exposure and are symptoms of The theory that low doses of radiation are actually bene-
acute radiation syndrome. Delayed or latent somatic effects, ficial is not new. The concept of radiation hormesis is based on
such as cancer, are those that manifest years after radiation the stimulatory or beneficial effects induced by low doses of

12
 Chapter 4 — Biological and Health Effects of Radiation

unborn child. Some potential effects associated with prenatal

radiation doses include mental retardation, small head/brain
size (microcephaly), increased risk for childhood leukemia,
and other malignancies. Special considerations must be given
to pregnant workers occupationally exposed to radiation and
Effects (Cancer Risks)

ffects pregnant patients undergoing diagnostic and therapeutic

nE
ow medical radiation treatments.
Kn

References ____________________________ ▲
1. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission: Regulatory
Guide 8.29, Instructions Concerning Risks from
Occupational Radiation Exposure, Revision. February
DOSE (REMS) 50 REMS
1996.
2. American Nuclear Society: Health Effects of Low
Figure 4.1 — Proposed Models of Radiation Effects at Level Radiation. Position Statement 41. June 2001.
Low Doses. (Obtained from Regulatory Guide 8.29) 3. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects
of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR): Sources and
Effects of Ionizing Radiation Volume 2: Effects. New
an agent which are harmful or even lethal at high doses, some- York: United Nations, 2000.
what analogous to the role trace elements play in human me- 4. Turner, J.E.: Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation
tabolism. Although the specific mechanisms explaining Protection, 2nd Edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
radiation hormesis are not known, DNA-repair, free radical Interscience, 1995.
detoxification, and stimulation of the immune system are con- 5. Casarett, A.P.: Radiation Biology. Upper Saddle River,
sidered integral components of the process. NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1968
6. Travis, E.L.: Primer of Medical Radiobiology. New
York: Elsevier Health Sciences, 1989.
Teratogenic Effects _____________________ ▲ 7. International Atomic Energy Agency and the
Given the rapid rate of cell division, the embryo and fetus is International Labour Office: The Agency
especially radiosensitive, particularly during the first 20 weeks Occupational Radiation Protection: Safety Guide.
of gestation. Radiation exposures are capable of producing (Safety standards series, ISSN 1020–525X; no. RS-G-
miscarriages and growth and developmental defects in the 1.1) STI/PUB/1081. Vienna, Austria, 1999.

13
Chapter 5
Radiation Safety
Instrumentation
By James R. Weldy, CHP, CIH

Field/Survey Instruments ________________ ▲ (using a calibration jig). The ratio of the instrument response
in counts per minute divided by the source activity in
An RSO needs to have a set of survey instruments available disintegrations per minute (converted to a percentage) is called
for direct measurements of radiation fields or to check for the
the detector efficiency.
presence of radioactive materials. An RSO needs to carefully
When selecting a survey meter for use, it is important to
choose the types of instruments to purchase to ensure that the
consider the range of radiation fields that the instrument will
sensitivity and application of the instrument is suitable for the
be sensitive to, along with the units that the survey meter
radiation emissions and measurements that the RSO is trying
measures in. For example, when performing a survey of
to make. Some of the manufacturers of radiation survey
exposure rates within a radiation area where exposure rates of
equipment include Ludlum Measurements, Inc., CANBERRA
10–50 mR/hr are expected, selection of an instrument that
Industries, Thermo Fisher Scientific, and Victoreen
reads out in counts per minute or with an upper measurement
Instruments.
range of 5 mR/hr should be avoided. Many survey meters have
Some survey instruments consist of a electronics base and
the ability to switch the multiplier for the range of the display
a detachable detector probe. These detector probes are
(x10, x100, etc) to allow the meter to be used for measure-
frequently interchangeable, so several probes can be used for
ments that require different levels of sensitivity.
different measurements with a single instrument base. When
When using a survey meter, the following checks are
replacing instrument probes, always be aware of compatibility
typically performed to ensure that the meter is performing
issues and calibration needs when the new probe is attached.
Be aware that all survey instruments that are used for properly:
regulatory-required measurements must be calibrated on a • the meter is in good physical condition
regular basis (typically annually) and after repair. • the battery has sufficient charge remaining
When using survey meters for contamination surveys, it • the meter has been calibrated within its required time
is necessary to know the detection efficiency of the detector so frame
that the reading in counts per minute (cpm) can be translated • a measurement is made with a check source with
into a reading of the contamination present in activity units, or known activity to confirm that the meter is responding
disintegrations per minute (dpm). There are two types of properly
efficiency to account for to determine the activity of a sample:
Also, background radiation levels should be checked in
the probability that radiation that is released from the area of
an area without any radiation sources before performing
contamination will intersect the detector (the geometric
radiation surveys. Background radiation levels are normally
efficiency) and the probability that radiation that intersects the
subtracted out of any radiation measurements so the survey
detector will be recorded by the detector (the intrinsic
reflects the only the radiation levels due to the radiation source
efficiency of the detector). These factors can be determined
being measured.
independently (i.e., using the product manual for the detector
to determine the intrinsic efficiency of the detector, and
measuring or calculating the geometric efficiency), but the GM Survey Meters
normal approach to determine the detection efficiency of the Selection
instrument is to measure the instrument response to a source Geiger-Mueller or GM survey meters are some of the most
of known activity in a fixed position relative to the detector common and widely recognized radiation detection

15
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Sensitivity/Efficiency
Many GM survey meters and/or probes contain a thin window
that will block very-low-energy beta particles, such as for
tritium. The standard gases used in GM survey meters also
have a low thermal-neutron cross section, so most GM survey
meters will not respond to neutron radiation.
Beta particles that are able to penetrate the window on
the detector probe are detected with very high efficiency. 90%
or more of the beta particles that enter the active area of the
detector will be counted by the detector.(1) Therefore, the
intrinsic detection efficiency of the GM survey meter is
primarily determined by the fraction of beta particles emitted
by the source that are able to penetrate the detector window.
This will typically range from <10% for low-energy beta
emitters to ~30% for high-energy beta emitters.
Figure 5.1 — Ludlum Model 3 Meter with a Model 44-9 Other than very-low-energy gamma rays, gamma rays do
Probe. not interact efficiently with the fill gas of the GM survey
meter. Therefore, the response of the detector to gamma rays
instruments. These instruments are used for scanning surfaces is primarily from the interaction of the gamma rays with the
for beta and gamma contamination (i.e., a counts per minute solid wall of the counter. Because of this, the efficiency of the
reading), and are commonly found in laboratories that use survey meter for detecting gamma rays tends to be very low,
unsealed isotopes or other areas where the spread of about 1–3%.(1)
contamination is a concern. They are typically used in areas
Limitations
where low count rates are expected, as they have a relatively
high resolving time (amount of time required between pulses Most GM survey meters are not able to detect neutron
in order for the detector to distinguish them as separate radiation and may not respond to very-low-energy beta
counts) compared to other instruments. At high count rates, radiation, such as from tritium. Because GM survey meters
resolving time correction factors must be applied to the results lose all information on the amount of energy deposited by the
in order to obtain an accurate measurement. GM survey incident radiation while collecting the signal, they can only
meters are not directly calibrated to measure exposure rate be used to directly measure exposure rates for the isotope that
over a range of incident gamma ray energies. Although the they are calibrated against.
meter may have an exposure rate scale, this reading is only Some GM survey meters do have a mR/hour scale, but
accurate for the isotope that is used to calibrate the instrument this needs to be used with caution. It is only accurate for the
(typically Cs-137). radiation type which the meter was calibrated against,
typically Cs-137 or Co-60. Use of this scale for measurement
Principles of Detection of other isotopes will result in inaccurate results. In particular,
A GM survey probe is filled with a gas, which has a high exposure measurements with the GM survey meter will
voltage applied across the electrodes in the probe (typically typically over-respond to low energy gamma rays and x-rays.
in the range of 900–1100 V). When radiation enters the gas- Note that energy-compensated GM survey meters are
filled region, it ionizes a number of the atoms of the gas. The available that reduce this effect. GM survey meters also can be
electric field that is applied across the electrodes pulls the affected by microwave fields and radiofrequency radiation.
ions that are created toward the electrodes (negative ions to Specially shielded instruments are required to make accurate
the cathode, positive ions to the anode). The energy of the measurements in these fields.
electric field is high enough that the process of pulling these Common Types
ions through the gas ionizes a large number of additional
atoms in the gas. Therefore, the size of the electric pulse Common types of GM survey meters include a Ludlum Model
measured by the instrument is independent of the number of 44-9 PGM (probe), or a Thermo Scientific HP-210.
ion pairs generated by the initial event. This process is called
gas multiplication. Because of this, the meter will respond to Ionization Chambers
radiation of different types (alpha, beta, or gamma) and Selection
different incident energies with the same-sized pulse. Ionization chambers are used to measure radiation fields.
Therefore, the detector can only be used directly as a pulse These instruments are able to respond over a large range of
counter, and cannot provide any information on the energy of exposure rates. The survey meter will typically read out in
the radiation being detected. Most GM survey meters have units of mR/hour, but for gamma rays and X-rays, exposure
an audio setting that will cause the meter to “chirp” each rate and dose equivalent rate are approximately equal, so
time it detects a pulse of radiation. this measurement can be converted directly to mrem/hour.

16
 Chapter 5 — Radiation Safety Instrumentation

Figure 5.2 — RO-20 Ion Chamber Figure 5.3 — Victoreen 450 Ionization Chamber

Principles of Detection Common Types

Similar to the GM survey meter, this detector consists of a gas- Common types of Ionization Chambers include a Ludlum
filled volume with an electric field across it. However, the Model 9, a Thermo Scientific RO-20, and a Victoreen 450.
ionization chamber has a much lower voltage applied across
the gas (typically 200–300 V). When ion pairs are created by Scintillation Survey Meters
the radiation traveling through the gas, a current is created from Selection
the collection of these ions at the central anode. Because of the Scintillation survey meters are radiation detectors that can be
lower voltage, the number of ion pairs created is proportional used for either exposure rate measurements or for
to the energy deposited in the gas. Therefore, the response of contamination detection. Scintillation survey meters are most
ionization chamber will be different for radiation of different commonly used to detect gamma rays. Many scintillation
types and different energies. For this reason, ionization survey meters are able to set upper and lower gamma-ray
chambers can be used to directly measure exposure rates. energy thresholds that the meter will respond to, so they are
excellent choices when trying to make sensitive measurements
Sensitivity/Efficiency in an area of high background radiation. Special scintillation
Because ion chambers utilize a lower high voltage current survey meters can be used to measure neutron radiation fields.
across the detection volume, ion chambers are not as sensitive
as GM survey meters and respond slower. Typically, ion Principles of Detection
chambers are used to measure exposure rates in order to Scintillation survey meters contain a solid crystal that will
measure how much of a hazard the radiation field presents to change the energy of ionizing radiation traveling through it
individuals in the area. Similar to a GM survey meter, the into a flash of light. The intensity of the light released will be
sensitivity of the ionization chamber to alpha particles and beta proportional to the energy deposited in the detector. The most
particles is primarily dependent on whether the radiation can common scintillating material used is sodium iodide or plastic.
penetrate the window of the meter. Typically, external dose rate
is not a concern for alpha particles or low-energy beta particles, Sensitivity/Efficiency
so these meters are not commonly used for this application. Scintillation survey meters are very sensitive and can be used
For measurement of higher energy beta particles, many for contamination surveys. They are commonly used for
ionization chambers have a “beta-window”, which is a layer surveying for gamma contamination. Sensitivity to alpha and
of shielding that can be removed to detect beta particles with beta particles is dependent on window thickness. Detection
the meter. Taking measurements with the beta window both
open and closed also allows the user to distinguish whether the
meter is responding to beta particles or gamma rays.

Limitations
As discussed above, ionization chambers have a lower
sensitivity than other meters and respond slower to changes
in radiation fields than most meters. Some models can be
affected by radiofrequency fields and significant changes in Figure 5.4 — Ludlum Model 44-3 Sodium Iodide Detector
external temperature, pressure, or relative humidity. Probe

17
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

efficiency for alpha and beta particles is very high for particles Principles of Detection
that are able to penetrate the detector window. Because the The Neutron REM Meter consists of a boron trifluoride (BF3)
sensitive volume is a solid instead of a gas, scintillation survey gas-filled proportional counter inside of a 10–12” sphere of
meters have a much higher efficiency for gamma rays than hydrogenous material. Traveling through the hydrogenous
gas-filled detectors. Detection efficiencies will generally be material causes the incident neutrons to lose energy. The
in the range of 20–30% for typical gamma-rays.
boron in the gas will absorb a thermal (very low energy)
neutron and quickly decay into an alpha particle and a lithium
Limitations
ion. These charged particles will ionize the gas in the detector,
The photomultiplier tube on scintillation detectors are and the electric charge will be measured. Since the boron only
generally very fragile and can easily be broken when used in reacts with the thermal neutrons, the meter does not directly
the field. Scintillation detectors generally have higher measure the energy of the incident neutrons. However, the
background count rates than other types of detectors. purpose of the hydrogenous material is to cause the neutrons
Scintillation detectors also tend to be much more expensive to lose most of their energy before they reach the detector. By
than other detector types. coincidence, the response of the detector in spheres of this
size matches very closely the dose equivalent delivered per
Common Types neutron as a function of energy. Therefore, the Neutron REM
Common types of scintillation survey meter probes include Meter can provide an accurate measurement of the dose
the Ludlum Model 44-3 sodium iodide scintillator and the equivalent from a wide range of incident neutron energies.
Ludlum Model 44-98 BGO scintillator.
Sensitivity/Efficiency
Neutron Meters Because the thick layer of hydrogenous material will absorb
There are a large number of specialized meters that can be alpha particles and most beta particles, a Neutron REM Meter
used for neutron detection. These include spherical dosimeters will not respond to these types of radiation. Also, through the
(or ‘rem-balls’), long counters, fission chambers, and lithium use of appropriate electronic discriminator circuits, any signal
glass scintillators. Detailed descriptions of all of these generated by gamma radiation can be easily filtered out of the
detectors can be found in Chapters 14 and 15 of Knoll, 2000.(1) measurement. Therefore, the detector is essentially only
For simplicity, this handbook will focus on one of the most sensitive to neutrons. The efficiency of detection of the
common survey meters for measuring dose rates from a neutrons depends on the incident energy of the neutrons.
neutron field, the Neutron REM Meter.
Limitations
Selection
The primary limitation of the Neutron REM Meter is its
The Neutron REM Meter, or ‘rem-ball’, provides a weight. Because of the large moderator, the instrument is
measurement of neutron dose equivalent and therefore is a good rather heavy and awkward to use to make measurements. It
choice when surveying neutron radiation fields. These meters also has relatively low sensitivity, and requires a relatively
provide excellent discrimination against gamma radiation and high dose rate field to make a reliable measurement.
can provide accurate measurements of neutron dose fields even
in the presence of very high gamma radiation fields. Common Types
The Ludlum Model 12-4 is a common type of Neutron REM
Meter.

Laboratory Instruments _________________ ▲

Liquid Scintillation Counters
Selection
Liquid scintillation counting is a very sensitive laboratory
technique for detecting radiation in which the sample is
immersed into the scintillation media. It is most commonly
used to detect beta radiation, and is one of the few
measurement techniques that is able to detect very low energy
beta radiation, such as that emitted by tritium. The instrument
is often used to measure the contamination on wipe tests or
for the detection of very low quantities of radiation in
experiments.
Figure 5.5 — Ludlum 12-4 Neutron REM Meter

18
 Chapter 5 — Radiation Safety Instrumentation

increase. Refer to Horrocks(4) or Crook and Johnson(5) for

detailed discussions on how to properly account for
quenching. The counter must be properly calibrated for the
sample media and the isotope being measured in order for the
counter to correctly report results in units of activity (i.e.,
disintegrations per minute).

Limitations
Liquid scintillation instruments are laboratory instruments.
The sample is collected in one location, and then is taken to
the counter for analysis. Therefore, there is no immediate
response to radiation that is detected. Liquid scintillation
counters are also rather expensive, and significant effort needs
to be put into proper calibration of the instrument to account
for self-absorption and quench. Samples need to be allowed to
Figure 5.6 — Liquid Scintillation Counter sit in a dark area for a period of time (dark adjusted) to allow
any residual luminescence in the sample to fade away. If
samples are not properly dark-adjusted or create light via
chemilumenscence (light produced by chemical reactions),
these counters can give false-positive results.
Principles of Detection RSOs should also be aware that these instruments
The principles of detection for the liquid scintillation counter normally contain an internal small sealed source for
are very similar to the scintillation survey meter. Radiation calibration. This source does not need to be wipe tested, but
that travels through the scintillation media causes the must be returned to the manufacturer before the instrument
scintillation media to fluoresce, or emit light. The emission of can be disposed of. Also, some types of scintillation fluid are
light is counted by the instrument to determine the activity hazardous materials due to their flammability. Mixing
of the sample. The primary difference in the techniques is radioactive samples with these fluids creates mixed waste,
that in the liquid scintillation counter, the sample is which may be difficult to dispose of.
submerged directly into the liquid scintillating media. This
means that there is no detector window for the incident Common Types
radiation to penetrate before reaching the detector media, so Beckman and PerkinElmer both make a number of models of
the liquid scintillation counter can detect alpha and very low liquid scintillation counters that are commonly used.
energy beta particles. The amount of light emitted is
proportional to the amount of energy absorbed from the Multi-Well Gamma Counters
incident radiation, so the liquid scintillation counter can be Selection
used for beta spectroscopy.
Similar to the liquid scintillation counters, multi-well gamma
Sensitivity/Efficiency counters use a scintillator to make sensitive measurements of
wipe tests or laboratory test samples, but are primarily used
The liquid scintillation counter is sensitive to alpha and beta for gamma radiation. Multi-well gamma counters can be
particles with very high efficiency. As a liquid, sensitivity to manufactured with multiple well detectors to allow for faster
gamma radiation is better than gas-filled detectors, and special processing of samples.
scintillation cocktails can be used that will respond to neutron
radiation. There are two primary factors that will affect the Principles of Detection
efficiency of the liquid scintillation counter, self-absorption
and quench. Self-absorption means shielding of the emitted Instead of submersing samples directly into a scintillation
radiation by the sample that contains the radioactive material fluid, well counters drop sample vials into the center of a solid
itself (for example, the wipe that was used for the wipe test). scintillator, such that the sample is nearly completely
Radiation that is emitted from within the sample may be surrounded by the scintillation media. Like other scintillation
completely absorbed before reaching the scintillation media. instruments, the radiation interacts with the scintillation
This is primarily an issue for alpha and low energy beta crystal and produces flashes of light that are measured and
radiation. Quench is the term used to describe how much of reported by the instrument.
the light that is emitted by the scintillation media is absorbed
before it is detected by the counter. If the sample being Senstivity/Efficiency
measured increases the cloudiness or changes the color of the Because the sample is placed into the center of the scintillation
scintillation media, or interferes with the energy transfer crystal, the geometric efficiency will be very high for these
properties of the scintillation media, this can cause quench to detection systems. The intrinsic efficiency of these

19
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

instruments is also very high because the scintillation crystal Gamma Spectroscopy Systems
is a solid material. Selection
Gamma ray spectroscopy is a very sensitive technique that can
Limitations be used to determine both the activity and the energy
Because the sample vial will shield alpha particles and low- distribution of a gamma-ray emitting isotope in a sample. The
energy beta particles, well counters are typically only used for systems generally consist of scintillator (sodium iodide) or
measurement of gamma and X-rays. Similarly to other semiconductor (high purity germanium) detectors that create
scintillation counters, readings can be affected by any leakage a signal proportional to the deposited energy of the incident
of light into the instrument, or fluorescence or chemilumin- radiation. The signal is amplified and processed by computer
escence generated by the sample. software to display the energy distribution of the detected
radiation. The output will display peaks at the energy levels at
Common Types which the sample is emitting radiation. This display makes
this system an excellent choice for identifying what isotope is
The Genesys 5000 and the PerkinElmer Wizard are common
in an unknown sample, since it is relatively easy to determine
types of multi-well gamma counters.
what isotope will emit radiation at the energy peaks that are
detected. Since peaks are easily visible over background for
Proportional Counters
Selection the small energy range that the peaks cover, it is also an
excellent instrument for very sensitive measurements of low
Proportional counters are instruments that are typically used activity samples.
to count wipe test samples or air filter samples. They are
commonly used for counting environmental samples of alpha Principles of Detection
and low-energy-beta emitters.
The detection principle in a scintillation spectroscopy system
Principles of Detection is identical to the process in scintillation survey meters.
Radiation traveling through a crystal creates flashes of light,
Similar to Geiger-Mueller survey meters and ionization
the brightness of which is proportional to the energy that was
chambers, proportional counters contain a gas that is ionized
deposited in the crystal by the radiation. The reader is referred
when radiation travels through it. These meters operate in a
to this section for more information on the principles of
voltage range that multiplies the charge created by the radiation
scintillation detection.
in a manner such that the signal collected is proportional to the
A semiconductor detector is typically also a crystal,
energy of the incident radiation. Also, by varying the high
like a scintillator. However, instead of generating flashes
voltage across the gas, the detector is able to distinguish counts
of light, when radiation travels through a semiconductor,
generated by alpha radiation and beta radiation.
the deposition of energy causes electrons to jump from
Sensitivity/Efficiency their valence band to a conduction band. An electric field
applied across the crystal allows the increased number of
A common configuration for proportional counters is to have electrons in the valence band to be measured, which can be
no window and to be operated by inserting the sample into a processed to display the energy distribution of the detected
chamber with gas flowing directly over it. The most common radiation.
flow gas for these instruments is P-10, a mixture of 90% argon Two types of spectroscopy systems are primarily used:
and 10% methane. Being able to avoid the attenuation of the sodium iodide and high purity germanium. Sodium iodide
incident radiation on a window allows these instruments to scintillators have the advantage of having a higher atomic
have very high efficiencies for detecting alpha and low-energy
number, which gives it superior detection efficiency for
beta particles. Measurements of gamma radiation will have a
gamma rays. High-purity germanium semiconductor
much lower efficiency. With an appropriate fill gas, these
instruments have the advantage of a higher resolution, so they
detectors can be used for neutron measurements as well, but
can distinguish among gamma rays with very similar
this is not as common.
energies.
Limitations
Sensitivity/Efficiency
Relatively small variations in the high voltage supply can
The detection efficiency of these gamma ray spectroscopy
cause significant changes in the readings, so these counters
are more commonly used in a laboratory setting. systems is driven by the size and geometry of the detecting
medium. Crystals can be grown to be very large, but are
Common Types typically 1–4 inches in diameter and height. They can be
manufactured in a well configuration so that the sample can be
The Protean IPC 9025 and the Ludlum Model 43-89 probe are placed directly inside the detector. These systems can have
examples of gas proportional counters. very high intrinsic detection efficiency.

20
 Chapter 5 — Radiation Safety Instrumentation

Limitations Confidence Limits

The primary limitation of these systems is cost – they can be The mean and standard deviation can be used to determine the
very expensive systems to set up and maintain. Also, semi- confidence limit associated with a measurement – that is, the
conductor systems are very sensitive to temperature. level of confidence that a measurement falls within a certain
High-purity germanium detectors also have to be continuously range, or is less than a certain value. Commonly cited
cooled with liquid nitrogen to prevent damage to the crystal. confidence limits are 90 and 95 percent confidence limits. The
confidence range is determined by adding and subtracting a
Common Types number of standard deviations to the mean of the distribution.
EG&G Ortec manufactures a series of sodium iodide and The following table lists the number of standard deviations
high purity germanium gamma-ray spectroscopy systems. that must be added and subtracted from the mean to give you
a desired confidence range(2):

Confidence Level Number of Standard Deviations

Counting Statistics _____________________ ▲
68% 1
Radioactive decay is a random process. Therefore, any
90% 1.645
measurement of radiation will be subject to some degree of
95% 1.96
statistical fluctuation, which must be considered before
99% 2.575
making any conclusions with measured data.

Mean and Standard Deviation For example, if the mean of a distribution is 10 cpm and
the standard deviation is 3 cpm, the 90% confidence range
The process of radioactive decay is well represented by a
would be 10 + 3 * 1.645, or 5.1 to 15.1 cpm. Since there is a
normal distribution. Therefore, to determine a mean and a
five percent chance that the true value would be above this
standard deviation from a single measurement of count rate,
range and a five percent chance that the true value would be
the following formula can be used(2):
below this range, this range can be used to show that 15.1 cpm
n √n n r is the 95% upper confidence limit for this measurement, which
r ± σ = — ± —– OR r±σ=—± — (5-1) means that there is a 95% chance that the true value is 15.1
t t t √ t cpm or below.

where, Detection Limit

r = mean count rate (counts per unit time) Another useful equation is one to determine what the
σ = the standard deviation in the count rate (counts per minimum detectable activity is for a counting system where a
unit time) signal needs to be detected above background radiation. The
n = the total number of counts recorded during the following equation may be used to determine the minimum
measurement (counts) detectable activity.(3)
t = measurement time
[2.71 + 4.65 √(B × t)]
When making radioactivity measurements, the value of MDA = ————————— (5-3)
interest is normally the net counting rate – i.e., the amount of t×e
radiation above background. Therefore, a measurement of
background needs to be taken and subtracted from the where,
measured value. Because the background measurement
MDA = Minimum detectable activity (disintegrations per unit
contains uncertainty just like the measured value does, the
time)
following formula must be used to properly account for
B = Background count rate (counts per unit time)
uncertainty in the net counting rate(2):
t = Counting time (time)
rmeas rbg e = Absolute efficiency of the counting system
rnet ± snet = rmeas – rbg ± —— + — (5-2)
√ tmeas tbg
where, Personnel Dosimetry ___________________ ▲
rnet = net counting rate (counts per unit time) Dosimetry is used to record a worker’s occupational dose.
σnet = standard deviation in net counting rate (counts per These are small detectors that are worn on the worker’s body
unit time) to record the actual amount of radiation that the worker is
rmeas = gross count rate for measurement of interest (counts exposed to in the work environment. Some are direct reading,
per unit time) while others are worn for an extended period of time (typically
tmeas = sample time for measurement of interest a month or three months), and then must be sent to a
rbg = mean background count rate (counts per unit time) laboratory for processing to determine the dose recorded.

21
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Badges Typically, a film badge will consist of several active areas of

Any dosimeters that are used to record worker dose need to film that are covered by different thicknesses of shielding.
account and subtract out background radiation exposure. Most These different thicknesses of shielding allow the
badge-type dosimeters account for background by utilizing a differentiation of exposure due to different radiation types
control badge. This control badge is shipped with the (betas vs. low energy gammas vs. high energy gammas) and
dosimeters to be worn, and is kept is an area that is free of allows for an estimation of the deep dose, dose to the lens of
sources of radiation during the wear period. This control the eye, and skin dose for a proper determination of employee
badge is shipped back with the dosimeters as a record of dose equivalent. These badges will be worn for extended time
periods, and analyzed at a laboratory to determine worker
background radiation during the wear period, and the reading
dose. An advantage to the use of film badges is that the film
from this control badge is subtracted from the readings of the
is not destroyed during processing and can be retained as a
badges that were worn to determine employee exposure.
permanent record of employee dose. A disadvantage of film
Badges can be worn on the body to measure whole-body
badges is that they are more sensitive to environmental
dose (radiation exposure that uniformly exposes the entire
stressors, such as heat and moisture.
body to a similar dose), or on a finger ring to determine
extremity dose (radiation exposure to the hands). The Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) sets separate limits for dose Thermoluminescent Dosimeter
equivalent to the whole body and for extremities. Extremity Thermoluminescent dosimeters, or TLDs, record dose through
dose is important to measure for employees who are likely to the stimulation of electrons to be ionized into a conduction
receive much higher doses to their hands than their whole band in the material and then trapped in an activator material
body, such as: in the dosimeter. These trapped electrons remain in place until
the dosimeter is heated to an elevated temperature during
• employees working in laboratories with solutions of
processing at a laboratory. When the trapped electrons are
unsealed isotopes;
released, they give off a pulse of light that is proportional to
• employees handling sealed source capsules through
the energy of the radiation that was deposited in the dosimeter.
maintenance or repair; and
This light pulse is recorded and analyzed to determine the
• employees who may expose their hands in the direct
dose recorded on the dosimeter. These dosimeters are sensitive
beam of analytical or diagnostic radiation producing
to all radiation types, although special badges with a higher
machines concentration of 6Li are needed for neutron dosimetry, and
alpha particles may not be able to penetrate to the sensitive
Film Badges portion of the badge. TLDs have a wide range of detection;
Although film badges have primarily been overtaken in from just a few millirems to ~1000 rad. TLDs also have the
popularity by newer technologies, film badges have advantage of being able to be reused after processing. TLDs
historically had widespread use for recording radiation doses. are used in both whole-body dosimeters and ring badges that
Film badges record dose through the darkening of the film due are used to measure extremity dose. These badges are also
to the radiation exposing the silver halide in the photographic typically worn for extended time periods, and analyzed at a
emulsion. The degree of darkening can be measured to laboratory (typically monthly or quarterly) to determine
determine the amount of radiation that exposed the film. worker dose.

Figure 5.7 — Film Badge Showing Layers of Shielding Figure 5.8 — Thermolumiscent Dosimeter
Materials

22
 Chapter 5 — Radiation Safety Instrumentation

• A charger to reset the pocket ionization chamber to

zero exposure at the beginning of the wear period; and
• A calibration chamber to periodically calibrate the
ionization chambers to confirm that they are still
reporting exposure accurately.
Pocket ionization chambers are very sensitive to physical
impacts, which can cause the fiber to move as if recording
exposure. For this reason, pocket ionization chambers are
frequently worn in pairs, so if one is dropped, the other can
still be used to accurately record the employee’s exposure.
Figure 5.9 — Pocket Ionization Chamber
Pocket ionization chambers are available with a low-exposure
range (up to 200 mrem) and a high exposure range (up to 5
rem) to allow the user to select the instrument with the
Optically Stimulated Luminescent (OSL) Dosimeters appropriate sensitivity for their application.
Similar to TLDs, Optically Stimulated Luminescent (OSL)
dosimeters record radiation doses through the stimulation of Electronic Dosimeters
electrons to the conduction band in a material. Instead of A number of companies now offer small electronic direct
heating the dosimeter to release the light signal, however, the reading dosimeters that can be used like pocket ionization
OSL dosimeters are stimulated by exposure to light. The light chambers. Like PICs, these dosimeters are primarily used to
stimulation process is faster than the heating of TLDs, and detect x-ray or gamma radiation, but some systems can also be
also allows the dosimeter to be accurately read multiple times used for high-energy beta radiation. These detectors are
in order to confirm measurement results. OSL dosimeters are typically semiconductor detectors and can be used to display
very sensitive, and can accurately measure radiation doses as either accumulated dose or the dose rate. These tend to be less
low as 1 mrad, as long as background exposures are sensitive to physical impacts than PICs, and are able to set
appropriately accounted for. Currently, OSL dosimeters are audible alarms based on accumulated dose or dose rate.
only available for whole-body dosimeters. Electronic dosimeters can be directly read, and some systems
can store results for extended periods of time and download
Pocket Ionization Chambers the data to a computer system for permanent storage of the
Pocket ionization chambers (PIC) are direct reading results. Common types of electronic dosimeters are the
instruments that can be used to keep track of an employee’s Canberra Dosicard and the Thermo Scientific EPD Mk2
total exposure throughout a working day. These ionization dosimetry system.
chambers consist of a moveable fiber that is electrostatically
displaced from a stationary fiber by charging it to a potential References
of about 200 V. As radiation ionizes the gas inside the 1. Knoll, G.F.: Radiation Detection and Measurement,
chamber, the charge on the fiber is reduced, and the fiber 3rd Edition. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
moves back toward its original position. Movement of the 2000.
fiber is calibrated to the exposure that the instrument was 2. Cember, H.: Introduction to Health Physics, 2nd
exposed to, and a scale is printed on the end of the chamber. Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992.
Employees can look through the pocket ionization chamber 3. Currie, L.A.: Limits for Qualitative Detection and
and view their accumulated exposure without affecting the Quantitative Determination. Application to Radio-
reading. These ionization chambers are primarily used to chemistry. Anal. Chem. 40(3): 586 (1968).
measure x-rays and gamma rays. The pocket ionization 4. Horrocks, D.L.: Applications of Liquid Scintillation
chambers do slowly discharge even when not exposed to Counting. New York: Academic Press, 1974.
radiation, so they are not used for long-term measurements of 5. Crook, M., and P. Johnson (eds.): Liquid Scintillation
radiation exposure. Typically, these will only to record an Counting, Vol. 4. London: Heyden and Son, 1977.
employee’s exposure for a single day before the exposure is
read and recorded. These pocket ionization chambers require
two accessories to use:

23
Chapter 6
Radiation Protection
Principles and Practices
By James T. Wilson, Jr., CIH, CSP, John J. Miller, CHP and Norman W. Henry, III, MS, CIH

There are four rather intuitive methods of reducing personnel IA/IB = (RB)2/(RA)2
radiation exposure. These are limiting the duration of exposure,
maintaining a distance from the radiation source, utilizing Where:
shielding when necessary, and keeping contamination to a
minimum. Time, distance, shielding and contamination IA = Exposure rate at distance RA
control are the key elements of a radiation safety program. IB = Exposure rate at distance RB

Time _________________________________ ▲ Shielding _____________________________ ▲

Minimizing the time personnel are exposed to radiation Radiation exposures rates maybe reduced or eliminated
thereby reduces the exposure received. Reducing the duration through the proper use of shielding. Selection of shield
of radiation exposure may be accomplished in a variety of material is dependent on the type and energy of the radiation..
manners. Examples are as follows: The effectiveness of shielding depends on the thickness and
density of the material. Table 6.1 below provides a guide to
• Refrain from loitering in areas where radioactive
shielding selection.
materials are used or stored.
• Do not locate break rooms or administrative offices in
Table 6.1 — Type of Shielding Materials
or adjacent to areas where radioactive materials are
used or stored. Radiation Type Shield Materials
• Mock-up complex tasks performed with radioactive
materials or within radiation areas prior to performing Gamma/X-Ray High density materials, lead, depleted uranium.
the actual work in an effort to develop efficient Beta Low atomic number, (Low Z) such as
procedures and techniques. aluminum or other less dense materials like
• Conduct radiological work quickly and efficiently. wood, rubber or plexiglass (Lucite) to reduce
the affect of bremstrahlung (electromagnetic
energy produced by the deceleration of
Distance ______________________________ ▲ charged particles).
Maximize the distance between personnel and radioactive Neutron Hydrogen based materials, such as water or
materials. Dose is inversely proportional to distance, therefore, materials with high neutron absorption cross-
the greater the distance between the person and radiation sections such as boron-10.
source, the lesser the dose rate. For point sources the reduction Alpha Normally, not necessary.
in dose rate from point A to point B may be estimated using
the inverse square law. The inverse square law states that the
radiation intensity from a point source varies inversely as the The thickness of material needed to attenuate radiation
square of the distance from the source. When you double the dose rates to acceptable levels is dependent on the effective-
distance, the exposure rate is decreased to one-quarter. ness of the material and the type, energy and intensity of the

25
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Table 6.2 — HVL & TVL Table

Half-Value Layer Tenth-Value Layer
Concrete Steel Lead Concrete Steel Lead
Radionuclide (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
Cs-137 4.8 1.6 0.65 15.7 5.3 2.1
Co-60 6.2 2.1 1.20 20.6 6.9 4.0
Ir-192 4.3 1.3 0.60 14.7 4.3 2.0
Ra-226 6.9 2.2 1.66 23.4 7.4 5.5

radiation source. The half-value layer (HVL) or tenth-value • In unrestricted areas at frequencies consistent with the
level (TVL) may be used as a guide to the thickness of the types and quantities of materials in use but generally
shielding necessary to block the radiation. The HVL and TVL not less frequently than quarterly
are the thickness of the shielding necessary to reduce the ra- • In areas adjacent to restricted areas and in all areas
diation dose rate to one-half or one tenth of the original or un- through which licensed materials are transferred and
shielded dose rate. The HVL and TVL for some common temporarily stored before shipment.
gamma emitting radionuclides are provided in the table below:

The ALARA Philosophy __________________ ▲

Contamination Control __________________ ▲ ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) is an acronym that
Removable surface contamination can be detected by using is universally recognized when dealing with radiation
smears, wipes or swipes, which are used to collect a sample of exposure. The goal of the ALARA philosophy is to achieve
material from the surface of an object or area. Smear samples and maintain an excellent radiation safety program. This
are collected by using a smear disc, a circular filter paper, or concept has been an important foundation of radiation safety
even a paper towel will do. A smooth surface with an area of regulations but is not a regulation in itself. There are no
10 × 10 cm (4 × 4 in) or about the size of a dollar bill should numerical values below which the ALARA philosophy is
be wiped using moderate pressure. This can be performed dry achieved, and considerations of both the economic and social
or by wetting the material with water or alcohol. The smear factors associated with a specific ALARA goal are critical
can be read using an end window GM tube or pancake probe. aspects of the philosophy. Therefore, the professional
More commonly, however, a liquid scintillation counter can judgment of the radiation safety officer and radiation safety
be used. The reading should be taken in an area that has a staff is the guiding force in achieving an effective and efficient
fairly low background radiation level. The same techniques ALARA program. Consequently, specific radiation safety
utilized to conduct removable contamination surveys can be programs will develop different guidelines that define their
used to perform sealed source leak checks. In an effort to respective ALARA programs and goals. It is important that
minimize personnel exposure and/or possible damage to the the radiation safety officer (and radiation safety committee if
sealed source accessible areas that are close or may come into applicable) define clear objectives and guidelines for their
contact with the source should be surveyed in lieu of the facility’s ALARA Program. Examples include but should not
source itself. be limited to:
Along with surface contamination, air samples maybe
• Developing annual occupational personnel exposure
collected to determine if airborne radioactivity is present.
goals for individuals, based on job assignment and
Samples are collected using a powered sampling pump. Power
known or anticipated exposure rates.
can be either battery or line voltage. Particulate samples are
• Reviewing individuals’ doses periodically throughout
collected on filters while gaseous samples can be collected on
the year and comparing year-to-date exposures
activated charcoal or special media, such as silver zeolite for
received against the goals.
radioactive iodine. A pancake probe can be used to determine
• Identifying a monetary value for a given amount of
qualitative information in the field.
personnel exposure and using this as a guide to budget
NUREG 1556 recommends the following contamination
for engineered controls.
surveys:
• To evaluate radioactive contamination that could be
present on surfaces of floors, walls, laboratory Methods of Determining Personnel Exposures
furniture, and equipment
• After any spill or contamination event to External and Internal Radiation ________ ▲
• When procedures or processes have changed The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) requires
• To evaluate the potential contamination of users and the individual monitoring of workers whose dose exceeds 10% of
immediate work area, at the end of the day or prior to the regulatory limit. The conservative approach is to monitor
leaving the area of use, when licensed material is used all workers routinely exposed to radiation, regardless of how

26
 Chapter 6 — Radiation Protection Principles and Practices

far below the regulatory limits a worker’s dose is. The cost radiological conditions. PPE can be as minimal as a lab coat
associated with monitoring an individual is minimal when and gloves or can include coveralls, shoe covers, hoods, and
compared with the value an exposure record may be to the a respirator. Many other factors must be considered when pre-
radiation safety program. scribing PPE. The wearer must be medically fit to wear and
External radiation exposure is determined through some work in the prescribed PPE. Only individuals that have passed
form of personnel dosimetry. Methods include film badges a medical exam and have been “fit tested” may wear a respi-
and thermoluminescent dosimeters. The radiation safety rator. Respirators should be selected with the proper filter and
officer must consider the types and energies of radiation indi- protection factor to protect the wearer. Individuals wearing
viduals are exposed to in order to determine the method best PPE must understand the limitations and potential risks asso-
suited for personnel monitoring in the work place. For non- ciated with wearing the equipment.
uniform exposure, it may be necessary to wear additional Promptly decontaminating areas and equipment found to
dosimeters for parts of the body (e.g. hands or fingers) which be contaminated and reducing the extent of existing areas of
appear likely to receive a significant fraction of the dose limit contamination are practices that aid in preventing the spread
applicable to that part of the body. of contamination.
Bioassay monitoring may be necessary when employees Removable contamination is readily decontaminated em-
are likely to receive an intake of radioactive material. There ploying basic cleaning techniques. A simple solution of de-
are two general categories of internal monitoring, in vivo and tergent and water or a 50%–50% mixture of water and alcohol
in vitro. In vivo monitoring measures internally deposited ra- are usually all that is required to decontaminate non-porous
dioactive material directly; examples include lung and thyroid surfaces such as polished metal or glass ware. To prevent cross
monitoring. This method may only be employed when the ra- contamination between areas of higher contamination and
diation emitted from the internally deposited radioactive ma- lower contamination, decontamination efforts should be per-
terial can penetrate through the body. In vitro monitoring formed from areas of lowest contamination to highest con-
indirectly measures the internally deposited radioactive ma- tamination. More aggressive cleaning solutions, such as dilute
terial by measuring the radioactivity of a urine or fecal sam- acids or strippable coatings may be required when porous or
ple collected over a period of time thereby determining the dirty surfaces are involved. Large-scale decontamination
excretion rate. The amount of radioactive material can then be efforts may warrant specialized equipment such as dry ice or
calculated using an appropriate method. (Refer to Perform- grit blasting.
ance Criteria for Radiobioassay, HPS N13.30, 1996)

References
Contamination Prevention &
Decontamination ______________________ ▲ 1. Gollnick, D.A.: Basic Radiation Protection
Technology, 5th edition. Altadena, CA: Pacific
Engineering controls such as fume hoods, glove boxes, and Radiation Corp., 2006.
localized filtered ventilation are commonly used in controlling 2. Shleien, B., L.A. Slaback, Jr., and B. Birkly:
the spread of contamination. It is important that engineering Handbook of Health Physics and Radiological Health,
controls are utilized correctly. For instance, the face velocity 3rd edition. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &
of a fume hood should be between 100 and 150 linear feet per Wilkins, 1998.
minute to ensure proper operation. Covering surfaces that may 3. Health Physics Society: Performance Criteria for
become contaminated during radiological work is another Radiobioassay, HPS N13.30 1996.
common technique utilized to prevent the spread of 4. International Atomic Energy Agency: Assessment of
contamination. The level of controls should be balanced with Occupational Exposure due to Intakes of
the quantity and radiotoxicity of unsealed radioactive material Radionuclides, Safety Standards Series No. RS-G-1.2,
being handled. Administrative controls such as detailed work IAEA, Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy
procedures, trained authorized users, and an adequate Agency, 1999.
contamination survey program complement the engineering 5. International Commission on Radiological
controls established to minimize the potential for the spread of Protection: General Principles for the Radiation
contamination. Protection of Workers. Publication No. 75. Oxford and
Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) should be worn as New York: Pergamon Press, 1997.
necessary and at a level consistent with known or anticipated

27
Chapter 7
Operational Procedures
for an Effective Radiation
Safety Program By John J. Miller, CHP

While all radiation safety programs share common worn as directed by radiological work authorizations,
fundamentals, the uniqueness of individual facilities and postings, or procedures.
processes dictates the need for clear and concise site specific • Personnel contamination monitoring should be per-
operational procedures in order to achieve an effective and formed in a low-background area with an instrument
respected Radiation Safety Program. The radiation safety of sufficient sensitivity following the handling or use
officer, and in some cases the radiation safety committee, of unsealed radioactive materials.
must consider the scope of the operations and utilize a • Bioassay monitoring should be conducted when the
graded approach in the development of site specific intake of radioactive materials is likely or suspected.
procedures • Perform periodic contamination surveys to minimize
the potential for the spread of contamination when
working with materials with removable contamination.
General Radiation Safety Guidelines ______ ▲ • Perform periodic radiation surveys to verify radiation
The radiation safety officer/committee should establish levels and identify changing conditions.
clear guidelines which govern the storage, handling, use, and • Eating, drinking, smoking, or applying cosmetics in
disposal of radioactive materials. Site specific guidelines areas where radioactive materials are stored or used
should be posted or made available in a location readably ac- should be prohibited.
cessible to the radiological worker. The following basic radi- • Storage of food, drink, or personal effects in areas
ation safety guidelines are considered applicable to most where radioactive materials are stored or used should
radiation safety programs: be prohibited.
• Authorization to handle and use radioactive materials • Dispose of radioactive waste only in designated,
or radiation-generating equipment should only be labeled, and properly shielded receptacles.
granted to individuals trained to do so. • Store radioactive solutions in clearly labeled containers.
• Engineering controls such as contamination • Secure all licensed material when it is not under the
containments, radiation shields, and filtered ventilation constant surveillance and immediate control of the
systems should be used to the greatest extent possible user(s).
to mitigate radiological hazards. • Ensure that radioactive materials or potentially
• Radiological Postings should be utilized to convey contaminated materials are properly labeled.
current or potential radiological hazards and controls.
• Radiological work authorizations and/or operational
procedures should be developed to govern the work Procurement, Use, Storage and Disposal of
with radioactive materials.
• Protective clothing and equipment should be utilized
Radioactive Materials __________________ ▲
as prescribed by radiological work authorizations or Procurement
operating procedures. To ensure compliance with facility licensing requirements,
• Personnel dosimetry should be assigned to individuals procedures for the procurement of radioactive materials and
that may receive occupational exposures to radiation in isotopes should be developed. The RSO or radiation safety
excess of 10% of the applicable regulatory limits and committee should approve or place all orders for radioactive

29
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

materials or isotopes and verify that the desired materials and contaminated with radioactive material, such as absorbent
quantities are authorized by the license. paper, latex gloves, lab ware, etc. The radiation safety officer
or radiation safety committee should develop a clear
Use radioactive waste management plan which defines site specific
Radioactive materials and isotopes are utilized in a wide policies to ensure that the disposal of radioactive waste is
variety of industrial, academic, and medical applications. compliant with regulatory requirements and license conditions
While this handbook does not delve into the specifics, there and that proper records of radioactive waste disposal are
are many elements regarding the use of radioactive materials generated and retained. Most small to medium radiological
and isotopes that apply universally. The RSO should review facilities manage radioactive waste through one or more of the
the intended uses of radioactive materials or isotopes and following methods:
assist in the development of specific procedures or • Decay-in-storage, applicable only for short-lived
radiological work authorizations that clearly define the (< 120 day half-life) radioisotopes
hazards and radiological controls to be implemented. The • Release into sanitary sewerage for low level radioactive
RSO should also ensure that only individuals possessing the liquids
necessary training and experience to safely handle radioactive • Transfer to an authorized recipient
materials are granted the authority to use these materials • Extended interim storage
unsupervised. Work and research activities with radioactive
materials should be conducted in areas designated by the Procedures and processes should be developed so that the
radiation safety officer/radiation safety committee. Signage amount of radioactive waste generated is kept to a minimum.
should be utilized to identify areas where radiological hazards All radioactive wastes should be stored in appropriate con-
may be present. Similarly, tools and equipment which may tainers until disposal and the integrity of the waste containers
have come in contact with unsealed radioactive materials or must be assured. Radioactive waste containers should be la-
isotopes should be clearly marked or labeled as such to beled with isotope(s), quantity and reference date. All ra-
minimize the potential of introducing unsealed radioactive dioactive waste must be secured against unauthorized access
materials into uncontrolled areas. Engineering controls, such or removal. Special consideration may be required for ra-
as containment devices, portable or auxiliary ventilation, and dioactive wastes which may include additional hazards, (e.g.,
temporary shielding should be utilized whenever possible to biohazard or chemical hazard). Such waste is referred to
limit personnel exposure. “mixed waste,” and its storage and disposal must also comply
with all other applicable regulatory requirements.
Storage Accelerator-produced and naturally occurring radioactive
The importance of establishing secure storage locations for wastes should be segregated from other radioactive wastes.
radioactive materials and isotopes can not be underestimated.
The RSO should ensure radioactive materials and isotopes are Leak Testing Sealed Radioactive Sources
stored in such a manner as to prevent unauthorized removal or Sealed sources are used in a variety of industrial and medical
access. The use of secured or locked cabinets, refrigerators, application, as well as to calibrate and verify the operability of
freezers, or waste receptacles is recommended. Consideration radiation detection instrumentation. Licensees should develop
should be given to monitoring storage areas or locations with test and analysis procedures to verify sources in their
intrusion detection systems. Radioactive materials should be possession are not leaking.
stored in sealed containers in such a way as to prevent
accidental spillage or breakage, and to prevent the release of Leak Test Frequency
radioactivity. Radiation levels may warrant storage in shielded
containers in order to minimize doses to personnel accessing Sealed sources should be leak tested in accordance with the
the storage areas. Authorized users should control and source manufacturer’s recommendations, typically every 6
maintain constant surveillance of radioactive materials or months.
isotopes that are in controlled or restricted areas and that are
not in storage. All radioactive materials, whether in storage, Leak Test Criteria
disposed of as waste or in use, should be labeled with the Removable contamination is less than 185 Bq (0.005 uCi) per
radioactive warning symbol, and the words “Caution, source.
Radioactive Materials”. Where possible, the isotope(s),
reference date and the amount of radioactivity should be Sample Procedure for Performing Leak Testing and
included on the label. Analysis
1. Develop a list of identifying information, such as
Disposal manufacturer, model number, serial number, radio-
Radioactive waste is generated as a result of working with nuclides, and activity for each source to be leak tested.
radioactive materials or isotopes. Such waste may include 2. Prepare a separate wipe sample (e.g., cotton swab or
used or unused radioactive material or unusable items filter paper) for each source.

30
 Chapter 7 — Operational Procedures for an Effective Radiation Safety Program

3. Number each wipe to correlate with identifying Receipt of Radioactive Materials

information for each source. NOTE: Monitoring The following general practices should be considered when
radiation exposure rate may be warranted when leak developing procedures governing the receipt of radioactive
testing higher activity beta, gamma, or neutron sources. material.
4. Wipe the most accessible area where contamination
would accumulate if the sealed source were leaking but 1. Radioactive materials should be received during
refrain from directly wiping the surface of a source. normal business hours by persons experienced and
5. Select an instrument that is sensitive enough to detect trained to do so.
185 Bq (0.005 uCi) of the radionuclide(s) contained in 2. Whenever possible, deliveries of radioactive materials
the source and ensure that its calibration is current. An should be restricted to areas not normally accessible to
alternative would be to submit the swipe samples to a members of the general public.
laboratory for analysis. 3. During normal business hours, within 3 hours of
6. Using the selected instrument, count and record the receipt of any package of licensed material, each
background count rate. package must be visually inspected for any signs of
7. Count each wipe sample; determine the net count rate. shipping damage, such as crushed or punctured
Net count rate (cps) = Gross count rate (cps) – containers or signs of dampness. Any obvious damage
background count rate (cps) must be reported to the RSO immediately. Do not
8. For each sample, calculate and record its estimated touch any package suspected of leaking. Request that
activity in Bq or uCi. the person delivering the package remain until
Activity = Net count rate/efficiency monitored by the RSO.
9. If the wipe test activity is 185 Bq (0.005 uCi) or greater, Outside of normal working hours (e.g., nights, weekends,
notify the RSO so that the source can be withdrawn and holidays), deliveries will usually be handled by security
from use and disposed of properly. personnel (or other trained individuals) as described in the
10. Sign and date the list of sources, data, and calculations. above procedures.
Retain records of source leak checks in accordance Since certain packages of licensed material will have de-
license conditions or applicable regulation. tectable external radiation, they should be sent immediately

Sealed Source Leak Test Record Sheet

Contamination Survey Instrument Data

Background Background Sample

Count Rate Count Time Count time
Rb ts tb MDA
Model Serial No. Cal. Due Efficiency (cps) (cps) (cps) (Bq)

MDA = {3.29[Rbts(1+(ts/tb))1/2]}/{Efficiency × ts}

Source Leak Test Record

Source Activity Gross Rate Net Count Rate Wipe Results

Source Model/Serial No. Source Activity Refernce Date (cps) (cps) (Bq)

Use additional sheets as necessary

Leak Test Performed by (Signature) Date

Reviewed by RSO (Signature) Date

Figure 7.1 — Sample Leak Test Record Sheet.

31
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

to a designated storage area, where they will be checked for found, obliterate the radiation labels prior to discarding
contamination and external radiation level as soon as practical. in the regular trash.
They should not be allowed to remain in the receiving 8. Maintain records of receipt, package survey, and wipe
area any longer than necessary, as they may be a source of ex- test results.
posure for receiving personnel. 9. Notify the final carrier and by telephone, telegram,
mailgram, or facsimile notify the Administrator of the
Sample Model Procedure for Safely Opening Packages appropriate NRC Regional Office listed in Title 10,
Containing Licensed Materials Code of Federal Regulations, Part 20 (10 CFR 20),
For packages received under the specific license, authorized Appendix D when removable radioactive surface
individuals shall implement procedures for opening each contamination exceeds the limits of 10 CFR 71.87(I);
package, as follows: or external radiation levels exceed the limits of 10 CFR
71.47.
1. Wear gloves to prevent hand contamination.
2. Visually inspect the package for any sign of damage
(e.g. crushed, punctured). If damage is noted, stop and
notify the RSO.
References ____________________________ ▲
3. Check DOT White I, Yellow II, or Yellow III label or
1. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission: NUREG-
packing slip for activity of contents so that shipment
1556 Vol. 1, Rev. 1, Program Specific Guidance about
does not exceed license possession limits.
Portable Gauge Licenses, November 2001.
4. Monitor the external surfaces of a labeled package
2. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission: NUREG-1556
according to specifications in Table 7.1.
Vol. 7, Program-Specific Guidance about Academic,
5. Open the outer package (following supplier’s directions
Research and Development and Other Licenses of
if provided) and remove packing slip.
Limited Scope Including Gas Chromatographs and X-
6. Open inner package to verify contents (compare
Ray Fluorescence Analyzers, December 1999.
requisition, packing slip and label on the bottle or other
3. International Atomic Energy Agency: Safety
container). Check integrity of the final source container
Standards Series, Occupational Radiation Protection,
(i.e., inspecting for breakage of seals or vials, loss of
Safety Guide No. RS-G-1.1, 1999.
liquid, discoloration of packaging material, high count
4. International Atomic Energy Agency: Safety
rate on smear). Again check that the shipment does not
Standards Series, Regulations for the Safe Transport of
exceed license possession limits. If anything other than
Radioactive Material, Safety Standards Series No. TS-
expected is found, stop and notify the RSO.
R-1, 1996 Edition (As Amended 2003).
7. Survey the packing material and packages for
5. National Council on Radiation Protection Measure-
contamination before discarding. If contamination is
ments: Operational Radiation Safety Program, NRCP
found, treat as radioactive waste. If no contamination is
Report No. 59, 1978.

Table 7.1 — Package Monitoring Requirements(1)

Package Contents Survey Type Survey Time*
Label (White I, Yellow II, Yellow III) Gas or Special Form Radiation Level As soon as practicable, but not later than
Greater than Type A 3 hours after receipt of package.

Label (White I, Yellow II, Yellow III) Not Gas Nor Special Contamination and As soon as practicable, but not later than
Form Greater than Type A Radiation Level 3 hours after receipt of package.

Label (White I, Yellow II, Yellow III) Gas or Special Form None None
Less than Type A

Label (White I, Yellow II, Yellow III) Not Gas Nor Special Form Contamination As soon as practicable, but not later than
Less than Type A 3 hours after receipt of package.

Not Labeled Licensed Material None None

Damaged Licensed Material Contamination and As soon as practicable, but not later than
Radiation Level 3 hours after receipt of package.
*Assumes packages are received during normal working hours. If packages are received outside of normal working hours, survey should be
performed within 3 hours of the beginning of the next work day.

32
Chapter 8
Emergency Procedures
in Response to Radiation
Incidents By James T. Wilson, Jr., CIH, CSP and John J. Miller, CHP

Emergency Procedures _________________ ▲ • Marking pen, pencils, survey maps, note pad, and
clipboard, along with any facility-specific spill
All Radiation Safety Programs, regardless of scope, should reporting forms
have procedures in place to mitigate the consequences of • Box of filter papers, wipes, and air-filters
accidents involving radioactive material. The RSO should • Emergency Action Procedures
develop spill response policies and procedures which are • Spill kits should be located both in and out of areas
commensurate with the quantities, forms, and potential for where radioactive materials are used and stored.
release of the radioactive materials stored or utilized by the
• Spill kits should be inventoried against a content list
facility. NUREG 1556 provided model emergency response
and sealed, indicating they are ready for use, and
procedures which may be utilized as is or modified to suit
should only be used in emergencies.
specific licensee needs.
• Appropriate survey instruments, spare batteries, and
Appropriate first aid and other immediate medical needs
extension cords are located in a readily accessible area.
of injured individuals should not be neglected, delayed, or ig-
• Spill drills should be conducted at least annually.
nored due to suspected contamination.
• The medical needs or rescue of injured individuals
should not be neglected, delayed, or ignored due to
Spill Response suspected contamination.
The following guidelines are applicable to all facilities
and should be established to support the response to radio- The following general procedures are provided as a guide
logical emergencies: and should be modified as necessary to suit specific facility re-
quirements. It should be noted that there is no definition or
• The name and telephone number of the RSO or
quantity of material that differentiate between a minor or
alternate emergency contact person(s), as well as the
major spill. This is a judgment call that is determined at the
emergency telephone number of the regulating
time of the incident. A good rule of thumb is that a minor spill
authority should be posted conspicuously in areas
is one that could be mitigated in the course of a work shift,
where radioactive materials are used or stored, so that
does not affect adjacent areas, and does not require the assis-
it is readily available to workers in case of emergencies.
tance of outside organizations or specialized equipment. This
• Emergency equipment should be readily available for
being said, once preliminary data is obtained a “minor spill”
handling spills. It is recommended that this equipment
could be upgraded to a “major spill” or a “major spill” could
is consolidated in spill kits. Items for consideration in
be downgraded to a “minor spill.”
a spill kit include:
• Anti-Contamination Clothing (i.e., disposable
gloves, lab coats, coveralls, head covering, shoe
Minor Spills of Liquids and Solids _________ ▲
coverings)
Immediate Actions:
• Absorbent paper
• Plastic tape ✓ NOTIFY other persons in the area that a spill has
• Plastic bags occurred.
• Radioactive Material, labeling tape, signage ✓ MINIMIZE the spread of contamination by
• Barrier ropes covering the spill with absorbent paper. Alternately,

33
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

cover dry powders with dampened absorbent paper to Follow-up Actions:

minimize the potential to generate airborne
✓ Survey Adjacent areas to determine if other areas
radioactivity.
have been affected.
✓ Clean up the spill, wearing at a minimum disposable ✓ Develop re-entry and Clean-up plan. If short-lived
gloves and shoe covers and using absorbent paper. isotopes are involved, then consider decay over
Place clean-up material and disposable protective rigorous clean-up operations.
clothing in plastic bags and control it as radioactive
✓ Evaluate the need for bioassay monitoring.
waste.
✓ Isolate the affected Area until released by the RSO.
✓ Survey the area with appropriate instruments in an
✓ Re-enter and Clean-up the area in accordance with
effort to determine the extent of contamination.
plan.
✓ Survey affected personnel with appropriate ✓ Conduct Environmental Monitoring as necessary.
instruments to determine if radioactive material is
✓ Document the spill to include pre and post radioactive
present on the skin or clothing.
contamination levels.
✓ Report the incident to the Radiation Safety Officer ✓ Determine THE Root Cause and corrective actions to
(RSO) as soon as possible. prevent recurrence.
✓ Contact regulatory authorities as necessary.
Follow-up Actions:
✓ Decontaminate the Area as necessary to pre-spill
levels. Incidents Involving Airborne Radioactivity __ ▲
✓ Survey Adjacent areas to determine if other areas Immediate Actions:
have been affected.
✓ NOTIFY All persons in the area to evacuate
✓ Isolate the affected Area until released by the RSO. immediately.
✓ Evaluate the need for bioassay monitoring.
✓ Secure ventilation to prevent or minimize the spread
✓ Document the spill to include pre and post radioactive of contamination.
contamination levels.
✓ Seal Area by covering windows and doors to the
✓ Determine Root Cause and corrective actions to greatest extent possible.
prevent recurrence.
✓ Isolate the affected Area, lock or guard access points
✓ Contact regulatory authorities as necessary. to the area to prevent entry.
✓ Notify the RSO immediately.
✓ Survey affected personnel, including those that
Major Spills of Liquids and Solids _________ ▲ initially evacuated the area, with appropriate
Immediate Actions: instruments to determine if radioactive material is
present on the skin or clothing. Decontaminate as
✓ NOTIFY other persons in the area that a spill has
necessary.
occurred.
✓ Identify personnel that may have inhaled or ingested
✓ Clear area of all unnecessary personnel. Personnel
radioactive material; evaluate the need for bioassay.
should be directed to a holding area for evaluation.
✓ MINIMIZE the spread of contamination by
Follow-up Actions:
covering the spill with absorbent paper. Alternately,
cover dry powders with dampened absorbent paper to ✓ Perform air samples and contamination surveys in
minimize the potential to generate airborne the effected and adjacent areas.
radioactivity. ✓ Evaluate the need for respiratory protection upon re-
✓ Do not attempt to Clean up the spill. entry.
✓ Shield source as applicable and only if the further ✓ Decontaminate the affected and adjacent areas as
spread of contamination or excessive personnel necessary.
exposure can be avoided. ✓ Isolate the affected Area until released by the RSO.
✓ Evacuate and isolate the affected Area, lock or guard ✓ Document the spill to include pre and post radioactive
access points to the area to prevent entry. contamination levels.
✓ Notify the RSO immediately. ✓ Determine Root Cause and corrective actions to
✓ Survey affected personnel including those that prevent recurrence.
initially evacuated the area with appropriate ✓ Contact regulatory authorities as necessary.
instruments to determine if radioactive material is
present on the skin or clothing. Contaminated Personnel
✓ Decontaminate Personnel as necessary using While all Radiation Safety Programs strive to prevent
lukewarm water and mild soap. personnel skin contamination, it is not uncommon for a skin

34
 Chapter 8 — Emergency Procedures in Response to Radiation Incidents

contamination event to occur. Some of the most typical causes ✓ When possible, decontaminate from the area of lowest
of skin contamination may be attributed to: contamination to highest.
• Failure of protective equipment, such as a tear in a latex ✓ Re-survey the area after each decontamination attempt.
glove; ✓ Continue a decontamination method until 3 successive
• Failure of or inadequate engineering controls; attempts show no further reduction in contamination
• Accidental contact as a result of a spill or unlabeled levels.
radioactive material; and ✓ Pay close attention to the reaction of the skin. If the
• Complacency of the worker. area begins to swell, redden, or if the individual
expresses discomfort, cease decontamination activities
In most cases, the dose to the skin as a result of skin con-
and evaluate alternatives.
tamination is minimal. This may not be the case if the con-
✓ Determine if a skin dose calculation is required.
tamination goes undetected for a period of time or if very high
VARSKIN Mod 2 is a computer program available free
activity particles are involved.
of charge that may be used to calculate the dose to the
The RSO should be prepared to contend with a personnel
skin due to skin or protective clothing contamination.
skin contamination event. Personnel decontamination kits
should be readily available in the facility. Kits should be ✓ Evaluate the need for bioassay monitoring.
stocked with the following: ✓ Keep a record of all surveys, dose calculations and any
written notes pertaining to the event in the individual’s
• Disposable gloves dose record file.
• Absorbent paper
• Mild liquid soap Following the decontamination effort, attempt to pin-
• Tape point the cause, inform the affected individual of the results of
• Soft brush any dose calculations, and provide additional training and
• Blunt tipped Scissors counseling as necessary.
• Fine tooth comb
• Disposable razor References ____________________________ ▲
• Plastic bags
• Contamination survey maps (anatomical figure, front 1. National Council on Radiation Protection
and back recommended) Measurements: Operational Radiation Safety
• Note paper and pen Program, NRCP Report No. 59, 1978
2. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission: NUREG-
The techniques employed to decontaminate the skin will
1556 Vol. 7, Program-Specific Guidance about
depend on the amount of activity involved, the area of the skin
Academic, Research and Development and Other
affected, the location on the body, and to some extent, the ra-
Licenses of Limited Scope Including Gas
dioisotope(s). Extreme care is required when the face is con-
Chromatographs and X-Ray Fluorescence Analyzers,
taminated or if an open wound is involved. If the contaminated
December 1999.
person must be relocated to another area in order to perform
3. International Atomic Energy Agency: Safety
decontamination, then it is suggested the area that is contami-
Standards Series, Occupational Radiation Protection.
nated is covered as best as possible to prevent the spread of con-
Safety Guide No. RS-G-1.1, 1999.
tamination in unaffected areas as the individual is transferred
4. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA):
to the decontamination facility. A glove can be placed over a
Recommended Practice for Responding to Hazardous
contaminated hand, or a bag can be placed over the arm, etc.
Materials Incidents, NFPA 471. Quincy, MA: NFPA,
The following general guidelines are provided to assist
2002.
the RSO in developing personnel decontamination plans:
5. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA):
✓ Document the extent of skin contamination on a survey Radiological Emergency Response Operations
map. Include the estimated time of occurrence and (RERO), Student Manual. Ft McClellan, AL: FEMA,
initial contamination levels. 2006.
✓ Use the least invasive decontamination method 6. The Ohmart Corp.: Radiation Safety Basic Gauge
possible. Begin with mild soap and lukewarm water. User Manual. Cincinnati, OH: The Ohmart
Adhesive tape press may also be employed. Never use Corporation, 1996.
stiff brushes or other devices that may abrade the skin.

35
Chapter 9
Organization and
Administration of a
Radiation Safety Program
By John J. Miller, CHP

Duties and Responsibilities of the Radiation physics, or field of engineering combined with some practical
radiation safety experience. The American Board of Health
Safety Officer (RSO) ____________________ ▲
Physics certifies professional health physicists that have meet
The person responsible for implementing the radiation the Board’s stringent qualification requirements. This certifi-
protection program is called the Radiation Safety Officer, or cation is generally considered sufficient to meet the RSO qual-
RSO. This individual may also be called the Radiation ification guidelines.
Protection Officer (RPO). The RSO needs independent
authority to stop operations that he or she considers unsafe.
He or she must have sufficient time and commitment from Types of Resources for a Radiation Safety
management to fulfill certain duties and responsibilities to
ensure that radioactive materials are used in a safe manner.
Program ______________________________ ▲
The NRC requires the name of the RSO on the license to Resources are made available for free or at a minimal charge
ensure that licensee management has identified a responsible, to a radiation safety officer through professional organizations
qualified person and that the named individual knows of his or and regulatory agencies, such as the Health Physics Society
her designation as RSO. and the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. These should be
The radiation safety officer should report to top level used in the development of a radiation safety program.
management in a staff capacity, and is responsible for all as- Additionally, there are several consulting firms which
pects of the radiation safety program. The RSO is appointed specialize in radiation safety program development in the
in writing by a senior Company official and should be pro- private sector. A few of the most notable sources of
vided with a budget sufficient to fund the needs of the radia- information and guidance on the world-wide web are provided
tion safety program. The RSO should work closely with in the table below:
authorized users and facility departments that utilize radioac-
tive materials and isotopes in their work and aid in the devel- Table 9.1 — Sources of Information on the Internet
opment of program specific radiation safety policies and Organization Web Address
procedures. However assignment of an RSO does not allevi-
ate authorized users or their management from the responsi- Health Physics Society www.hps.org/
bility to conduct radiological work in a safe manner. The RSO American Nuclear Society www.ans.org/
should act as the liaison between the Company and regulatory Conference of Radiation Control www.crcpd.org/
authorities and should periodically evaluate the radiation Program Directors
safety program to verify the program’s adequacy. Top level U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission www.nrc.gov/
management should establish minimum qualifications for the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission www.nuclearsafety.gc.ca/
RSO position based on the Company’s scope of radiological International Atomic Energy Agency www.iaea.org/
work. Generally and as a minimum the RSO will have an un-
dergraduate degree in a physical science, preferably health

37
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

References 2. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission: NUREG-

1556 Vol. 7, Program-Specific Guidance about
1. National Council on Radiation Protection Academic, Research and Development and Other
Measurements (NCRP): Operational Radiation Licenses of Limited Scope Including Gas
Safety Program. NRCP Report No. 59. Bethesda, MD: Chromatographs and X-Ray Fluorescence Analyzers.
NCRP, 1978. Rockville, MD: U.S. NRC, 1999.
3. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
Safety Standards Series, Occupational Radiation
Protection, Safety Guide No. RS-G-1.1. Vienna,
Austria: IAEA, 1999.

38
Chapter 10
Employee
Qualifications &
Performance By Joseph Vincelli, CRSP, CRPA®

Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) ____________ ▲ • Ability to develop, implement, and enforce safety
programs and protocols,
The safe application of radioactive materials and radiation- • Knowledge of radioactive materials inventory control,
producing equipment in a medical, industrial, or educational shielding designs, waste-handling procedures,
setting poses problems that may be very different from one dosimetry, and/or licensing requirements,
organization to another. This is due in part to the wide variety • Understanding of transport and disposal procedures,
of procedures using radiation, but also to the often unexpected • Ability to gather data, compile information, prepare
nature of personnel involvement. reports and maintain records,
The RSO working in various settings must possess at • Skill to provide technical guidance and supervise
least the minimum qualifications pertinent to head the radia- personnel,
tion safety program. In the general sense, a RSO must have a • Ability to calibrate and use radiation detection
broad range of scientific background and experience in both instruments,
radiation control and safety management. The U.S. Nuclear • Facility to teach different groups of radiation safety users,
Regulatory Commission (NRC) believes that to demonstrate • Ability to perform surveys and audit the program
adequate training and experience, the RSO should have as a annually,
minimum, a college degree at the bachelor level, or equiva- • Ease to investigate abnormal events and stop unsafe
lent training and experience in physical, chemical, biological activities
sciences, or engineering and training and experience com- • Knowledge in accident, incident and occupational
mensurate with the scope of proposed activities. disease investigations.
Training should include the following subjects: • Ability to react calmly and effectively in crisis and
emergency situations,
• Radiation Protection Principles
• Characteristics of Ionizing Radiation
• Units of Radiation Dose and Quantities
• Radiation Detection Instrumentation Radiation Safety Technician (RST) _________ ▲
• Biological Hazards of Exposure to Radiation Under the supervision of the RSO, the RST will perform most
(appropriate to types and forms of byproduct material of the field and technical radiation safety work. The RST will
to be used) ensure the safe handling, use, transportation, and disposal of
• NRC Regulatory Requirements and Standards radioactive material and radiation sources. They prepare and
• Hands-on use of radioactive materials analyze radioactively contaminated samples collected in work
areas, as well as environmental contamination resulting from
The soon-to-be RSO candidate must also possess the fol-
accidents, incidents or spills.
lowing qualifications to carry out the day-to-day work tasks.
They are trained to perform surveys, decontamination pro-
In terms of knowledge, skill, and abilities, he or she must
cedures, collect and analyze monitoring equipment worn by
have:
personnel, such as thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badges
• Knowledge of federal, state, and local safety and pocket detection chambers that measure individual expo-
regulations, protocols, and/or procedures, sure to radiation. Finally, the RST recommends protective cloth-
• Facility to interact with the NRC and other authorities, ing and safety precautions to authorized radiation users.

39
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

The minimum educational requirement for a RST is an Radiation Safety Training for Workers _____ ▲
associate degree or specialized college-level coursework in
health physics, radiation protection technology, or nuclear The RSO must provide radiation safety training to various
technology, with at least six months to one year of experience. groups of workers, from authorized users of radioactivity to
The curriculum must include courses in radiological instru- non-radiation workers (for example: trade workers, custodians,
mentation, electronics for radiation detection instruments, en- police, firefighters, paramedics and health care workers)
vironmental radioactivity, radioactive waste management and whereby their assigned duties may involve them to be
control, radiation physics, college-level mathematics and field occupationally exposed to radiation and/or radioactive sources.
work experience. The level of training will therefore vary from one group of
workers to another.

Authorized Users (AUs)

Radiation Safety Mentoring ______________ ▲
Authorized users (also known as “principal investigator) must
Another method to acquire knowledge especially when the
have adequate training and experience with the types and
newly appointed RSO has no or little experience is to pair up
quantities of licensed material that they propose to use. It is a
the new RSO to an experienced radiation safety professional
person whose training and experience have been reviewed and
that will provide mentoring services not only to him or her but
approved by NRC, who is named on the license, and who uses
also to the whole facility. The mentoring supervision will
or directly supervises the use of licensed radioactive material.
assure that the radiation safety program will run well while the
The AU’s primary responsibility is to ensure that radioactive
new appointee gradually settles in his or her new position and
materials used in his or her particular lab or area is
functions. This approach will put into practice the radiation
manipulated safely and according to regulatory requirements.
safety officer training course knowledge and give the new RSO
The AU is also responsible to ensure that the procedures and
the confidence and leadership to properly manage the different
engineering controls are used to keep occupational doses and
elements of the radiation safety program. The mentor can
doses to members of the general public at ALARA (as low as
provide assistance and guidance on such topics as:
reasonably achievable).
• radiation safety program management, AUs must receive adequate and appropriate training to
• radioactive materials license, provide reasonable assurance that they will use licensed ra-
• license application materials, dioactive material safely, including maintaining security of,
• annual program surveys and audits, and access to, licensed radioactive material, and respond ap-
• radiation safety committee minutes, propriately to events or accidents involving licensed radioac-
• instrumentation, tive material to prevent the spread of contamination.
• shipping and receiving, NRC believes that to demonstrate adequate training and
• inventory, experience the AU should have (1) a college degree at the
• training, bachelor level, or equivalent training and experience in phys-
• or any other aspects of the institution’s program. ical, chemical, or biological sciences or in engineering; and
(2) training and experience commensurate with the scope of
proposed activities. The amount of training and experience
RSO Work Performance _________________ ▲ needed will depend upon the type, form, quantity and pro-
posed use of the licensed radioactive material. The AU may
In order to uphold the integrity of the radiation safety
also decide to delegate specific tasks to supervised users (e.g.,
profession, relations with colleagues, government agencies
conducting surveys, keeping records); nonetheless he/she is
and the general public must be based upon and reflect the
still responsible for the safe use of radioactive material and to
highest standards of professional ethics and conduct. As RSO,
assure that areas are not contaminated.
the key is to maintain professional and technical competence.
Therefore, to guarantee that all potential radiation safety
This can be accomplished by remaining acquainted with
matters for AUs and their supervised users are addressed, the
scientific, technical and regulatory developments.
radiation safety training given by the RSO should cover the
This highest quality of work performance can be achieved
following topics:
by employing good work practices, participating in profes-
sional development activities, upgrading technical skills and • Radiation Protection Principles & Practices,
achieving professional certification. For the full time RSO, • Characteristics of Ionizing Radiation,
there is no specific board certification; however they can take • Units of Radiation Dose and Quantities,
the American Board of Health Physics (ABHP) exam. If they • Basic Radiation Mathematics & Calculations
are successful, holders of the ABHP certification may iden- • Radiation Detection Instrumentation,
tify themselves as either Certified Health Physicists (CHP) or • Biological Effects of Radiation (appropriate to the
Diplomates of the ABHP (DABHP). The certificate awarded types and forms of radiation material to be used),
by the Board is not a license, and therefore does not confer a • Hands-on Use of Radioactive Materials (how to
legal qualification to practice health physics. manipulate, collect & analyze samples)

40
 Chapter 10 — Employee Qualifications & Performance

Depending on the RSO, the course duration can vary • Why this training?
from several hours to a full day. Participants are usually re- – Usually to answer common questions like: Is it safe?
quired to write an exam at the end of the training to evaluate What does safe mean? Who decides it is safe? How
their level of knowledge and to assess if they are competent to do we know it is safe?
manipulate radioactive materials or to use radiation-emitting • What is radioactivity?
devices. If successful, they receive a certificate. Also, AUs are • We get radiation from…(Man-made and naturally
asked to follow annual refresher radiation safety training and occurring)
this frequency of training can increase if there is a significant • Radiation sources.
change in duties, regulations, or terms of the license. • Radiation types and hazards.
• Where do you find radiation in the work facility?
Occupationally Exposed Individuals & Ancillary Personnel • How to protect yourself from radiation.
RSOs may also provide radiation awareness training to Non- • Types of safety postings (e.g. signs or posters).
AUs like occupationally exposed & to ancillary personnel. • Questions and answers.
These groups of employees normally do not manipulate The objective of this training course is to inform them
radiation materials or equipment, but may be asked to work in that the public is exposed to radiation and the majority of the
locations where radiation sources or radiation emitting devices radiation dose comes from various natural sources. Therefore,
are kept or used. radiation is not solely confined to the work environment. Also,
The RSO should not assume that safety instruction has inform them that radiation levels are within state and federal
been adequately covered by prior employment or academic guidelines, and that the occupational dose from radiation can
training. Site-specific training should be provided for all in- be minimized by the use of time, distance, and shielding and
dividuals. Particular attention should be given to persons per- contamination control.
forming work with radioactive materials that may require Finally, for this type of audience, an exam is normally not
special procedures, such as hot cell work, waste processing, administered. However if the decision is made to provide an
and animal handling. Also, ancillary personnel (e.g., clerical, exam then it is dependent on the level of education and knowl-
housekeeping, security) whose duties may require them to edge of the English language of the participants. Ideally, an
work in the vicinity of radioactive material (whether escorted exam would assess the comprehension of the material at the
or not) need to be informed about radiation hazards and the end of the course. This employee performance indicator may
appropriate precautions. The RSO should assess each indi- be done orally, or simply waived if course attendance fulfills
vidual’s involvement with licensed radioactive material and company training requirements.
then cover each applicable radiation safety subject appropri-
ately. Training may be in the form of lectures, demonstrations,
videotape, or self-study, and should emphasize practical sub- Radiation Safety Manual (RSM) & Other
jects that are important to the safe use of radioactive material.
No matter the vehicle used to provide this training, it should Publications ___________________________ ▲
be short, clear, and easy to follow. Another requirement for implementation of a company or
Depending on the audience, the training should contain institution radiation safety program is the development of a
necessary scientific knowledge but presented in plain English. radiation safety manual (RSM). This publication is not
In addition, the RSO must also adapt the training to take into required for most licenses, however if need be it would
consideration the level of education of the group and their describe the company’s policy and procedures regarding
command of the English language. This training is not in- radiation safety, and provides information on:
tended to be as comprehensive as the one given to radiation
1. Regulatory requirements
workers, but a brief introduction so that non-radiation work-
2. Administrative organization
ers can acquire a basic understanding of radiation safety prin-
a. Radiation Safety Officer
ciples. However, depending on the audience present at the
b. Radiation Safety Committee
training, other topics may be added to the lecture, mainly sit-
3. Authorization process
uations they may face in their day–to-day work activities. For
4. Training requirements
example, a course created for first responders would have ad-
a. Radiation users
ditional information on the types of radiation likely to be con-
b. Non-radiation users
fronted, how to monitor the radiation, how to manage
c. Refresher training
contaminated injured people, and other issues that may arise
d. Training records
in an emergency situation. The training for trades personnel
5. Employer responsibilities
(e.g. plumbers, electricians, or carpenters) or custodians
6. Employee responsibilities and rights
would be a much more basic presentation with a focus on haz-
7. Procurement of radioactive materials & radiation
ard signage and proper use of personal protective equipment.
emitting devices
An example of a radiation safety course for non-AUs is pro-
a. Ordering process
vided below and it could contain the following content:
b. Receipt process

41
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

c. Opening of packages radiation safety courses given to radiation workers and non-
d. Inventory and use records radiation users.
8. Transfer of radioactive material or radiation emitting Other publications can include standard operational pro-
devices cedures (SOPs), safety guides, information sheets, newslet-
9. Radioactive waste handling ters or guidelines that would focus on how to perform specific
a. Waste transfer procedures tasks, such as:
b. Disposal through sanitary sewer • How to use a survey meter
10. Personnel Exposures • How to receive packages containing radiation material
a. Occupational dose limits • How to use the different radiation formulae
b. Dose limits for an embryo/fetus • Provide general information on radioisotope properties
• Explained in the NRC Declared Pregnant Worker & precautions
Program, whereby the licensee should ensure that • Guidelines for pregnant radiation users
the dose equivalent to the embryo/fetus during the • Pregnant employee-fetal dose policy
entire pregnancy, due to the occupational exposure • How to do leak tests on sealed sources
of a declared pregnant woman, does not exceed • How to do shutter tests
0.5 rem (5 milliSievert). • Radioactive material use log
c. Dose limits for members of the public • Guidelines for terminations or decommissions of
d. Personnel monitoring radiation facilities
e. Personal dosimeters • Guidelines on safe use of nuclear gauges
f. Bioassays (i.e. thyroid scans, biopsies, urine and • Radioisotope purchasing
blood samples) • Radioactive waste guidelines
11. Other Radiation Safety Work Practices • Animal handling procedures
a. Safe Working Procedures • Radiation accident/incident reporting
b. Facility requirements • Radiation spill procedures
c. Equipment requirements • Decontamination procedures
d. General rules for the safe use of radioactive materials • Bioassay guidelines
e. Contamination survey procedures • Radioisotope inventory form
f. Survey records • Procedures for monitoring device
g. Notification of contamination • Personnel monitoring protocol
h. Decontamination procedures • Procedures for contaminated personnel
i. Decommissioning procedures
j. Open & sealed sources requirements
k. Posting
l. Security & Control of radioactive material References ____________________________ ▲
m. Laboratory audits 1. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC):
n. Emergency procedures Consolidated Guidance about Materials Licenses
o. Minor spills (NUREG-1556), Washington, DC: NRC, 2007.
p. Major spills or releases 2. American Board of Health Physics (ABHP):
q. Accidents involving personal injury Meaning of Certification. McLean, VA: ABHP, 2006.
r. Appendices on radiation units, radioisotope 3. Health Physics Society (HPS): Radiation Safety
information & radiation terminology Officer (RSO) Qualifications. McLean, VA: HPS, 2006.
s. Examples of various documents to be used in 4. Radiation Safety Academy: RSO 40-Hour Course.
implementing radiation safety Gaithersburg, MD: Radiation Safety Academy, 2006.
The sections presented are just examples of topics to be 5. Oak Ridge Associated Universities: RSO Training
considered when preparing a RSM. It does not provide an ex- Course. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge Associated
haustive list, and each organization will need to identify its Universities, 2006.
own requirements specific to its industry sector. The RSM 6. Nevada Technical Associates, Inc.: Radiation Safety
may be prepared by the Radiation Safety Committee (RSC), for Non-Radiation Workers. Las Vegas, NV: Nevada
the RSO, or by an external consultant. Technical Associates, Inc., 2005.
7. Indiana University: Radiation Safety Manual for
Radioactive Material Users, (Revision 7).
Bloomington, IN: Indiana University, 2004.
Other Publications _____________________ ▲ 8. McGill University: Environmental Health & Safety,
The RSO can produce other documents that may be necessary Radiation Safety Policy Manual, Edition 5.1. Montreal:
for the radiation safety program. This may include training McGill University, 2005.
documents, such as course notes to accompany the different

42
Chapter 11
Regulatory and
Standard Organizations
By James R. Weldy, CHP, CIH

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission _____ ▲ source may possess the source under a general license, but
must perform certain maintenance tasks on the source while it
The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is is in their possession (wipe tests, shutter checks, etc). They
responsible for the regulation of civilian use of nuclear
can only transfer possession of the source back to the manu-
materials within the United States. Their jurisdiction covers
facturer or to another person with a valid specific license to
all uses of source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials.
possess that material. Depending on the activity and isotope of
Source material consists of naturally occurring elements that
the generally-licensed source, the user may have to annually
can be used to create nuclear fuel (i.e., naturally occurring
register the device with the NRC.
uranium and thorium). Byproduct material consists of any
To possess NRC-regulated materials that are not covered
radionuclide that is created via the fission of uranium or
by a general license, a company must apply for a license to pos-
plutonium in a nuclear reactor, radionuclides that are created
sess and use radioactive materials. Guidance for completing an
by exposure to radiation from a nuclear reactor (activation
application for a specific license to possess radioactive materi-
products), and waste uranium and thorium materials following
the processing of source material to extract its fissionable als may be found in NUREG-1556 (NRC, 1998). This docu-
nuclides. Special nuclear material consists of plutonium and ment consists of a number of volumes for different types of
uranium that is enriched in its fissionable isotopes (U-233 and licensees (e.g., fixed gauge users, medical users, or R&D users.
U-235). NRC additionally has added oversight of some types Specific licenses are issued to the company that is using
of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) and the radioactive materials, and will place limits on the types
accelerator-produced radioactive material due to the passage and quantities of radioactive materials that the licensee may
of the Energy Policy Act of 2005. This regulation passed possess, along with what the licensee can do with the ra-
regulatory authority over discrete sources of Ra-226, dioactive source. For greater flexibility in the types of mate-
accelerator-produced material, and other NORM with similar rials that a licensee may possess, an applicant can apply for a
hazards to discrete sources of Ra-226 to the NRC. broad scope license. These licenses have greater requirements
NRC does not currently regulate non-discrete sources of regarding the oversight of the radiation program (such as re-
naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM). NRC also quiring a radiation safety committee to oversee the program),
does not regulate the safety of radiation producing machines. but allow possession of broad categories of radioactive mate-
These items are regulated by state agencies. rials so that a license amendment is not required every time a
Radioactive materials may be kept under one of two types new source or isotope is needed for radioactive work. Many
of licenses: specific licenses, or general licenses. Generally research laboratories will own a Broad Scope license to allow
licensed sources are low-risk sources of radiation that can be for the quicker startup of new projects without having to wait
possessed by anybody who wishes to order them, even if that for a license amendment to be approved.
person does not have a specific license to possess radioactive The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center
materials. Examples of these low-risk sources include tritium for Devices and Radiological Health sets performance stan-
exit signs, Po-210 anti-static bars, and Ni-63 sources in elec- dards for products that produce ionizing and non-ionizing ra-
tron capture devices. Manufactures of generally-licensed de- diation, including x-ray machines, television sets, and electron
vices must certify that they meet safety requirements outlined microscopes. These requirements apply only to the manufac-
in Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 32 (10 CFR 32), turers of the device to ensure that they are constructed in a
and can distribute these devices to any user. The user of the safe manner.

43
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

State Agencies ________________________ ▲ National Council on Radiation Protection and

Every state has an identified state agency that regulates the Measurements ________________________ ▲
protection of workers against radiation. Through the The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measure-
Agreement State Program, 35 States have signed formal ments (NCRP) provides best-practice guidance and
agreements with the NRC, by which those states have recommendations on radiation protection and measurements.
assumed regulatory responsibility over certain byproduct, They also provide a means for organizations to cooperate to
source, and small quantities of special nuclear material. These develop and share research on various aspects of radiation
states are required to implement radiation regulations that are protection and radiation quantities, units, and measurements.
at least as protective as the NRC regulations in 10 CFR 1-50, They develop basic concepts about radiation quantities, units,
but retain control over licensing and inspection of radioactive and measurements, and they cooperate with other national and
material users. international agencies to strive for consistent usage of these
Whether a state is an Agreement State or not, every State quantities, units, and measurements globally. The
is responsible for the safe use of: recommendations that the NCRP develops provide the
• Radiation producing machines (medical and dental X- scientific basis for radiation protection efforts throughout the
ray machines, analytical X-ray machines, accelerators, country.
etc); and
• Non-discrete sources of NORM (radium-226, radon,
etc); References ____________________________ ▲
State agencies typically issue a radioactive materials li-
cense for groups that use radioactive materials and require that 1. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission: Program-
radiation-producing machines be registered with the state be- Specific Guidance About Fixed Gauge Licenses - Final
fore use. With either, state agencies will periodically inspect Report. NUREG-1556, Vol. 4. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
groups using radioactive materials or radiation-producing ma- Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1998.
chines to ensure that state requirements are being met.
The Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors
is an organization that promotes consistency in addressing and
resolving radiation protection issues, encourages high stan-
dards of quality in radiation protection programs, and provides
leadership in radiation safety and education. Links to state ra-
diation agencies and regulations are available from their web-
site at www.crcpd.org.

44
Chapter 12
Surveys, Audits,
and Investigations
By Joseph Vincelli, CRSP, CRPA®

As an RSO, several tasks need to be organized and performed workers and individual members of the public. There are
to address compliance with license conditions, possession many different types of surveys that a RSO must do, they in-
limits, dosimetry, shielding design and calculations, waste clude:
management, and risk assessments. These activities are
• Contamination
regular duties associated with surveys and audits and have the
– Fixed
sole purpose to verify that radioactive surface contamination
– Removable
and occupational doses are kept as low as reasonably
• Air Effluent
achievable (ALARA).
• Water Effluent
• Leak Test
• Bioassays
Surveys ______________________________ ▲ • Air Sample
The licensee or the RSO are required to perform surveys to • General Area
assess potential radiological hazards in their workplace. NRC – Restricted
requires testing to evaluate radiation risks and when necessary – Unrestricted
for the RSO to comply with regulations. The records of these
Contamination surveys are meant to evaluate fixed or re-
surveys and specific test results must be kept for further
movable surface contamination that could be present on sur-
consultation.
faces of floors, walls, laboratory furniture and equipment.
Surveys are evaluations of radiological conditions and po-
Surveys can also be done to assess radioactive material con-
tential hazards. These evaluations may be radiation levels ob-
centration in air that is released from monitored release points
tained from survey equipment or from results of wipe tests for
like stacks, discharge ducts or vents and to provide accurate
contamination, calculations, or a combination of measure-
measurements to estimate public exposure. At the same time,
ments and calculations. The selection and proper use of in-
surveys can be performed as well to estimate radioactive ma-
struments is one of the most important factors in ensuring the
surveys accurately assess the radiological conditions. In order terial concentration in water that is released to the environ-
to meet regulatory requirements for surveying, measurements ment or to the sanitary sewer for disposal. For both air effluent
of radiological quantities should be understood in terms of and water effluent release monitoring, the RSO should verify
their properties (for example: alpha, beta, gamma) and com- the performance of effluent monitoring systems by conduct-
pared to the appropriate limits. These surveys are used to de- ing regular calibration (at least annually) to ensure their reli-
tect and evaluate contamination of: ability.
A survey can be as simple as a leak test to verify if a
• Facilities, sealed radioactive sources and plated foil sources are leaking.
• Equipment, On the other hand, surveys can become more specialized like
• Personnel (during the use, transfer, or disposal of in the case of bioassays whereby bodily fluids or tissues are
radioactive material), sampled to determine the type, quantity or concentration and
• Restricted and Unrestricted areas. in some cases the location of radioactive material in the human
Surveys are also used to plan work in areas where ra- body. A bioassay can be made by direct measurement, for ex-
dioactive material and radiation exists and to evaluate doses to ample in vivo counting or by analysis and evaluation of ma-

45
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

terial excreted (i.e. urine, feces, or sweat) or removed (i.e. safety program used to determine its effectiveness. It ensures
blood, hair, or tissue biopsy) from the human body. Surveys that the program still compiles with NRC or State regulations,
can also be arranged to assess radioactive contaminations in and that occupational doses and doses to the public are at
air for areas where radioactive materials are handled or ALARA. If an audit identifies violations of NRC require-
processed in unsealed or open form and where operations ments, the RSO should first evaluate the safety significance
could expose workers to the inhalation of radioactive material of each violation to set priorities and identify resources to cor-
or to radioactive material that can become airborne and re- rect these violations. The records generated from audits and
leased to unrestricted areas. from other reviews of program content are to be kept for at
General area surveys are performed by the RSO to check least 3 years. Records of these audits should include the fol-
for contamination in restricted locations where individuals are lowing information: date of audit, name of person(s) who con-
working with an open or unsealed form of radioactive mate- ducted the audit, persons contacted by the auditor(s), areas
rial. These surveys should be done at a frequency appropriate audited, audit findings, corrective actions, and follow-up.
to the types and quantities of radioactive materials in use. If ra- These records must be maintained for inspections by NRC.
dioactive material has not been used for a period of time The audit is a quality assurance or quality control exercise
greater than the required survey frequency, then it is consid- that becomes an integral part of any quality management pro-
ered to be “not in use”. General area surveys are also done for gram (QMP). Its sole purpose is to check document compli-
unrestricted areas. If contamination is found, then the unre- ance status, look at QMP problems, and to implement and
stricted areas should be immediately decontaminated to back- ensure ALARA. It should include, at a minimum, a review of
ground levels. When it is not possible to get to background each functional element of the radiation safety program to de-
levels, then the RSO must ensure that the amounts do not ex- termine the extent of compliance with applicable regulatory
ceed the acceptable surface contamination levels for equip- and license requirements, organization policies, programs and
ment as presented in table Q.2 of appendix Q of the NRC- procedures, and other commitments (e.g. responses to previ-
Consolidated Guidance about Materials Licenses (NUREG- ously issued Notices of Violation), along with current indus-
1556). For the survey program to work there must be: try standards. The RSO may identify the functional elements
• Commitment from management; of the radiation safety program as necessary to facilitate the
• Designation of responsibility; execution of the audit. The functional elements would include:
• A frequency log (monthly, annually & etc); and • Audit history (Example: date of last audit, any
• Generation of reports and follow-ups. deficiencies & actions taken);
Preplanning and good preparation are key elements of a • Radiation safety program organization and
successful survey program. This is accomplished by: administration (including staffing, lines of reporting,
facilities and materials);
• Understanding the processes and procedures; • ALARA program;
• Knowing the regulations to be applied; • Fetal protection program;
• Reviewing the accident/incident history; and • Radiation safety training program (including retraining
• Reviewing the associated hazards. & instructions to workers);
Many surveys are usually done and best carried out with • Radioactive material procurement, receipt, and use;
a checklist form, a wipe test form, or any type of record keep- • Radioactive material control/access control programs;
ing document. Forms facilitate the task and standardize the • Area monitoring and instrument calibration programs;
operation. The RSO can choose to carry out the survey, be as- • Contamination control program (Example: leak tests &
sisted by the RST, or simply delegate all the work to the RST. radiation surveys);
If RST does the survey, then RSO will review the final survey • Individual monitoring program;
report and follow up on the corrective measures, if any. • Sealed radioactive source program;
• Posting and labeling program;
• Medical use programs;
Audits ________________________________ ▲ • Radiation safety recordkeeping and reporting; and
• Radioactive material transportation program.
An audit is a systematic approach to reviewing and assessing
a radiation safety program. The audit evaluates what loss-
control elements are in place. It identifies program weaknesses
and allows the RSO to take early corrective actions, before a Regulatory Visits _______________________ ▲
NRC inspection. During an audit, the auditor needs to keep in Besides the many surveys that are usually performed by in-
mind not only the requirements of NRC’s regulations, but also house radiation safety personnel, there will be times to
the RSO’s commitments in its applications and other organize, prepare and participate in regulatory surveys and
correspondence with the NRC. audits. For example, the NRC regional offices or State
The NRC NUREG 1556 offers an audit program guide- regulators will conduct periodic visits to licensed facilities and
line; the RSO may choose to follow it or develop one. The ra- carry out their own surveys & audits. These regulatory visits
diation safety audit is an annual assessment of the radiation will hold the RSO accountable for the conditions of their

46
 Chapter 12 — Surveys, Audits, and Investigations

license (including all commitments made in correspondence • Radiation inventory form – used to monitor radiation
with the regulator), the requirements of the RSO’s radiation material purchases and disposals; and
safety program, and the requirements of the regulations. • Decommissioning report – used to check areas that
have discontinued the use of radioactivity.
Of course, there may be many other forms that can be de-
Other Investigations ____________________ ▲ veloped and used, and this is dependent on the investigation
The RSO can also perform other investigations that maybe that needs to be done. See Appendix 1, for sample radiation
directly or indirectly related to survey work or just other safety forms that can be of use for surveys, audits or for other
program specific requirements that are perhaps an in-house or special investigations.
a regulatory requirement for radioactive surface
contamination, radiation exposure monitoring and bioassay
estimations, radioactive material inventory control References ____________________________ ▲
(purchasing to waste disposal), and instrument calibration. No
matter the job needs, specific forms can be created to facilitate 1. University of Maryland: Radiation Safety Audit
the data entry and to guarantee that the same information is Program. College Park, MD: University of Maryland,
entered year after year. Examples of forms that maybe of use 2001.
for the RSO are: 2. Lieto, R.: Radiation Safety Audits. Nashville, TN:
• Radiation analysis form – to be used for all types of AAPM Continuing Education, 1999.
investigations; 3. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC):
• Leak test form – used for leak tests done on sealed Consolidated Guidance about Materials Licenses
radiation sources; (NUREG-1556), Washington, DC: NRC, 2007.
• Shutter test form – used for shutter tests performed on 4. DiNardi, S. (ed.): The Occupational Environment: Its
sealed radiation sources housed in gauges and they Evaluation, Control, and Management, 2nd edition.
verify if the visual and audible indicators show the Fairfax, VA: American Industrial Hygiene Association,
imminent or actual opening of the shutter; 2003.
• Radiation survey meter-verification/calibration check 5. Pierce, D.: Total Quality for Safety and Health
– used to verify the operation of radiation survey Professionals. Rockville, Maryland, Government
meters; Institutes Inc., 1995.

47
Chapter 13
Transportation of
Radioactive Materials
By James R. Weldy, CHP, CIH

This chapter does not attempt to cover the requirements for DOT. The most commonly found special form radioactive ma-
all categories or modes of Class 7, radioactive material terial consists of sealed sources that emit alpha particles (e.g.,
shipments, but instead focuses on Type A quantity and Am-241), which have very restrictive “Type A” values when
excepted radioactive material shipments made via highway they are in normal form. Any radionuclide that is not “special
and air. The transportation of radioactive materials is form” must be shipped as “normal form” radioactive material.
regulated by the country’s Competent Authority, for the All radioactive isotopes have a “Type A Quantity” that is
United States this authority resides with the Department of defined in the regulations. This value is the maximum activ-
Transportation (DOT). International organizations such as the ity of that isotope that you can ship in a ‘Type A’ package. All
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the isotopes have two A-Values defined in 49 CFR 173.435. The
International Air Transport Association (IATA) publish A1 values are to be used for shipments of radionuclides in spe-
dangerous goods regulations that address specific cial form, and the A2 values are used for shipments in normal
requirements for air transport. When shipping radioactive form. Any larger amount requires shipment in ‘Type B’ pack-
materials by air you must comply with IATA/ICAO ages, which are difficult to obtain and expensive to ship. Table
regulations in addition to the Competent Authority 13.1 lists the Type A quantities for several of the more com-
regulations. Fortunately, for most classes of radioactive mon isotopes.
material, the requirements for shipping are nearly identical. Larger quantities of radioactive material may also qualify
Note that all numerical entries on shipping papers and labels as a “Reportable Quantity,” if the shipping quantity exceeds
must be completed in SI units (Bq, Sv, etc.). The traditional the isotope-specific value in the table in 49 CFR 172.101, Ap-
units of mCi and mrem can be added in parentheses, if desired. pendix A. Shipments of reportable quantities must have the
This chapter is not intended to replace mandatory training letters ‘RQ’ on the outside of the package and on the shipping
requirements dictated by the Competent Authority or papers of the shipment.
IATA/ICAO. A smaller quantity of radioactive material may qualify
The first step in shipping radioactive materials is to de- for the reduced requirements associated with excepted pack-
termine the category of material. The requirements for the ages. There are two primary categories for excepted packages
packaging, labeling, and paperwork depend on the activity of that are most common:
the radioactive material and its physical form. The most com- • Excepted Package, Limited Quantity (UN2910). This
mon radioactive shipments will either be a ‘Type A’ shipment category includes shipments of most quantities of
or an ‘Excepted Package’ shipment. radioactive material that are much smaller than the Type
To classify a radioactive shipment, a shipper needs to de- A quantity. For most solids and gasses, the maximum
termine whether the source is in “normal form” or in “special activity in a UN2910 package is 1/1000 (10-3) of a Type
form”. Special form radioactive material consists of sources A quantity, and for most liquids, the maximum activity
that are either in a single solid piece or are contained in a is 1/10,000 (10-4) of a Type A quantity.
sealed capsule that can be opened only by destroying the cap- • Excepted Package, Instruments or Articles (UN2911).
sule. If the source is to be shipped as “special form”, the To ship under this category, the radioactive material
source must be registered with the DOT, and the shipper must must be an integral part of an instrument or article (i.e.,
have in their possession a special form certificate issued by the item will not function without the radioactive
the DOT or a foreign regulatory agency recognized by the material), and the quantity of radioactive material must

49
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

still be fairly small. UN2911 packages have a maximum In general, any well-packaged cardboard box or wood
activity of 1/100 (10-2) of a Type A quantity per crate is acceptable packaging for an excepted package.
instrument for solid materials, a maximum of 1/1000 Type A packages must have been shown to survive a se-
(10-3) of a Type A quantity per instrument for liquid ries of tests without leaking radioactive material. Generally,
materials, and a maximum activity of 1/1000 (10-3) of a Type A-certified packages are purchased from a supplier who
Type A quantity per instrument for gaseous materials. has conducted these tests. These packages must be sealed in
accordance with the instructions provided with the package
Table 13.1 — A-values for Common Radionuclides in order to be considered a Type A package. Also, care should
Isotope A1 (Ci) A2 (Curies) be taken to ensure that the certification markings on the out-
side of the package are not defaced or covered up during pack-
Am-241 271 0.027 aging. Type A packages must include a seal that will be broken
C-14 1080 81.1 if the package is opened, so the recipient can tell if the pack-
age was tampered with during shipping.
Cd-109 810 54
Cm-244 540 0.054
Co-60 10.8 10.8 Dose Rates and Surface Contamination ___ ▲
Cs-137 54.1 16.2 Excepted packages can not have an external dose rate of
greater than 0.5 mrem/hour (5 µSv/hour) at any point on the
Fe-55 1080 1080
exterior surface of the package. If dose rates cannot be
H-3 1080 1080 reduced below this value, the package must be shipped as a
I-125 541 81.1 Type A shipment.
Type A packages can have higher exterior dose rates than
Kr-85 270 270
excepted packages. Limits on the exterior dose rates deter-
Ni-63 1080 811 mine package labeling, but in most cases cannot exceed 200
Th (natural) unlimited Unlimited mrem/hour on the exterior surface of the package, or 10 mrem
at 1 meter from any package surface.
If there is a very small quantity of radioactive material, it Both accepted packages and Type A packages must have
may not be considered radioactive for shipping purposes. DOT less than 2200 dpm/100 cm2 of removable contamination on
requirements under 49 CFR 173.403 provide the definition of the outside of the package for beta/gamma emitters or
radioactive material for shipping purposes. It references a 220 dpm/100 cm2 for alpha emitters.
table of radionuclide-specific values in 40 CFR 173.436 for
the minimum activity or the minimum concentration. The total
activity values range from 0.27 µCi for Am-241 to 27 mCi for Shipping Papers _______________________ ▲
H-3. If the quantity of radioactive material is less than the Excepted packages do not require shipping papers for ground
quantity listed in the table, or the concentration of radioactive transportation. For air transportation, the only requirement for
materials is lower than the value in the table, there are no legal paperwork is to note the proper shipping name and UN number
requirements for shipping the package.
in the “Nature and Quantity of Goods” column of the air waybill.
Type A packages are required to be shipped with proper
shipping papers. If shipping by air, a shipper’s declaration of
Requirements for Shipping Packages _____ ▲ dangerous goods and an air waybill are also required to be
All shipments of radioactive material must meet the DOT completed. The shipping papers must be signed by an em-
requirements in the following areas, no matter what their ployee of the company offering the package for shipment and
classification is: must include an emergency contact number that is continu-
ously manned by someone familiar with the hazards of ra-
dioactive material. Note that all numerical entries on shipping
Packaging ____________________________ ▲ papers and labels must be completed in SI units (Bq, Sv, etc.).
The traditional units of mCi and mrem can be added in paren-
Excepted packages must meet the following requirements to theses, if desired.
be offered for shipment on public roads:
• Must be in a strong, tight package
• Any lifting attachments must have a safety factor of 3 Labels ________________________________ ▲
against failure Excepted packages are only required to be marked on the
• The package must be capable of withstanding normal outside of the package with the UN number of the shipment.
transport conditions without any deterioration of the Additionally, the outside of the inner packaging, or the outside
closing devices of the package must be clearly marked ‘Radioactive.’

50
 Chapter 13 — Transportation of Radioactive Materials

Type A packages must have the following labels and in-

formation marked on the outside of the package:
• Proper Shipping Name and UN Number
• RQ, if the package is a reportable quantity
• The shipper’s and receiver’s name and address
• The gross weight, if over 110 lbs (55 kg)
• The certification of the package (i.e., Type A)
• Proper radioactive labels (White-I, Yellow-II, or
Yellow-III) on two opposite sides of the package Figure 13.1 — Examples of Radioactive Labels
• For air shipments, a “Cargo Aircraft Only” sticker,
unless the package is intended for medical or research
purposes. Examples of radioactive labels are shown in Figure 13.1.
The required radioactive label depends on the peak sur- All radioactive labels need to indicate the isotope (next to con-
face dose rate on the package and the transport index of the tents) and the activity of the material. Radioactive Yellow-II
package, which is equivalent to the peak dose rate at 1 m from and -III packages also are required to write the transportation
the package (in mrem/hour). Table 13.2 lists the criteria for index in the box below the activity on the label.
determining which label to put on the package.

Placarding ____________________________ ▲
Table 13.2 — Package Labeling
Radioactive Yellow-III packages must be transported on a
If the peak vehicle that has radioactive placards on all four sides of the
surface dose vehicle. Vehicles carrying other labeled radioactive packages
rate does not And the TI does do not require placarding.
exceed not exceed Use this label
0.5 mrem/hour 0.0 (0.05 mrem/hour) Radioactive White-I
50 mrem/hour 1.0 mrem/hour Radioactive Yellow-II References ____________________________ ▲
200 mrem/hour 10.0 mrem/hour Radioactive Yellow-III
1. International Air Transport Association (IATA):
Dangerous Goods Regulations, 47th edition. Montreal:
IATA, 2006.

51
Appendix
Examples of
Radiation Safety Forms
Radiation Safety Survey Checklist Form

Room Numbers: ____________________________________ Date: _____________________________________________

Permit Number: ____________________________________ Dept/Bldg: _________________________________________
Name of Radiation User: _____________________________ Telephone (lab or Office): ____________________________
Radioisotopes Type (Open or Sealed) Stored In Used In Comments

Comments
Checklist Compliance Non-Compliance (additional notes at the end of the N/A
document)
1. Fume Hood/Flow Rate
2. Permit Posted
3. Safety Rules Posted
4. No Food/Drink
5. Chairs & Stools
6. Bench Covers
7. Lab Coats/Gloves
8. TLD Radiation Badge Use (Dosimetry)
9. Radioisotype Inventory (Daily Running Log)
10. Radioisotype Inventory (Details of Disposal)
11. Radiation Storage Area
12. Radiation Waste Disposal Area
13. Radiation Warning Signs
14. Presence of Radiation Log Book
15. Survey Meter (Battery Check/Calibration)
16. Contamination Survey/Swipe Tests (Log)
17. Security
18. Housekeeping
19. Staff Training
20. Other Safety Items of Concern
Comments:

Prepared by Radiation Safety Officer Inpected by: ____________________________________

53
Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Form 2 – Radiation Safety Survey Report Follow-Up Form

Name of Radiation User: _________________________________ Dept/Bldg: ________________________________________

VISUAL OBSERVATIONS

Items of Probelms Corrected

Comments
Non-Compliance (Yes or No)

WIPE TEST RESULTS

Wipes/ Initial Measurement Compliance

Area Surveyed Comments
Sample # Measurement After Clean-up (Yes or No)

Performed by: __________________________________________ Date: ___________________________________________

Prepared by Radiation Safety Office

54
 Appendix — Examples of Radiation Safety Forms

Form 3 – Fume Hood Evaluation Form

Building Information
Room Number _____________________________________ Building Name _______________________________________
Name of Radiation User ____________________________________________________________________________________

Fume Hood Information

Name _____________________________________________ Manufacturer ________________________________________
Model _____________________________________________ Serial No. __________________________________________
Fan Number ________________________________________ Air Flow Indicator ____________________________________
Fume Hood Dimensions: Height _________ Width _______________

Face Velocity Testing Equipment

Name & Model _____________________________________ Serial Number ________________________________________

Fume Hood Evaluation

Fume Hood Evaluation Reference Number _____________________________________________________________________
Date ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of Inspector: ________________________________________________________________________________________
Inspection Type ❏ Annual Routine ❏ Post-Repair ❏ Special Request ❏ Other

1.0 NO Clutter and/or permanent storage Pass ❏ Fail ❏

1.1 Storage of large equipment Pass ❏ Fail ❏

1.2 Storage of chemicals Pass ❏ Fail ❏

1.3 Storage of waste containers Pass ❏ Fail ❏

2.0 Sash Functional Pass ❏ Fail ❏

3.0 Air Flow Indicator Functioning Properly Pass ❏ Fail ❏ N/A ❏

4.0 Deliver sufficient face velocity at half sash

measurement (see worksheet) Pass ❏ Fail ❏

Page 1 of 2

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Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Form 3 – Fume Hood Evaluation Form (continued)

Face Velocity Measurement Worksheet

Full Sash Face Velocity Measurements

Full Sash Average: ___________________

Half Sash Face Velocity Measurements

Half Sash Average: ___________________

Half sash average face velocity passing criteria: ≥ 0.50 m/sec or ≥ 100 FPM

Outdoor temperature: ____________________

Comments: ______________________________________________________________________________________________

Signature of tester: _____________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________

Prepared by Radiation Safety Office

Page 2 of 2

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 Appendix — Examples of Radiation Safety Forms

Form 4 – Wipe Test or Radiation Assessment Form

Name of Radiation User _________________________________ Room # _____________ Date ______________________

Measurement
Sampling Bkg
No. Description Calculated
Location (cpm or dpm) Gross Net
(Bq or Bq/cm2
(cpm or dpm) (cpm or dpm)
Ci or Ci/cm2)

Prepared by Radiation Safety Office

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Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Form 5 –Radiation Safety Analysis Report

Date:

Received from:

Description of sample:

Sample taken from:

Radiation measurement results (DPM, CPM, Ci, Ci/cm2, Bq or Bq/cm2):

Conclusion:

Prepared by Radiation Safety Office

58
 Appendix — Examples of Radiation Safety Forms

Form 6 – Radioactive Sealed Sources – Leak Test Record

Date of Leak Test: Name:

Permit #: Department:

Room #: Building:

Check one (✓) Entry Date (Date when leak tests were first done):

a) Source Housed in Device

b) Or Free Standing Source

1) Type of device (if applicable)

2) Manufacturer (device or equipment)

3) Model # (device or equipment)

4) Serial # (device or equipmet)

5) Manufacturer (Radioactive source)

6) Model # (Radioactive source)

7) Serial # (Radioactive source)

8) Date the Source was Manufactured

9) Date Received

10) Radioisotope

11) Half-Life

12) Activity (Date manufactured)

13) Activity (Date leak tested)

14) Disposal date (if applicable)

15) Number of Leak Tests Done Value (Bq/Ci) Sample Location

Results per leak test 1

16) Compliance (circle one) Yes No

17) If no, give reason

18) Any other Comments

Prepared by Radiation Safety Office

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Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Form 7 – Radiation Survey Meter Verification/Calibration Check

Name of Radiation User: ___________________________________________________________________________________

Department/Building: _____________________________________________________________________________________

Instrument Name: _________________________________________________________________________________________

Model: _________________________________________________________________________________________________
Serial No: _______________________________________________________________________________________________

Expected Measurement Observed Measurement Within +/– 20% (Y/N)

Comments:

Date: __________________________________________ Signature: ___________________________________________

Prepared by Radiation Safety Office

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 Appendix — Examples of Radiation Safety Forms

Form 8 –Radioisotope Inventory Year

Name of Radiation User: _____________________________ Office Room Number: _______________________________

Permit Number: ____________________________________ Building Number: __________________________________
Department: _______________________________________ Telephone Number: _________________________________
Building: __________________________________________

Quantity
Purchased or Name of Qauntity
Radioisotype Type of Source Date of Quantity Used
Carried Over Radioisotop Remaining as
(C-14, H-3, ...) (Specify) Purchase and Disposed1
From Previous Supplier2 Storage1
1
Years

OPEN SEALED

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

Example C-14 X 5 mCi Company X Feb. 3, 2008 3 mCi 2 mCi

Return this form to the: Radiation Safety Office

1
Express values in radiation units (e.g. Becquerels or Curies)
2
This column can also include radioisotope shipments received as free donations. (Please specify)

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Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Form 9 – Decommissioning Report

RADIATION SAFETY OFFICE DECOMMISSIONING REPORT

Part I General Information

Name of Radiation User: _____________________________ Date: _____________________________________________

Permit Number: ____________________________________ Room Number: _____________________________________
Department: _______________________________________ Telephone: _________________________________________
Building: __________________________________________ Contact Person: ____________________________________

Part II Radioisotopes Handled

Type Sealed Unsealed Stored In Used In Comments

Part III Decommissioning Information

(1) General condition of laboratory facilities (i.e. housekeeping, presence of lab equipment and their function).

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Appendix — Examples of Radiation Safety Forms

Form 9 – Decommissioning Report (continued)

(2) Storage of radioactive materials & action taken.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(3) Storage of chemical materials & action taken.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(4) Storage of biohazard materials & action taken.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(5) Conditions of waste disposal sites & action taken.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(6) Existence of radioactive, chemical, and/or biohazard inventory records, & action taken.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(7) Presence of NRC posters and/or Safety Warning signs (i.e. radiation, biohazard, X-ray) & action taken.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Decommissioning Report
Date: _____________________________ 2 of 3 Permit Number __________________________________________

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Radiation Safety Officer Survival Handbook

Form 9 – Decommissioning Report (continued)

(8) Radiation exposure readings & additional comments (for readings see attached laboratory diagram).
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(9) Radiation surface contamination measurements & additional comments (for results see attached Wipe Test/ Radiation Assessment
Form).
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(10) Other information.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Signature: _______________________________________________ Date: _________________________________________

Name of Inspector: ________________________________________________________________________________________
Radiation Safety Office, Tel.: _____________________ 3 of 3 Permit Number _______________________________

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