Mr.

Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

Mr. Chambilo “PM”

BSc. Ed (Physics & Mathematics)

ISBN; 978 9976 59 646 2

i|©Coprehensive Ordinary level form three Physics

Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

Comprehensive

Physics
for
Secondary Schools

Book 3

Written by: Mr. Chambilo Edward Benitho

+255754249049
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© CBOXo p r356699
ehensive Ordinary level form three Physics Dar Es salaam -Tanzania
Dar Es salaam - Tanzanian
Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

© Copyright 2020
No part of this publication may be reproduced or stored in retrieval system, transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or otherwise without a
permission of book holder.

ISBN: 978 9976 59 646 2

First Edition 2020 Published by: Chasibookprinters@gmail.com

Mob: +255754249049 mob: +255754249049/0683108897
P.O BOX 356699 Email: Inforchasi@gmail.com
Dar Es salaam – Tanzania Webstite: www.chasi.printers.
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Type set done by; Mr. Chambilo Edward

Cover designer: Mr. Chambilo Edward.

DEDICATED TO;

All Physics Teachers In Tanzania In Contribution To Science

iii | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics

Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
CHAPTER 01: APPLICATION OF VECTORS .................................................................................................1
Scalar and vector Quantities .................................................................................................................................1
Vector addition .....................................................................................................................................................1
Adding vectors by Graphical method ...................................................................................................................1
The Triangle Method (Triangle law of vector addition) .......................................................................................1
Relative Velocity ..................................................................................................................................................2
Application of relative motion ..............................................................................................................................3
Resolution of the Vector .......................................................................................................................................4
Uses of Component Vectors .................................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER 02; FRICTION...................................................................................................................................8
How friction happens ............................................................................................................................................8
Advantage of friction ............................................................................................................................................8
Disadvantage of Friction .......................................................................................................................................8
Methods of reducing Friction ...............................................................................................................................8
Normal Force and Limiting Friction .....................................................................................................................8
Laws of friction forces ..........................................................................................................................................9
Types of Friction...................................................................................................................................................9
Dynamic (kinetic) Friction....................................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 3: LIGHT PART I ...........................................................................................................................15
Reflection of Light from Curved Mirrors ...........................................................................................................15
Terms used in curved mirrors .............................................................................................................................15
Location of Image using Ray diagrams ..............................................................................................................15
Image formed in Curved mirror ..........................................................................................................................16
Images formed by Concave mirrors....................................................................................................................16
Images formed by convex mirror........................................................................................................................16
The Mirror Formula ............................................................................................................................................17
Uses of Convex mirrors ......................................................................................................................................18
Uses of Concave mirrors.....................................................................................................................................18
Refraction of Light through Plane Media ...........................................................................................................19
Refractive Index (index of refraction) ................................................................................................................19
Principle Of Reversibility Of Light ....................................................................................................................20
Refractive Index In Terms Of Velocity Of Light ...............................................................................................21
Applications of Refractive Index ........................................................................................................................21
Critical Angle......................................................................................................................................................21
Total Internal Reflection .....................................................................................................................................22

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
some Effects Of Total Internal Reflection Of Light ...........................................................................................22
How mirage occurs? ...........................................................................................................................................22
Applications of total internal Reflection .............................................................................................................23
2. Optical fibres...................................................................................................................................................23
Some uses of optical fibres .................................................................................................................................23
3. Binoculars and telescopes ...............................................................................................................................23
Refraction of Light by Lenses.............................................................................................................................23
Types of Lenses ..................................................................................................................................................23
Convex (Converging Lenses) .............................................................................................................................23
Concave (Diverging Lenses) ..............................................................................................................................24
Construction of ray diagrams ..............................................................................................................................24
Images formed by thin Lenses ............................................................................................................................26
Image formed by concave lens ...........................................................................................................................28
Properties of image formed.................................................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 04: LIGHT – PART II .....................................................................................................................32
Refraction through Prism ....................................................................................................................................32
Types of prism ....................................................................................................................................................32
Angle of Deviation, D.........................................................................................................................................32
Minimum Angle of Deviation, 𝒎𝒊𝒏 ................................................................................................................33
Dispersion of white light.....................................................................................................................................33
Types of white Colour ........................................................................................................................................34
Types of Spectra .................................................................................................................................................34
Recombining Colours of Light ...........................................................................................................................34
Formation of a Rainbow .....................................................................................................................................35
Types of Rainbow ...............................................................................................................................................35
Appearance of coloured objects under white light .............................................................................................35
Appearance of white objects under coloured light..............................................................................................35
Colour filters .......................................................................................................................................................35
Types of Colour ..................................................................................................................................................36
Complementary Colour.......................................................................................................................................36
Additive and subtractive mixing of colours ........................................................................................................36
Subtractive mixing of pigments ..........................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER 5: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS ......................................................................................................39
Simple Microscope .............................................................................................................................................39
Magnification ......................................................................................................................................................39

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
Lateral Magnification .........................................................................................................................................39
Linear Magnification ..........................................................................................................................................39
Angular Magnification (Magnifying power) ......................................................................................................39
Compound Microscope .......................................................................................................................................40
Magnification produced by a compound microscope .........................................................................................40
Uses.....................................................................................................................................................................42
Astronomical Telescope .....................................................................................................................................42
Magnification produced by astronomical telescope............................................................................................42
Projection Lantern...............................................................................................................................................43
Uses of Projection Lantern .................................................................................................................................44
Lens Camera .......................................................................................................................................................44
Basic types of Lenses..........................................................................................................................................45
Parts of the Lens Camera ....................................................................................................................................45
Mode of Action ...................................................................................................................................................45
Uses of Lens Camera ..........................................................................................................................................46
The Human Eye ..................................................................................................................................................46
Parts of the human Eye .......................................................................................................................................46
Differences between Lens Camera and Human Eye ...........................................................................................48
CHAPTER 6: THERMAL EXPANSIONS ........................................................................................................52
Terms used ..........................................................................................................................................................52
Sources of thermal Energy ..................................................................................................................................52
Thermal Expansion of Solids ..............................................................................................................................52
Linear expansivity (Coefficient of linear expansion) .........................................................................................53
Linear expansivities of different substances. ......................................................................................................53
Substance ............................................................................................................................................................53
Superficial expansion of solids(Areal .................................................................................................................53
The Bimetallic Strip ............................................................................................................................................53
Applications of expansion of Solids ...................................................................................................................54
Some effects of expansion and contraction ........................................................................................................55
Some effects of expansion and contraction ........................................................................................................56
Thermal Expansion of Liquids ...........................................................................................................................56
Apparent volume expansion of a Liquid .............................................................................................................56
Absolute (Real) expansion of the liquid .............................................................................................................57
Anomalous expansion of Water ..........................................................................................................................57
Effects of Anomalous expansion of water ..........................................................................................................57

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
Applications of Expansion of Liquids ................................................................................................................57
Thermal Expansion in Gases ..............................................................................................................................58
Application of Charles’ Law...............................................................................................................................59
Boyle’s Law ........................................................................................................................................................59
Application of Boyle’s Law ................................................................................................................................60
Pressure Law .......................................................................................................................................................60
Application of Pressure Law...............................................................................................................................61
The General Gas Equation ..................................................................................................................................61
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) .........................................................................................................61
Applications of the Expansion of Gases .............................................................................................................62
CHAPTER 07; TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY ..................................................................................66
Way of heat transfer ............................................................................................................................................66
Conduction of Heat .............................................................................................................................................66
Factors affecting the rate of Conduction .............................................................................................................66
Minimizing heat losses by Conduction ...............................................................................................................66
Application of Conduction..................................................................................................................................66
Convection of Heat .............................................................................................................................................67
How can we minimize Convection? ...................................................................................................................67
Application of Convection ..................................................................................................................................67
Radiation of heat .................................................................................................................................................68
Radiant Detector .................................................................................................................................................68
Reflector .............................................................................................................................................................69
Minimizing heat losses by radiation? .................................................................................................................69
How thermos flask prevents heat Loss?..............................................................................................................69
How metal foils prevent heat Loss? ....................................................................................................................69
Applications of radiation ....................................................................................................................................70
CHAPTER 8; MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL ENERGY .........................................................................71
Heat Content (internal thermal energy) ..............................................................................................................71
Factors that determine the heat Content..............................................................................................................71
Heat Capacity of a Substance .............................................................................................................................71
Specific heat Capacity ........................................................................................................................................71
Determination of Specific Heat Capacity ...........................................................................................................72
Calorimetry .........................................................................................................................................................72
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF METAL ..............................................................72
Change of State ...................................................................................................................................................74
Melting, Boiling and evaporation .......................................................................................................................75
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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
Regelation ...........................................................................................................................................................75
Factors affecting freezing point ..........................................................................................................................75
Mechanism of Boiling ........................................................................................................................................75
Factors affecting boiling point ............................................................................................................................76
Applications of boiling at increased and reduced Pressure.................................................................................76
Evaporation .........................................................................................................................................................76
Latent heat ..........................................................................................................................................................77
Latent heat of fusion ...........................................................................................................................................77
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of a substance ....................................................................................................77
Latent heat of Vaporization ................................................................................................................................77
Cooling effect of evaporation .............................................................................................................................78
Cooling of human body ......................................................................................................................................78
The Refrigerator..................................................................................................................................................79
CHAPTER 9: VAPOUR AND HUMIDITY...............................................................................................84
Evaporation of Liquids .......................................................................................................................................84
Factors affecting Evaporation .............................................................................................................................84
Applications of evaporation ................................................................................................................................84
Vapour Pressure (VP) .........................................................................................................................................84
Types of Vapour Pressure (VP) ..........................................................................................................................84
Saturated Vapour Pressure (SVP) .......................................................................................................................84
Unsaturated Vapour Pressure (USVP) ................................................................................................................85
Ambient Pressure (AP) .......................................................................................................................................85
Measurement of SVP ..........................................................................................................................................85
Humidity .............................................................................................................................................................85
Sources of Humidity ...........................................................................................................................................85
DEW ...................................................................................................................................................................85
Dew Point (DP)...................................................................................................................................................85
Factors influencing the formation of Dew ..........................................................................................................86
Relative Humidity (RH)......................................................................................................................................86
Absolute Humidity..............................................................................................................................................86
Measurement of Relative Humidity ....................................................................................................................86
Dry and Wet Bulb Hygrometer ...........................................................................................................................87
Renault Hygrometer ............................................................................................................................................87
Mechanism of Renault Hygrometer ....................................................................................................................87
Applications of Humidity ...................................................................................................................................88

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
CHAPTER 10: CURRENT ELECTRICITY ....................................................................................................90
Electric Potential difference (P.d)/ Electric pressure ..........................................................................................90
Electromotive Force (e.m.f) ................................................................................................................................90
Limitation of ohm’s Law ....................................................................................................................................90
Factors affecting the Resistance of a conductor..................................................................................................91
Resistors ..............................................................................................................................................................93
Types of Resistors...............................................................................................................................................93
Combination of Resistors....................................................................................................................................93
Internal Resistance of a Cell ...............................................................................................................................95
Wheatstone bridge (Meter Bridge) .....................................................................................................................97
The meter Bridge ................................................................................................................................................98
Heating effect of an Electric Current ..................................................................................................................98
Factors affecting Heat Quantity ..........................................................................................................................99
Joule’s Law .........................................................................................................................................................99
Electrical Power ..................................................................................................................................................99
Applications of heating effect of electric current..............................................................................................100
Electrical appliances .........................................................................................................................................101
Rating of the Electrical Appliance ....................................................................................................................101
Power Ratings of common Electrical Appliances.............................................................................................101
Measurement of Electrical Power & Billing of electrical energy .....................................................................101
Electrical Installation of a House ......................................................................................................................102
Three Pin Plug ..................................................................................................................................................102
Two Pin Plug ....................................................................................................................................................102
Fuses .................................................................................................................................................................102
Types of Fuses ..................................................................................................................................................103
Applications of fuses ........................................................................................................................................103
Circuit Breaker..................................................................................................................................................103
Mechanism of Circuit Breakers ........................................................................................................................103
Domestic Wiring Circuit ...................................................................................................................................103
Types of Domestic Wiring Circuit....................................................................................................................104
Lighting Circuit.................................................................................................................................................104
Types of Lighting Circuit .................................................................................................................................104
Repairing Electrical Appliances Faults .............................................................................................................104
Sources of Faults in domestic system ...............................................................................................................104
Types of electrochemical Cells .........................................................................................................................104

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
Simple Cell .......................................................................................................................................................105
Defects of a Simple Cell ...................................................................................................................................105
Leclanché Cell ..................................................................................................................................................105
Dry Cell ............................................................................................................................................................105
Advantages of secondary cells ..........................................................................................................................106
Lead Acid battery..............................................................................................................................................106
Discharging of Lead – Acid Battery .................................................................................................................106
Charging of Lead Acid battery .........................................................................................................................106
Taking Care of Accumulators ...........................................................................................................................106
Uses of Accumulators .......................................................................................................................................107
Arrangement of Cells ........................................................................................................................................107
..........................................................................................................................................................................107
Parallel Arrangement of Cells...........................................................................................................................107
REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS ...........................................................................................................................112

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

CHAPTER 01: APPLICATION OF VECTORS

Scalar and vector Quantities (ii) Pick a starting point and draw the first
Scalar Quantities vector to scale direction stated
Are those physical quantities which have only (indicate the magnitude and direction)
magnitude. (iii) Starting from the head of the first
Examples of scalar quantities vector, draw the second vector to scale
 Mass. in the started direction until all given
 Length. vectors finished
 Area. (iv) Draw the line to connect tail of the first
 Density. drawn vector and the head of the last
 Speed. vector. This is called resultant vector
Vector quantities. (v) Measure the length of the resultant
Are the physical quantities which have both vector and convert to actual unit
magnitude and direction (vi) Determine the direction of the
Examples of vector quantities resultant vector
 Pressure.
 Force. Example
 Acceleration. Suppose a man walks starting from point A, a
 Velocity. distance of 20m due north and then walks 15m
 Momentum due east. Find his new position from A
Solution
Scale: 1cm represents 5cm
Vector addition
The addition of vector is done with the help of
vector diagrams. The straight line is drawn to
scale. The length of a line segment represents
the magnitude of the vector and the arrow
represents the direction ie
 When two or more vectors are added
the sum is known as The resultant ∴ from the fig above, AC (R) is 25 m at an angle
vector. of 360 51’ east of north
 Vectors can be added by mathematical
methods using mathematical formula The Triangle Method (Triangle law of vector
such as Pythagoras’ theorem, addition)
trigonometric Ratios etc States that
 Also vectors can be added by graphical “If two vectors are represented by two sides of
method. a triangle in sequence, then the third closing
side of the triangle ,drawn from the tail of the
Adding vectors by Graphical method first vector to the head of the second vector
The following are some steps to follow when ,represents the resultant of the two vectors in
adding vectors by graphical method. both magnitude and direction “
(i) Choose a suitable scale and write it OR
down on a graph paper “If three vectors are in equilibrium and that
two of the vectors are represented in
magnitude and direction by two sides of a

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
triangle, then the third side of the triangle
represents the resultant of the two forces”
Consider the illustration given in the figure
below
( )

Hence the resultant is 100km/h to the

direction of North 53.10

COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION

From the figure above The distance R is the QUESTION SET 01
resultant vectors 1. A brick is pulled by a force of 4N acting
northward and another force of 3N acting
north-east. Find the resultant of these two
Example: forces. (ANS: The resultant is 6.5 N)
1. A car is travelling due north at 60 km/hr .It 2. Two forces, one 8 N and the other 6 N, are
turns and then travels due east at 80 km/hr acting on a body. Given that the two forces are
.Find the magnitude and direction of the acting perpendicularly to each other, find the
resultant velocity of the car magnitude of the third force which would just
Solution: counter the two forces.( ANS = 10 N)
By calculation method; 3. A weight of 25 N is suspended from a beam by
a string; what horizontal force must be applied
to the weight to keep the string at an angle of
200 N to the vertical. What is the tension in the
string? (ANS: FH =9.1N, TS = 26.6 N)

⁄
Note;
To find the direction of the resultant velocity
apply tangent
See the illustration below

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

OR
“If two vectors are represented by the two
sides given and they include angle between
them, then resultant of the two vectors will
be represented by the diagonal from their
common point of a parallelogram formed by
the two vectors” Find the tensions in each rope if they make angle
Consider the illustration given below 30° between them. (ANS: T1 = 34.5N, T2 = 69 N)
3. Find the resultant force when two forces act as
shown in the figure below.

Example 1.
Two forces of 20 N and 40 N acts at a point and
the angle between them is 300. Find the
resultant force and the angle it makes with the
force of 200 (ANS: R = 58 N, at 200) (ANS: RF = 10 N)
4. Find the resultant force, F, when two forces, 9
Solution: N and 15 N, act on an object with an angle of
Consider the illustration below. 600 between them. (ANS: FR = 21 N)

Relative Velocity
Relative velocity is the velocity of a body with
respect to another moving body.
Scale: 1cm represents 5cm
From the graph above, R represents 11.6 Cm NB:
Then: If 1cm = 5 N  The relative velocity of a body with
11.6 cm =R (By crossing multiplication R = 58 N) respect to a stationary observer is
∴ The resultant force is 58 N at an angle of 200 known as ‘’absolute relative velocity’’

COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE Suppose we have an object A having a velocity

EXAMINATION QUESTION SET 02 and another object B having a velocity .
1. Two forces AB and AD of magnitude 40 N and Then the velocity of A relative to that of B is
60 N respective are pulling a body on denoted by .
horizontal table. If the two forces makes an
angle 300 between them, find the resultant  If all objects are moving to the same
force on the, body. (ANS: R = 96.7N) direction, low speed will be
2. Two ropes of 3 m and 6 m long are tied to a experienced, therefore we minus two
ceiling and their free ends are pulled by a force velocities of the moving bodies that is
of 100 N as shown in the figure below. ( )

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

 If all objects are moving to the opposite km/h to the West. What is its velocity relative
direction, high speed will be to an observer on the ground? (ANS: VR =
experienced, therefore we plus two 103.1km/h)
velocity of moving bodies 2. Car A is moving with a velocity of 20 m/s while
( ) car B is moving with a velocity of 30 m/s.
Calculate the velocity of car B relative to car A
NB: if:
1. Speed of an air plane may be observed by an (a) They are moving in the same direction (ANS:
observer on the ground to be VBA = 10 m/s)
increased by a tail wind i.e (b) They are moving in the opposite
𝑹 directions. (ANS: VBA = 50 m/s)
Or reduced by head wind i.d 3. A Car is travelling at 60m/s due east and a lorry
𝑹 is travelling at 100m/s due north. What is the
So the wind and the plane are both moving velocity of the car relative to the lorry? (ANS:
related to one another but the observer is 116.6 m/s at 310 NE)
stationary. 4. An automobile A, travelling relative to the
2. The speed of a boat in a river may also be earth at 45km/h on a straight level road is
observed by an observer at the river bank to ahead of motor cycle B travelling in the same
be increased downstream or decrease up direction at 90 km/h .What is the velocity of B
stream. Again the boat and the water are relative to A? (ANS: VBA = 45km/h)
moving relative to one another but the 5. A passenger at the back of a train travelling at
observer is stationary. 15m/s relative to the earth , throws a hammer
3. Relative velocity also can be calculated by with a speed of 15 m/s in the opposite
triangle method and by parallelogram method direction to the motion of the train .What is
the velocity of the hammer relative to the
Example 3 earth (ANS: VHE = 0 m/s)
1. Two cars A and B are moving with velocities 6. A boat heading due north crosses a wider river
of 50 m/s and 30 m/s respectively. Find the with a velocity of 36 m/s relative to the water
relative velocity when they are in (a) The same .The river has a uniform velocity of 12 m/s due
velocity (b) Opposite velocity south`
(a) Determine the velocity of the boat with
Solution: respect to an observer on the river
Given: VA = 30 m/s, VB = 50 m/s bank (ANS 24 m/s )
(a) In the same velocity, (b) If the river was flowing due east ,
determine the velocity of the boat with
respect to an observer on the river
⁄ bank (ANS 37.947m/s)
(b) In opposite direction

⁄ Application of relative motion

 Is used in navigation to determine the
COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION actual velocity of vessels in moving
QUESTIONS SET 03 water or in air
1. A plane travelling at a velocity of 100 km/h to
the South encounters a side wind blowing at 25

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

 Is used to determine the velocities of

stars and asteroids with respect to
earth’s velocity
 Used by structural engineers to design
structures to avoid maximum
deformation when earthquakes strike
 Helps us to calculate the velocity of an
object in a fluid. COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION
QUESTION SET 04
1. A nail is being pulled using a string from a wall.
Resolution of the Vector The string forms an angle of 30° with the
Is the process of splitting a vector into its normal. If the force being used is 10 N, part of
components. the force will tend to bend the nail while the
(i) Horizontal components other part will try to pull it out.
(ii) Vertical components See the Figure below:
Consider the diagram below where the toy car
is pulled at a certain angle but it seems to
move horizontally due to horizontal force, not
only that but also vertical force is formed

What is the magnitude of the force:

(a) Tend to bend the nails? (ANS: F1 = 8.66 N)
(b) Tend to pull the nails out? (ANS: F2 = 5.0 N)
From the fig above we have
2. A body is being acted on by two forces: F1 = 18
Horizontal vector = x and
N acting at an angle of 25° and F2 = 30 N acting
Vertical vector = y
at 140° from due East. Find the resultant of the
two forces, F, by separating the forces into x-
and y- components. (ANS: RF = 27.70 N at an
angle of 103.940 to west
3. A trolley was pulled by a force of 60 N acting
300 to the horizontal .Find the vertical
component of this force. ANS: VC = 30 N
The mathematical analysis of the triangle 4. A weight of 20 N rest on a plane inclined at 400
above by the resolution of vector to the horizontal. What are the components of
1. The horizontal components of the weight parallel and perpendicular to the
vector will be: plane? (ANS: Cparallel = 12.865 N, Cperpendicular =
15.32 N)

Uses of Component Vectors

 Adding many vectors
2. The vertical component of velocity  Calculating a vector sum
will be

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

(a). What is the resultant velocity of

GENERAL COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION FILE the motor boat?
1. The velocity of car B relative to car A is 8 m/s (b). If the width of the river is 80
when the two cars are moving in the same meters wide, then how much time does it take the
direction and 28 m/s when the two cars are boat to travel shore to shore?
moving in opposite directions. Determine the (c).What distance downstream does
velocity of each car the boat reach the opposite shore? (ANS: (a) 5.59
m/s at 26.60 (b) 16 s (c) 40 m)
2. An aeroplane is taking off at a velocity of 20 8. A man is walking inside a bus which is travelling
m/s. Find the components of the plane’s at 56.2 km/hr. If the speed of the man relative
velocity if the take – off angle is to the ground is 55.8 km/h, is the man walking
(a) towards the front or the back?
(b) 45o
(c) 60o 9. A boat is travelling at 8.9 km/h. relative to the
3. A river is flowing at a velocity of 2m/s due water in a river .The boat aims to straight for
south .A person in a boat wants to move across the opposite bank of the river which is 120.9
the river at 10 m/s. wide. If the speed of the water in the river is
(a) In which direction should the person move? 2.9 km/h, how far downstream will the boat be
(b) At what velocity should the person move the when it reaches the opposite side?
boat?
4. A box is being pulled on the floor using a string. 10. A boat is travelling at 9.8 km/h relative to the
The string makes an angle of 300 with the box water in a river wants to get a fishing camp
as shown in the figure below that is 5.2 km upstream .If the speed of the
water in the river is 6.0 km/h, how long will it
take the boat to reach the camp?

11. A plane is flying at a velocity of 300 km/h,

relative to the air towards 3000 from due east
.The plane is flying amidst a wind blowing at 85
km/h relative to the ground towards 2250 from
due east. What will be the velocity of the plane
as observed on the control tower on the
If the force being applied at the string is 200 N, ground
find:
(a) The force which tends to lift the box
12. An airplane is flying east at 200 km/h, which is
(b) The force which tends to pull the box forward
its velocity relative to the air ,while a 100 km/h
5. A car moves 5 km east 3 km south, 2 km west
wind blows towards the north – east .What is
and 1 km north. Find the resultant
its resultant velocity ? (ANS: V = 280km/h at
displacement (ANS: 3.6 km 340 south of east)
14.6o)
6. A plane is flying at a velocity of 100 km/hr and
wind is blowing at a velocity of 25 km/hr if the
13. A plane is flying due east with a velocity of 100
blowing wind is (a)head (b) tail Find the
m/s when it encounters a wind moving at a
resultant plane velocity relative of to an
velocity of 20 m/s . Find the resultant velocity
observer on the grounds
of the plane if the direction of the wind is due
7. A motorboat traveling 5 m/s, East encounters a
(a) East (b) West (c) South (d) South – East
current traveling 2.5 m/s, North.
5|©Coprehensive Ordinary level form three Physics
 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

14. A River is flowing at a velocity of 2 m/s due 20. A car is travelling due north at 45 km/hr .It
south .A person in a boat wants to move across turns and then travels due east at 72 km/hr
the river at 10 m/s .Find the magnitude and direction of the
(a) In which direction should the person move? resultant velocity of the car
(b) At what velocity should the person move the
boat? 21. A Mass 3 kg hangs at the end of a string .Find
15. Two forces ,P and Q are applied on a small the horizontal force needed to pull the mass
boat stuck in a shallow stream as shown below sideways until the string is at 300 to the
vertical .Find also the tension in the string

22. An air craft heads north – west at 320 km/hr

relative to the wind .The wind velocity is
80km/hr from the south .Find the velocity of
the aircraft relative to the ground

Determine the magnitude and direction of the 23. A deep sea diver dives at an angle of 300 with
resultant of the two forces the surface of water and follows a straight –
line path for a distance of 220 m. How far is the
16. The diagram in the figure below shows a block diver from the surface of water?
being pushed along a track .If a force of 20 N is
applied in direction A at an angle of 600. 24. A velocity of magnitude 40 m/s is directed at
an angle of 400 east of north .Represent this
velocity on paper

25. A car travels 3 km due north ,then 5 km north–

east .Represent these displacements
graphically and determine the resultant
displacement
17.
what is the resolved part of the force in
26. Two forces , one of 12 N and another of 24 N,
direction B ?
act on a body in such a way they make an
18. A Vehicle moving at a speed of 80km/hr emits
angle of 30o with each other .Find the resultant
smoke from its exhaust pipe in opposite
of the two forces
direction at 50 km/hr with respect to the
vehicle .Determine the speed of smoke with
respect to the ground 27. A motorboat travelling 4 m/s ,East encounters
a current travelling 3.0 m/s ,North
19. When two motorbikes are approaching each (a) What is the resultant velocity of the
other at constant speed ,the linear distance motorboat?
between them decreases at 7 km/hr .When (b) If the width of the river is 80 m wide, then how
moving in the same direction ,the linear much time does it take the boat to travel shore to
distance between them decreases at 3 km/h shore?
Determine the velocity of each motorbike (c) What distance downstream does the boat
reach the opposite bank?

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

28. A plane can travel with a speed of 80 mil/hr

with respect to the air .Determine the resultant
velocity of the plane if it encounters a
(a) 10 mil/hr headwind (c) 10 mil/hr crosswind
(b) 10 mil/hr tailwind (d) 60 mil/hr crosswind
30. Find the horizontal and vertical components of
a force of 10 N acting at 300 to the vertical.

29. A weight of 25 N is suspended from a beam by

a string; what horizontal force must be
applied to the weight to keep the string at an
angle of 200 to the vertical .What is the
tension in the string?

30. A car covered a displacement of 10 km due 300

,then15 km due 1200 and finally 8 km due
2700 .Find the total displacement covered by
the car.

31. A man using a 70 kg garden roller on a level

surface ,exerts a force of 200 N at 450 to the
ground .Find the vertical force of the roller on
the ground
(a) If he pulls (ANS: 560 N)
(b) If he pushes the roller (ANS: 840 N )

32. A plane mirror is approaching you at a speed of

10 m/s you can see your image in it. At what
speed will your image approach you? (ANS: v =
20 m/s)

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

CHAPTER 02; FRICTION

Friction:  Increasing the normal force by increasing
Is the force which opposes the relative motion the weight of the body
or tendency of motion between two surfaces in  Increasing the roughness of the surface
contact  Use materials of high coefficient of friction.
OR Example, rubber band
Is the force that opposes motion between any  Scrubbing equipment is made rough to
surfaces that are in contact. increase friction e.g. Steel wire for
Friction force which occurs in fluids is known scrubbing “surface”
as viscosity
Methods of reducing Friction
How friction happens  Place roller between the two rough
 Friction is caused by molecular adhesion, surfaces
surface roughness and deformations  Use ball bearings
(Adhesive bond, mechanical bond and  Use of lubricants e.g. oil, water
deformation)  Speedy material (eg Teflon) which have low
coefficient of friction and thus slide easily.
Advantage of friction  Make surface soft or Polishing
 It aids in walking and movement  Using streamlined bodies eg airplane, boat
 Helps moving body to stop by applying etc
brakes
 Used to wear unneeded layers of some Normal Force and Limiting Friction
materials The force acting towards the positive vertical
 Causes lighting in match stick direction is referred to as Normal reaction
 Supports life on the earth by preventing force (R) and the force acting towards the
burning asteroids negative vertical direction is just the weight of
 Causes nail to stick on the wood the body
 Enables bottle stopper to stick on the Considering the figure below; the force that
bottle neck opposes the direction of motion of this body is
called the frictional force ( )
Disadvantage of Friction
 It causes wear and tear
 It produces heat in various machine parts
causing efficiency to decrease
 Due to friction noise is produced in
machine
 Causes loss of energy in form of heat and
sound
 Causes motion of a body to slow down
 Heat produced by friction can cause (i) Normal force, is the force which is equal
appliance to burn and opposite to the weight of the body.
 It causes wounding, when skin wearing (ii) The Normal force is always perpendicular
to the surface on which it rests
(iii) Limiting friction: Is the maximum possible
Methods of increasing Friction value of static friction
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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
Consider the forces acting on the body from
the figure above.

Reaction force (R)

∴ Coefficient of static friction is the ratio of
 Since when the body is at rest frictional limiting friction force to the normal reaction 𝒊𝒆
force is equal to the force of the body

 When the body is in motion frictional

Dynamic (kinetic) Friction
force is not equal to force on the body
Is the friction that occurs when objects are
 When the body starts to move static moving relative to each other and rub against
friction force is equal to limiting friction each other
then the minimum force applied tends to
start the motion
 When the body starts to move kinetic
friction force is not equal to the minimum
force applied, then the body tends to
start the motion
 If limiting friction is less than the force
applied, the body will move  When a body rolls on the surface of
 If limiting friction is greater than the force another ,the form of kinetic friction that
applied, then the body cannot move exists between the surfaces is called
‘ROLLING FRICTION’’
Laws of friction forces  Sliding Friction is the kind of kinetic friction
1. Frictional force is directly proportional to the that is caused by two bodies rubbing or
normal force between the two surfaces in sliding against each other
contact. (Fr α R)  It is easy to roll a body than to slide it on
2. Friction depends on the nature (roughness) of the ground ,This is because Rolling friction
surfaces in contacts. is always less than Sliding friction
3. Friction does not depend on the surface areas  The coefficient of kinetic friction is always
in contact. less than the coefficient of static friction
4. Frictional force is independent of the speed
once an object has been set in motion Example 1:
1. A block of mass 500g is pulled along a
Types of Friction horizontal surface. If the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the block and the surface is
 Static friction
0.8. What is the friction force acting on the
 Dynamic friction
block as it slides?
Solution:
Static Friction
Given: m = 500 g = 0.5 kg, 𝝁𝒌=𝟎.𝟖,=?
Is the friction force which occurs when the two
objects are not moving relative to each other
 This force causes some bodies to be stationary.
Example, A book can be kept on top of desk
without dropping down

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION

QUESTIONS SET 2.1
1. A block of mass 270kg is pulled along a
horizontal surface. If the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the block and the surface is
When the body is sliding on the inclined plane
0.4. What is the friction force acting on the
then different forces acting on it
block as it slides? (ANS: Fr = 1, 080N)
1. The normal reaction force
2. A box of mass 2kg rest on a horizontal surface,
In this case, the reaction force acting on the
a force of 4.4 N is required to just start the
body is balanced by
box moving. What is the coefficient of static
…………………………………………..(i)
friction between the block and the surface?
2. Frictional force
(ANS: μ = 0.22)
The net force acting on the body is counter
3. An aluminium block of mass 2.1kg rests on a
balanced by
steel platform. A horizontal force of 15N is
……………………………………………..(ii)
applied to the block
3. The net force
(a) Given that coefficient of limiting friction 0.6,
will the block move?
The net force acting of the body is given by
(b) If will move, what will be its acceleration. Given
that coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.47 (ANS:
……………………………………………(iii)
(a) Since: mg > Fr, hence the car will move (b)
() ( )
a=2.44 m/s2)
………………………………………(iv)
Therefore;
4. A brick starts sliding with 6m/s across a
The net force acting on the body will be
concrete horizontal surface floor and the
coefficient of friction between the two If the coefficient of friction on the body
surfaces is 0.4. How far will it travel before
then the net force acting
coming to rest? (ANS: S = 4.5 m)

5. Find the static friction between a block of for 𝝁 𝟎

wood of mass 10kg placed on a table. A
minimum force of 50N is required to make the If the coefficient of friction then the net
block just move on the top. (ANS: μ = 0.5) force acting will be;

Friction force at Inclined Plane 𝟎

Consider the body of mass “m” is slidding on
the inclined plane which is inclined at a small The coefficient of friction on the body is given
angle as shown in the figure below. out when the acceleration of the body is zero
Therefore;

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION
QUESTIONS SET 2.2
1. A mass is placed on an inclined plane such that
it can move at constant speed, when slightly
tapped. If the angle of the plane makes with
the horizontal plane is 300. Find the coefficient
of kinetic friction. (ANS: μ = 0.56)
The net acceleration on the body when
is given by 2. A mass of 5 kg is placed on a plane inclined at
an angle of 300 to the horizontal. What is the
accelerating force required to pull the mass up
the plane if the coefficient of friction is 0.5?
(ANS: FA = 46.65N)
The net acceleration on the body when
is given by 3. A block of wood of mass 5kg is placed on a
rough plane inclined at 600. Calculate its
acceleration down the plane if coefficient of
friction between the block and the plane is
0.32 (ANS: a = 7.1 ms-2)
For upward motion the net acceleration of the
body is given by GENERAL COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction
between the surface of a table and a block of
Example 2: wood when 5 kg block of wood is moving on
1. A block of wood of 4kg just slides without the table and experiencing a frictional of 5 N.
acceleration down an inclined plane of 400 to (ANS: 𝝁=𝟎.𝟏)
the horizontal. What is the coefficient of
dynamic friction? 2. A box weighing 2 kg is at rest on a wooden
floor. The coefficient of static friction is 0.6 and
Solution: the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.35.
Given: m = 4 kg, = 40o (a) What minimum force is required to start the
Consider the fig below box sliding?
(b) What minimum force is required to keep it
sliding at a constant velocity?

3. A 12 kg box is being pulled across a level floor

by a force of 60 N. If the acceleration of the
box is 2 ms-2 ,What is the force of friction
between the box and the floor

At constant speed the acceleration of the body 4. A 0.5 kg object is given an initial velocity of 3
is zero hence m/s after which it slides a distance of 8 m
across a level floor. What is the coefficient of
kinetic friction between the object and the
floor?

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5. The coefficient of kinetic friction between a static friction between the pair is 0.56 and g =
block of wood and a wooden inclined plane at 10 N/ kg
an angle of 400 is 0.126. If the friction acting
on the sliding prism is 42 N, calculate the mass 12. A box of mass 5 kg is at rest on a wooden floor.
of the prism.(ANS: mass = 43.4 kg) If the coefficient of static friction between the
box and the floor is 0.6, what minimum
6. Calculate the friction force acting on a carton external force is required to set the box
box of mass 9 kg which is moving over a sliding?
surface .The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the two surfaces is given as 0.45. 13. Define the following (a) Rolling friction (b)
(ANS: FR = 40.5 N) Sliding Friction

7. The coefficient of friction between a particle of 14. A 0.5 kg object is given an initial velocity of 3
mass 8 kg, and a rough horizontal plane is 0.4. m/s after which it slides a distance of 8 m
Given that a horizontal force of 29 N acts on across a level floor, What is the coefficient of
the particle as shown in the figure below. kinetic friction between the object and the
floor?

15. A box weighing 2 kg is at rest on a wooden

floor .The coefficient of static friction is 0.6 and
the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.35
(a) What minimum force is required to start the
box sliding
Would it start to move (ANS: Since FA(29 N) < (b) What minimum force is required to keep it
FR(32N), No motion) sliding at a constant velocity?

8. A wooden block of mass 8 kg is resting on a 16. In a car, The brakes stop the tyres while friction
wooden table. If the coefficient of static between the tyres and the road surface stops
friction between the pair is 1.3 , Calculate the the car .On a wet road the coefficient of kinetic
minimum horizontal force required to just friction between the road surface and the tyre
slide the box .Given that g = 10 N/ kg is 0.1 .Two cars, A and B, are travelling at a
speed of 15 m/s and 30 m/s ,respectively
9. A 3 tones lorry is resting on a tarmac road .The .Brakes are suddenly applied on each of the
lorry requires a minimum force of 12000 N in cars .How far will each of the cars travel before
order for it to just move .Determine the coming to rest?
coefficient of static friction between the lorry’s
tyres and the road 17. A rectangular box of mass 10 kg rests on an
incline with a coefficient of static friction of
10. A crate of soda with mass 40 kg will just begin 0.55 and coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.25
to slide with constant speed down a rough (a) At what angle will the box begin to slide?
ramp (slope) at 300 to the horizontal .What is (b) If the incline is kept at that angle after the box
the coefficient of static friction. (ANS: begins to slide, what will be the box‘s
𝝁=𝟎.𝟓𝟕𝟕𝟒) acceleration?
18. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the
11. A boy applies a horizontal force of 12 N on a tyres of a car and the road is 0.7. The car brakes
metal solid block of mass 3.4 kg resting on a are applied and it travels a distance of 120 m
concrete floor .Given that the coefficient of
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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
before stopping .What was the car’s velocity 25. A box of mass 50 kg is dragged on a horizontal
just before the brakes were applied? floor by means of a rope tied to its front. If the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the floor
19. A box of mass 5 kg is at rest o a wooden floor. and the box is 0.30, what is the force required
The coefficient of static friction is 0.42 and the to move the box at uniform speed? (ANS: F =
coefficient of dynamic friction is 0.15. Find its 150 N
acceleration if a force of : (a) 15 N is applied to
the box (b) 25 N is applied to the box 26. A car of mass 1200 kg is brought to rest by a
uniform force of 300 N, in 80 sec. What was the
20. A 42 kg refrigerator is sitting on the back of a speed of the car? (ANS: u = 20 m/s)
stationary pick – up .The coefficient of static
friction between the refrigerator and the pick – 27. A loaded trailer weighing 10kg is being towed
up bed is 0.44 .At what rate can the pick – up across level ground .The coefficient of dynamic
accelerate without the refrigerator sliding off friction is 0.25. What is the frictional force of
the back? the trailer?

28. A block of wood just slides without

acceleration down an inclined plane of 25˚ to
the horizontal. What is the coefficient of
dynamic friction?

29. Define the following terms (a) Limiting friction

(b) Normal reaction (c) Viscosity (d) Coefficient
of Friction
21. A 6 kg mass is resting on a horizontal surface
.It is determined that a force of 20 N will start 30. (a) State the laws of friction (b) Explain, why
the object sliding and keep it sliding with an Friction is friend and foe?
acceleration of 0.83 m/s2 .What are the
coefficients of static and kinetic friction 31. A brick is sliding at 8m/s across a concrete
between the mass and the surface ? horizontal surface floor and the coefficient of
friction between the two surfaces is 0.5 How far
22. What is the normal reaction of the body of will it travel before coming to rest?
mass 10kg placed on an inclined plane of angle
30˚c? 32. Show that the acceleration of a stone sliding at
a velocity ,v across a concrete horizontal surface
23. A concrete block of mass 10kg rests on a floor is given by a = 𝑔 where is the
table. It is found that when a horizontal force coefficient of friction between the stone and
of 4kg weight pulls the mass, it is just begins to the floor and g = acceleration due to gravity
slide on the table. Find the coefficient of static
friction 33. A mass of 5 kg is placed on a plane inclined at
an angle of 300 to the horizontal .What is the
24. A block of wood rests on a sloping plank which accelerating force required to pull the mass up
makes an angle of 31˚ with the horizontal. If the the plane if the coefficient of friction is 0.5?
block suddenly begins to slide down hill, what is
the coefficient of static friction? 34. A block of metal with a mass of 20 kg requires
a horizontal force of 50 N to pull it with uniform
velocity along a horizontal surface. Calculate the
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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
coefficient of friction between the surface and (b) What force must be applied to the block to
the block. (ANS: 𝝁=𝟎.𝟐𝟓) keep it moving at constant velocity?
(c) Determine its acceleration if a force of 35 N is
35. A Car of weight 1000 N is moving with uniform applied
speed .If the kinetic friction acting on the car is 41. A force of 8.0 N gives a 3.0 kg mass an
500 N , calculate the coefficient of kinetic acceleration of 0.6 m/s2 to the right
friction (a)What is the limiting friction on the block?
(b) Determine the coefficient of static friction
36. A wooden box of mass 30 kg rests on a rough required to produce a net kinetic force of 6.0 N?
floor. The coefficient of friction between the (g =10 N/kg)
floor and the box is 0.6. Calculate
(a) The force required to just move the box. (ANS: 42. A 53.0 kg block slowed by friction has an
FF = 180 N, a = 0.67 m/s2) acceleration of -0.1 m/s2 .Determine the force
(b) If a force of 200 N is applied to the box, with of friction on the block
what acceleration will it move?
43. A 10.0 kg solid sliding along a horizontal
37. Describe how friction is minimized by the surface is brought to rest after 30 minutes (a)
following methods: (a)Lubrication (b) Use of Name the force that caused it to stop (b)
bearings (c) Streamline flow Determine the magnitude of the force that
caused it to stop (Given that: 𝝁𝒌 = 0.45 , g =
38. A boy is pulling a box of mass 10 kg. What is 9.8 N/kg )
the normal force and the frictional force if the
coefficient of static friction? ( g = 10 N/kg)

39. A 50 g mass is placed on a straight track

slopping at an angle of 450 to the horizontal as
shown from the figure below.

calculate
(i) Acceleration of the load as it slides down the
slope
(ii) The distance moved from rest in 0.2 seconds
40. A 5 kg block is resting on a horizontal surface
.Given that the coefficient of static friction is
0.57 g = 10 N/kg
(a) What is the frictional force required to just
move the block?

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

CHAPTER 3: LIGHT PART I

Reflection of Light from Curved Mirrors
Types of curved mirrors
 Convex (diverging mirror)
 Concave (converging mirror)

Terms used in curved mirrors Consider when light is reflected in curved

Consider the diagram below when two curved mirrors as shown in the diagrams below.
mirrors are joined  Principle Focus, F: Is the point in which
the light is reflected in curved mirror
 Focal Length, f Is the distance between
pole of the curved mirror and the
principal focus.
NB: Given that focal length is always half the
radius of curvature.

Location of Image using Ray diagrams

Whereby: The following are the rules used to locate
AB = Convex mirror while ST = Concave mirror image in the curved mirror.
C = center of curvature  A ray of light travelling to the mirror
L = pole of the Concave mirror while K = pole parallel to the principal axis, a ray is
of the Convex mirror reflected through the principal focus
CL and CK are radii of curvature of Concave  A ray of light travelling to the mirror
mirror and convex mirror respectively through the centre of curvature is
CL and CK are principal axes of Concave and reflected along its own path
Convex mirror respectively  A ray of light travelling to the mirror
through the principal focus is reflected
 Centre of Curvature: Is the centre of parallel to the principal axis
the sphere in which the mirror is a part.
 Radius of Curvature: Is the distance or Note: Any two of these rays are sufficient to
length between the pole of the curved locate the image.
mirror and the centre of curvature.  Procedure to draw ray diagrams
 Principal Axis: Is the line joining the  Choose an appropriate scale so that the
pole of the curved mirror and the ray diagram fits on the available space.
centre of curvature.

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 Draw a horizontal line to represent the

principal axis of the mirror. Mark the focal
point of the mirror.
 Using the chosen scale, draw the object in
position along the principal axis. The object
is drawn as a vertical line from the principal
axis.
 Locate the position of the image by
drawing rays from the object to the mirror. Example
Use the rules for drawing ray diagrams to An object 5 cm tall is placed 34 cm from a
draw the reflected rays. concave mirror of focal length 20 cm. By means
 At the point of intersection of the reflected of an accurate graphical construction,
rays, draw the image in position determine the position, size and the nature of
the image formed.
Image formed in Curved mirror Solution
Terms used to describe the images formed by Consider the diagram below.
curved mirrors:
Position
 Real image is on the same side of the
mirror as the object.
 Virtual image is on the opposite side of
the mirror compared to the object.

Nature
 Upright image has the same orientation
as the object.
 Inverted image is oriented in an upside
down position compared to the object.
Images formed by convex mirror
Size
The images formed are always virtual, erect
 Enlarged image is bigger than the
and diminished for all object positions.
object.
Consider the illustration below
 Diminished image is smaller than the
object

Images formed by Concave mirrors

The following are the characteristics of images
formed by concave mirrors:

COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
EXAMINATION QUESTION SET 3.1
1. An object 5 cm tall is placed 15 cm in front of a
concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. By means

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
of accurate graphical construction, determine
( )
the position and nature of the image formed.
(ANS: The image is real and is 30 cm in front of
the mirror)

2. An object 5 cm tall is placed 12 cm in front of a ( )( )

convex mirror of focal length 20 cm. By means
of accurate graphical construction, determine
the position and nature of the image formed.
(ANS: The image is virtual and is formed 7.5
( )
cm from the mirror)
( )

The Mirror Formula

Consider the figure below showing an object
placed beyond C in a concave mirror whose
focal length is f, whereby the object and image
distances are u and v respectively

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒇

Magnification of the image

Magnification (m) is the ratio of the image size
Mathematical analysis from the figure above to the object size.
( )

OR
Magnification: Is the ratio of the image
distance (v) from the mirror to the object
distance (u) from the mirror
( )
( )
()

Example 1:
An object is placed 20 cm in front of a concave
mirror of focal length 12 cm. Find the position
and the nature of the image formed
Solution
u = 20 cm, f = 12 cm, v = ?

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Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
(iii) The image distance, (v) is negative
(-) for a virtual image
(iv) The image distance, (v) is positive
(+) for real images

COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS SET 3.2
1. An object 3 cm high is placed 30 cm away from
a concave mirror of focal length 12 cm. using
the mirror formula, find the position, the
Therefore, v = 30 cm, A positive value of v height and the nature of the image formed.
means a real image is formed. Hence a real (ANS: V = 20 cm, The image is real, diminished
image is formed 30 cm away from the mirror IH = 2 cm)
on the same side as the object
2. A concave mirror with a radius of curvature of
N.B 30 cm produces an inverted image 4 times the
The image formed is sometimes in front of the size of an object placed on its principal axis.
curved mirror and sometimes behind it. In Determine the position of the object and that
order make the formula applicable to spherical of the image. ANS: v = 75 cm
mirrors and various images formed, One of the
following sign convention can be used to solve 3. An object 30 cm high is placed 20 cm away
the problems:- from a convex mirror of focal length 25 cm.
Describe the image formed. (ANS: IH = 16.8
(a) Real – is – positive Convention cm, The image is diminished)
(b) New Cartesian Convention
NB:
(a) In Real – is – positive  Convex mirrors produce diminished
(i) All distances are measured from the images but have a very wide field of
pole of the mirror as the origin view compared to plane mirrors
(ii) Distance of virtual objects, virtual  Concave mirrors magnify images
images and virtual lengths from the
pole of the mirror are negative (-) Uses of Convex mirrors
(b) In New Cartesian Convention (a) They are used as driving mirrors. Due to
(i) All distances are measured from the wide field of view
pole of the mirror as the origin (b) They are used to see around corners.
(ii) Distances measured to the right of To avoid the crashing of vehicles or
the mirror from the pole are positive (+) supermarket trolleys at the corners
(iii) Distances measured to the left of (c) They are used for Supermarket
the mirror from the pole are negative (- surveillance. For surveillance in
) business establishments and security
installations
Now we can summarize that:-
(i) Focal length, (f) for a concave mirror Uses of Concave mirrors
is positive (+)
(a) They used as shaving mirrors. Due to
(ii) Focal length (f) for a convex mirror is
magnification and erect image
negative (-)

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(b) They are used in reflecting telescopes.
To see distant stars
(c) They are used in solar cookers.
(d) They are used in making car headlamp Refractive Index (index of refraction)
and torch (by using parabolic mirrors) Is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum
(e) They are used by dentist to see to its velocity in a specified medium. It is
enlarged image of patient teeth denoted by
𝑔 (( )
𝑔 ( )
Refraction of Light through Plane Media
Refraction Is the process by which the
direction of a ray of light changes when also Refractive index of the material is the
passes obliquely from one medium into measure of the bending of a ray of light when
another passing from one medium into another
OR OR
Is the change in direction of a wave Is the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence of
passing from one medium to another light to the sine of the angle of refraction.
OR
Is the bending of light as it passes from
one transparent substance into another
CONSIDER THE ILLUSTRATION BELOW
Suppose light travels from air medium to glass
Let the angle of incidence be and the angle
of refraction be .
Refractive index between air and glass is given
by
𝒊
a g

Example:
A ray of light travels from water to glass. What
will be the angle of refraction in glass if the
Laws of Refraction angle incidence in water is 20o? If the refractive
The laws state that:- index of the glass is 1.5
1. “At the point of incidence, the Incident
ray, the normal and the refracted ray all lie w g
in the same plane”
2. “For a particular material, the ratio of
𝒊𝒏 𝒊 a g
is constant’’.
And is referred to as Snell’s law

The law of refraction is called Snell’s law, which

tries to show the relationship between angle of
incident and angle of refraction. The law state ( )
that ( )
𝒊𝒏 𝒊
The ratio 𝒊𝒏 is called refractive index” of a
material NB:

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 Refractive index between vacuum (air)
to any other materials is called absolute
refractive index
 Refractive index between medium to
medium except vacuum (air) is called Alternatively:
relative refractive index. For instance if  Another way of determining the
light passes from water to glass ie refractive index of a material is by real-
wμg = and-apparent depth method.
Consider the illustration below.
 Any material has its own refractive
index due to the fact that each has
individual optical density
 Light passing into an optically denser
medium is bent towards the normal
while light passing into an optically less
denser medium is bent away from the
normal
 When one looks at a stick placed inside
Refractive Index of Different Medium a beaker of water, the stick immersed
Medium in water tend to rise from its real
position due to refractive index of
water

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY OF
LIGHT
 The principle of reversibility of light ∴The refractive index is the ratio of the real
states that the paths of light rays can depth to the apparent depth of water (liquid)
be reversed NB: The difference between real and apparent
 If the refractive index for a ray of light depth is known as vertical displacement
moving from air (a) to glass (g) is
represented as aȠg and the refractive Example 1.
index for a ray moving from glass to air A coin is placed at the bottom of a tall gas jar.
is represented as gȠa, then by principle When the jar is filled with paraffin to a depth
of reversibility of light: of 32.4 cm, the coin is apparently seen
displaced 9.9 cm from the bottom. What is
the refractive index of paraffin?

( )

Example 2;
The refractive index for a ray of light travelling
from air to water is 1.33. What is the refractive
index for a ray travelling from water to air
Solution
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surface, if the refractive index of water is 4/3?
(Answer: 7.5 cm)
4. Refractive index of glass is 1.5 .If the speed of
REFRACTIVE INDEX IN TERMS OF light in vacuum is 3 x 108 m/s, find the velocity
VELOCITY OF LIGHT in medium (ANS: 2 x 108 m/s)
For a ray of light travelling from medium 1 to
medium 2, refractive index is the ratio of 5. The refractive index for a ray of light travelling
velocity of light in medium 1 to velocity of light from air to oil (ano) is 5/3, while that for a ray
in medium 2. For example, for a ray of light travelling from air to glass (ang) is 3/2. What is
travelling from air to water. the refractive index for a ray travelling from
glass to oil? (Answer: 10/9)

6. A coin at the bottom of a jar of glycerin

appears to be 13.2 cm below the surface of the
OR glycerin. Calculate the height of the column of
glycerin in the jar given that the refractive
index of glycerin is 1.47. (ANS: 𝐻 = 19.4 cm)
Example.
7. The refractive index of water is 4/3. Find the
The speed of light in air is 3.0 x 108 m/s. What
speed of light in water given that the speed of
is the speed of light in glass? Take refractive
light in air is 3.0 x 108 m/s (Answer: 2.25 x 108
index of glass = 1.5
m/s)
𝒐𝒍 𝒊𝒐𝒏
Given: ang = 1.5,
C = 3.0 x 108 m/s 8. Water is poured into a beaker to a depth of 24
cm. To an eye looking vertically down through
the water, the bottom of the beaker appears to
𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟖 be raised 6 cm from the bottom of the beaker.
𝟏𝟓 Determine the refractive index of the water.
𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s ANS: aμg = 1.33

COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE Applications of Refractive Index

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS SET 3.4  Is used in optical systems to calculate
1. When a ray of light is travelling from air to the focusing power of lenses
glass, the angle of refraction is 300. If the  Is used to identify a substance or
refractive index of the glass is 1.5. Determine confirm its purity.
the angle of incidence, i. (ANS:i0 = 48.60)
Critical Angle
2. A fish appears to be 0.9 m below the surface of
Is a unique angle of incidence for which the
water of refractive index 4/3 when viewed
angle of refraction is 90o.
directly from above. What is the true depth the
OR
fish is?(ANS: R =1.2m)
Is the angle of incidence above which total
internal reflection occurs
3. A beaker of height 10 cm is filled with water.
OR
An optical pin which is at the bottom of the
Is the angle of incidence beyond which rays of
beaker is then viewed from the top of the
light passing through a denser
beaker. How far does the pin appear from the

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medium to the surface of a less dense medium But
are NO longer refracted but totally reflected

consider the diagram below

According to the principle of reversibility of
light (the path can be reversed)
Therefore:

This is true for all material media where,

Whereby: c = critical angle r = refracted angle = water, w represent material media
90o Conditions for total internal reflection to
occur
Total Internal Reflection A ray of light should travel through an
Is the reflection due to the angle of incidence optically denser medium into an optically
exceeding the critical angle rare medium
OR The angle of incidence should be equal or
Is a phenomenon that occurs when light travels greater than the critical angle for the two
from a more optically dense medium to a less media
optically dense one. E g, glass to air or water to
air COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
OR EXAMINATION QUESTION SET 3.5
Is a phenomenon that occurs when a 1. A certain glass material has a refractive index
propagated wave strikes a medium boundary of 2.5. What is its critical angle? (Answer:
at an angle larger than a particular critical 23.570)
angle with respect to the normal to the surface
2. The critical angle of paraffin is 450. What is the
refractive index of paraffin? (Answer: 1. 414)

SOME EFFECTS OF TOTAL INTERNAL

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
NB:
(a) Mirage
 The reflected ray goes back to more
This is an impression of the presence of
dense medium
imaginary water some distance away
 Total internal reflection only occurs
OR
when light travels from a more dense
Is an optical phenomenon in the atmosphere
 medium to a less dense medium that makes an object appears to be displaced
 When total internal reflection occurs, from its true position.
there is no refraction at all.

Relationship between Critical Angle and How mirage occurs?

Refractive Index When light pass from cold air layer (optical
Consider the equation below; dense) to earth surface of hot air layer
(optical less dense) continuous light bending
(refraction), where incidence angle exceeds
the critical angle. All light is reflected
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upwards (total internal reflection). This Some uses of optical fibres
looks like the reflection produced by a pool  Are used in telecommunications and
of water networking to send message signals.
Therefore for a mirage to appear “the bent  They are also used as light guides in
light from the sky is refracted as it passes medical and other applications
from cooler air into hotter air and back to  Optical fibres are also used in imaging
your eye” (See the fig below) optics. A bundle of fibres along with
lenses
 Are used to make a long imaging device
called an endoscope.

NB:
 Medical endoscopes are used in
Mirages are often seen during hot sunny days. minimally invasive surgical procedures.
 Industrial endoscopes are used for
(b) Twinkling of stars inspecting machine parts

Applications of total internal Reflection 3. Binoculars and telescopes

1. Prism periscope Binoculars are just a pair of telescopes
 A periscope is a device which enables one for each eye .See the fig below
us to see over the top of an obstacle Are used to see distant objects
 A prism periscope consists of two 45° -
90° - 45o prisms (See the fig below)

Refraction of Light by Lenses

Lens is a transparent or a translucent medium
that alters the direction of light passing
through it.

2. Optical fibres Types of Lenses

 An optical fibre is a thin rod of high- (i) Convex lenses
quality glass designed to guide light (ii) Concave lenses
along its length by total internal
reflection. Convex (Converging Lenses)
 Light inside these fibres hits the  A convex lens is thicker at its centre
sides at an angle greater than the than at its edge.
critical angle and is transmitted by  Convex lenses converge light.
being repeatedly totally internally  Convex lenses can be biconvex, plano –
reflected. convex or converging meniscus

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close and parallel to the principal axis
pass through the lens.
 Aperture: Is the width of the lens, from
one edge to another
 Focal length, f: Is the distance between
the optical centre and the principal
focus
Concave (Diverging Lenses)
A concave lens is thicker at its edges Construction of ray diagrams
than at its centre. The following are the procedures used to
Concave lenses diverge light. locate image in a lens
Concave lenses include biconcave, (a) Choose a suitable scale
plano-concave and diverging meniscus (b) Draw a principle axis and the lens
(c) Draw object in the position
(d) A ray of light travelling parallel to the
principal axis passes through the
principal focus. i.e

Terms used on thin Lenses

Consider the diagrams below
(e) A ray of light travelling through the
optical centre goes undeviated (not
refracted)
(f) Along the same path. Ie

 Optical centre: Is the geometric centre

of a lens.
 Centre of curvature, ( ) (g) A ray of light travelling through the
𝟐
principal focus is refracted parallel to
Is the geometric centre of the sphere of
the principal axis. i.e
which the lens surface is a part of.
 Principal axis: Is an imaginary line
which passes through the optical centre
of the lens at a right angle to the lens.
 Radius of curvature, R: Is the distance
between optical centre and the centre
of curvature.
 Principal focus (focal point), F: Is a
point through which all rays travelling

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(h) Measure the height and the distance of (ANS: V = 60 cm, Size: = 24 cm, Nature: Real
the image image)
(i) Convert the measurements into actual
units using the chosen scale 3. An object 0.05 m high is placed 0.15 m in front
of a convex lens of focal length 0.1 m. Find, by
Example 1 construction, the nature, the position and the
An object 10 cm tall stands vertically on the size of the image. (ANS: HO = 0.1, V = 0.3 m,
principal axis of a convex lens of focal length 10 Real) Linear Magnification (m)
cm and at a distance of 17 cm from the lens. By
means of accurate graphical construction find Magnification is a measure of the extent to
the position, size and nature of the image which an optical system enlarges or reduces an
Formed. image in relation to the object.
𝑔 𝑔
Solution 𝑔
Consider the diagram below
Also can be given by: 𝒎=𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝒅𝒊 𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄 𝒅𝒊 𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆=

The Lens Formula

Consider the figure below, an object h is
placed in a convex mirror of focal length f,
whereby u is the object distance and v is the
image distance

(a) Position of the

from the lens
(b) ( )

(c) Nature of the image: The image is (i) Real

and (ii) inverted
Mathematical analysis from the figure above
COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS SET 3.6
1. An object 10 cm tall stands vertically on the
principal axis of a convex lens of focal length 10
cm and at a distance of 17 cm from the lens. By
means of accurate graphical construction find
the position, size and nature of the image
formed (ANS: v = 24 cm from the lens, Size of
()
the image = 14 cm tall, The image is Real and
inverted)

2. An object 8 cm tall is placed 20 cm in front of a

convex lens of focal length 16 cm. By means of
accurate graphical construction, determine the
position, size and nature of the image formed.

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image is virtual )
( )
2. An object is placed 10 cm from a concave lens
of focal length 15 cm. using the lens formula,
determine the nature and the position of the
( ) image. (ANS: Since, v = -6, The image is virtual
and erect )
( )
3. An object 2 cm high is placed 24 cm from a
converging lens. An erect image which is 6 cm
high is formed. Find focal length of the lens.
(ANS: f = 36 cm)

4. The focal length of a converging lens is 10 cm.

How far should the lens be placed from an
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 illuminated object to obtain an image which is
𝒇 five times the size of the object on a screen?
(ANS: u = 12 cm )

Real-Is-Positive Convention Images formed by thin Lenses

To calculate the values of u and v, a sign rule or
 Images Formed By Convex Lens
convention is adopted. The rule is referred to
as the real-is-positive convention.
 Sign for real object and image are u = +
and v = +
 Sign for virtual object and image are v = -
and u = -

NB:
 Sign of virtual object and image is negative
Because the principal focus of a concave
lens is virtual
 Convex lenses have positive values of focal
length, F = +
 Concave lenses have negative values of
focal length, F = -
 If h = + v (The image formed is upright and
is virtual)
 If h = -v (The image formed is inverted and
is real)

COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
EXAMINATION QUESTION SET 3.7
1. An object is placed 12 cm from a convex lens of
focal length 18 cm. using the lens formula. Find
the position of the image.(ANS: v = -36 cm, the

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 Image formed in Concave Lens

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Image formed by concave lens 6. Given that the refractive index of glass is 1.5,
The images formed are always virtual, erect what is the value of the critical angle? (ANS:
and diminished for all object positions. The critical angle is 41.0491

7. Given that the refractive index of ethyl

alcohol is 1.36. Find the apparent depth in the
beaker if the real depth of the optical pin is
52cm. (ANS: h = 38.23 cm)

8. A fish is located 10m deep in the liquid when

viewed from the top. The depth of the fish is
8m. Find the refractive index of the liquid.
Properties of image formed (ANS: 1.25)
 Virtual
 Formed between the object and the 9. If the light has a velocity of 3x108 and has a
lens velocity 1.97 X 108 m/s in the glass. (a) What
 Erect is the refractive index of the glass? (b)
 Diminished Calculate the refractive index for light
 As U increase to infinity also V increase traveling from glass to air. ANS: (a) 1.52 (b)
to F ANS: 0.6458

GENERAL COMPETITION BANK QUESTION 10. The refractive for light traveling from air to
1. The object is placed 20 cm from a converging water is 1.3. Find the refractive index of light
lens for focal length 15cm. find the position, travelling from water to air. ANS: 0.7693
the magnification and the nature of the image
ANS V = 60 cm from the lens, M = 3 and the 11. A small pin 3cm high is placed 30 cm away
nature is a real image from a concave mirror of focal length 12cm.
By using the mirror formula, find the position,
2. Find the nature and position of the image of an the height and the nature of the image
object, placed 10cm from a diverging leans of formed. (ANS : V= 20cm , m = 2cm high and is
focal length 15cm (concave). (ANS: V = -6 cm It is real,)
from the lens, Real m = 0.6 )
12. An object 2cm is high erected 8cm in front of a
3. The apparent depth of a certain point at the concave mirror of radius of curvature 10cm. by
bottom of water pond is 25cm. find the real graphical method, find the position, size and
depth of this point given that the refractive nature of the image. (ANS: V = 13.3 cm, HI =
index is 4⁄3 (ANS: H = 33. cm) 3.3 cm. The image is real).

4. An object stands vertically on the principle 13. A small spring is 4 cm long is kept at 10cm in
axis of a converging lens of focal length 10mm front of the converging mirror of radius of
and at a distance of 17mm from the lens. Find curvature 12 cm. By scale drawing, determine
the position, size and nature of the image. the position, size and state the nature of the
ANS: (∴ V = 24.14 cm, M = 2.9mm, Real) image formed. (V = 15 cm, HI = 3 cm and it is
5. Calculate the critical angle for air and water real.)
medium if the refractive index of water is 4⁄3.
(ANS: The critical angle is 48o 38’) 14. A convex mirror produces an image that is 22
cm behind the mirror when an object is placed
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34 cm in front of the mirror .What is the focal index of the glass block is 1.53, calculate
length of the mirror apparent depth of the letters on the book.

15. A concave mirror has a focal length of 40 cm 24. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 600 on a
.How far from the mirror must an object be block of glass of refractive index 1.5.
placed to produce an image that is (a) Twice Determine the angle of refraction of the ray.
the size of the object (b) Half the size of an
object (c) 40 times the size of the object 25. A small coin was placed at the bottom of a tall
glass containing some water and viewed from
16. Show that to obtain an image with a above .The real and apparent depths of the
magnification of M using a concave mirror with coin were then measured .By varying the
a focal length f, the object distance ,u, is given depth of the water in the jar ,the following
by readings were obtained.

17. What happens to the image formed by (a) A 26. The refractive index of water is 1.33 and that of
Convex mirror (b) A Concave mirror as the glass is 1.5 .Calculate the critical angle for: (a) a
object distance is decreased? glass – air interface (b) a water – air interface

18. Parallel light rays from a distant star are 27. A pin at the bottom of a basin full of water
incident on a concave mirror with a radius of appears to be 6 cm from the surface .Given
curvature of 120 cm .How far from the mirror that the refractive index of the water is 4/3,
will the star’s image be formed ? what is the actual distance of the pin from the
surface?
19. An object is placed 18 cm from a concave
mirror. An image that is twice the size of the 28. Given that the refractive index of water is 4/3,
object is formed .Determine the image what is the angle of refraction of the ray of
distance and the focal length of the mirror. light?

20. A Converging lens forms an upright image that 29. Paraffin has greater refractive index than water
is four times the size of the object .Given that (a) What information does the above
the focal length of the lens is 20 cm , statement give with regard to the relative
determine the object distance. velocities of light in paraffin an in water (b)
Draw a diagram to demonstrate the path of a
21. The lens of a slide projector focuses an image ray of light when passing from water into a
of height 1.5 m on a screen placed 9.0 m from layer of paraffin oil floating on top of it.
the projector. If the height of the picture on
the slide is 6.5 cm , determine (a) The distance 30. When an object is placed 25 cm from a convex
between the slide (picture) and the lens (b) lens , an inverted image which is twice as
The focal length of the lens. large as the object is formed .How far from
the lens must the object be placed to obtain
22. An object 2 cm high is placed 9 cm from a an image four times the size of the object ?
convex lens of focal length 6 cm .Determine
the position and nature of the image formed. 31. An object 5 cm high is placed 25 cm from a
convex lens with a focal length of 20 cm .Using
23. A rectangular glass block 5 cm thick is placed the lens formula, determine position, size and
on top of the page of a book .If the refractive nature of the image formed.

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32. An object 20cm high is placed 40cm from a 39. A 4.0 cm bulb tall light bulb is placed a distance
concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. of 8.3 cm from a concave mirror having a focal
determine the position, nature and size of the lens of 15.2 cm .Determine the image distance
image formed by drawing a ray diagram. and the image size .What additional
information do the answers give?
33. A ray of light strikes a rectangular glass block at
an angle of 450 to the surface of the glass 40. An object is at a distance of 30 cm from a
.Given that the refractive index of the glass convex lens of focal length 10 cm .Find by
with respect to air is 1.5. Determine the angle graphical method the position and nature of
of refraction the image formed.

34. A ray of light is shone through a rectangular 41. An object is placed 20 cm from (a) convex lens
glass prism at an angle of 550 to the air glass (b) Concave lens of focal length 16 cm .Find the
interface as shown in the figure below. position, nature and linear magnification of the
image produced.

42. List out the factors on which the refractive

index of a medium depends.

43. What is meant by the refraction of light?

Define incident, refracted and emergent rays
of light.

The glass block is 12 cm long and 10 cm wide 44. A glass prism has three sides of angle 600 .A
.Calculate the distance the ray of light travels ray of light falls on one of the faces and the
through the glass before emerging into the air angle of incidence is 48 0 .The ray is refracted
( 𝑔=1.5) and now travels parallel to the second face.
When it reaches the third face it is again
35. Taking the refractive index of glass is 3/2, What refracted and emerges from the prism .Find
is the critical angle? (a) The refractive index of the glass prism
(b) The angle between the ray entering the prism
36. incidence and angle of refraction .State the and the ray leaving the prism
laws of refraction of light.
45. A glass prism has two parallel sides which are 6
37. What is meant by the refractive index of a cm apart .A ray strikes one of the two parallel
substance? If the velocity of light in a vacuum sides at an angle of incidence of 500 .Find by
is 3.0 x 108 m/s ,find the velocity of light in drawing the perpendicular distance between
crown glass of refractive index 1.52 the ray entering the prism and the ray leaving
the prism.
38. Distinguish between (a) Converging and
diverging lenses (b) Real and Virtual images. 46. A Swimming pool is 2 m deep .Given that
Draw two diagrams ,one showing a 𝝁water = 1.33. How deep does it appear to be
converging lens producing a real image and when (a) Completely filled with water (b) Filled
the other showing the same lens producing a halfway with water.
virtual image.
47. Give scientific reasons for the following
observations: (a) A pencil dipped obliquely into
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water appears to be bent at the point where it the refractive index of glass may be expressed
enters the water (b) A light ray passing from air 𝒅
as 𝒏 (𝟏 )
𝒚
to glass bends closer to the normal (c) The
speed of light in diamond is less than the speed
of light in ice.

48. Explain the meaning of the following terms

(a) Refraction of light
(b) Angle of incidence
(b) Angle of refraction
(c) Refractive index
49. A ray of light is passing from air into water
along PQ .The ray strikes the bottom surface at T
instead of R as shown in the figure below calculate. 52. A ray of light passes from a liquid to air.
(a) the angle of incidence Calculate the critical angle for the liquid – air
(b) the angle of refraction interface ,if the velocity of light in the liquid is
(c) the refractive index 2.4 x 108 m/s, while in air is 3.0 x 108 m/s

53. In a transparent liquid container, an air

bubble appears to be 12 cm when viewed
from one side and 18 cm when viewed from
the other side (see the figure below).Where
exactly is the air bubble, if the length of the
tank is 40 cm?

54. In a fish aquarium (as shown in the figure

below) the image of a fish seems to be 30 cm
49. A ray of light passing from air into oil at an when seen from side A and 42 cm when seen
angle of incidence 300 .Calculate the angle of from side B. Calculate the length of the fish
refraction in oil if the velocity of light in air is tank , if the refractive index of water is 1.33.
3.0 x 108 m/s and that in a transparent oil is
2.2 x 108 m/s

50. The light ray passing from glass to air is

monochromatic and has a frequency of 4 x
1014 Hz and a wavelength of 5 x 10-7 m in 55. Calculate the critical angle of a material of
glass (a) What is meant by monochromatic? (b) refractive index 2
Calculate the velocity of light in glass (c) 56. Sunlight making an angle of 600 with the
Calculate the velocity of light in air (refractive horizontal enters a pool which is 50 cm deep
index of glass is 1.50) .Determine the distance travelled by the
sunlight in the water (Refractive index of water
51. In an attempt to determine the refractive = 1.33)
index of a glass block , a student finds the 57. An observer looks into a water tank half filled
displacement produced due to refraction by with water .If the height of the tank is 180 cm.
glass as d and apparent thickness of the block A solid that is 80 cm beneath the water surface
as y as shown in the figure below. Show that is seen to be 60 cm below the water surface.
Determine

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CHAPTER 04: LIGHT – PART II

Refraction through Prism
Prism is a solid piece of glass or transparent
material that has at least two planes inclined
toward each other through which light is
refracted.

Types of prism Angle of Deviation, D

1. Rectangular prism Is the measure of how much the incident ray
2. Triangular prism has been deflected from its original direction
by the prism.
Rectangular prism emergent ray direction.(see the fig below)
Rectangular prisms are commonly called glass
blocks.

Consider the diagram below

Triangular prism
Is a wedge-shaped piece of glass material or
any other transparent material. See
the fig. below

Apex is the point at which two refracting From Snell’s Law

surfaces of the prism meet is called the
()
refracting edge
 Triangular prism has two refracting ( )
surfaces.
 Rays leaving the prism is called Hence the distance between the two exterior
emergent ray angles is given by;
 Rays entering the prism is called ( )
incident ray The sum of two opposite angles.
 Apical angle is the angle between the Also
refracting surfaces (See the fig below)

( ) ( ) ( )

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Hence A and A1 are supplementary angles ( )
such that
( )

( )
( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ( )) ( )

( )

( )
𝟏

The angle of deviation depends on

The apical angle of the prism, A
The Angle of incidence, i ( )
The refractive index of the glass prism.
∴ The angle of Deviation is given by:
= 𝒊+ 𝟏 − ( )
NB: 𝟐
Angle of deviation decreases with an increase (𝟐 )
in the angle of incidence and vice versa
Consider the graph below shows the
Minimum Angle of Deviation, 𝒎𝒊𝒏 relationship between i and D, for which the
Is the deviation angle occurs when the angle of deviation is obtained
emergent ray is refracted at an angle
equal to the angle of incidence.
(Consider the fig below)

Dispersion of white light

 Dispersion of white light is the splitting
of white light beam into its component
colours.

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 This band of colours produced is called
Spectrum.
 The process of splitting white light into
its component colors is called
Dispersion.
See the illustration below

Types of Spectra
 Pure Spectra
Pure spectrum is the one in which the
Types of white Colour colours are clearly separated from each
 Polychromatic light other
 Monochromatic light  Impure Spectra
Impure spectrum is the one in which the
colours not clearly separated from each
Polychromatic Light other
Is the colour which consists of more than one
color. Example, sunlight Recombining Colours of Light
Spectrum comes from white light can
Monochromatic Light recombine to form white colour.
Is the light which consists of only one color. Also Newton’s colour disc is used to
Example, red colour recombine the colours.
The disc consists of sectors painted
NB: with different colors of the spectrum
Spectrum of colour (red, orange, yellow, When the disk is allowed to spin about
green, blue, indigo and violet) is its axis at very high speed, all the colors
abbreviated as ROYGBIV .And each of of the spectrum recombine to form
these colours has a different wavelength. white light. When it is slowed down,
These coloured lights are refracted the individual colors of the spectrum
differently on passing through the prism are seen again
The velocity of light in a medium (refractive
index) depends on the wavelength of
incident light. As a result different
wavelengths are refracted by different
amounts.
White colour split due to difference in
wave length. Shorter wavelengths have
higher refractive indices and get bent more
than longer wavelengths.

Wavelengths of the Colours of White Light

The Rainbow

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 The rainbow is a natural phenomenon
of dispersion of sunlight by raindrop.

Formation of a Rainbow
 It is formed by dispersion of sunlight by
drops of rain.
 Since water is denser than air the
dispersion of sunlight on a drop of
water is the same as when it falls on a Colour
glass prism. Colour is the property of light that reaches our
 The light is first refracted as it enters eyes.
the surface of the raindrop, reflected
off the back of the drop and again Appearance of coloured objects under white
refracted as it leaves the drop. (See the light
fig below) The object seems to have kind of colour due to
the fact that it absorbs all colours and reflect
the colour that the object has.

Example
 Yellow flower is yellow because it
absorbs all the other colours in the light
and reflects only yellow colour.
 Blue object absorbs the entire colour in
Types of Rainbow
white light except blue.
primary rainbow
Appearance of white objects under coloured
secondary rainbow
light
Primary Rainbow When a coloured object is viewed under a
 It is formed when light undergoes one coloured light, it takes the colour of that light.
total internal reflection (refracted twice
and reflected once) in the water drops. Example:
 The violet colour is inside and the red (a) The object will appear blue in blue light
in the outside the bow. It is formed and red in red light.
between 400 and 420 from anti-solar (b) A colour filter is working on this
point principle.
 Anti-solar point Is a point that lies
directly opposite the sun from the Colour filters
observer, that is, on the line from the  Are materials made of glass or celluloid
sun through the observer. that let through light of certain colours
only.
Secondary Rainbows
 It is formed when light undergoes Example:
two total internal reflections in the  Green filters allow green colour to pass
water drops. The violet colour is through.
outside and the red colour is inside
the bow.

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 The colour of an object depends on the  That is: Red + Blue + Green = White
colour of the light falling on it and the  When mixing two of the primary colors
colour(s) it absorbs or reflects. produces a secondary color .
That is
Appearance of a white object to coloured light (a) Green + Blue = Cyan (GBC)
(b) Green + Red = Yellow (GRY)
(c) Red + Blue = Magenta (RBM)

 When mixing two of the secondary colors,

white light is produced
 That is: Yellow + Magenta = Magenta +
Cyan = Cyan + Yellow = White color
Types of Colour  We are only concerned with colours of light
Primary colour and not with coloured substances
Secondary colour (pigments)
 The complementary colour of white light is
Primary colour green, red and blue
Primary colour is a colour that cannot be  The complementary colour of yellow light is
created by mixing other colours. Example, red, green and red.
blue and green
Additive and subtractive mixing of colours
Secondary colour
Secondary colour is a colour created by mixing Additive mixing of Colours
other colours.  Is the mixing of coloured light
Example, cyan, magenta and yellow  The more colours you add, the closer the
result draws to white. Therefore, mixing of
coloured lights
 Additive mixing of colours deals with
primary colour of light colour (Red, Green
Complementary Colour and Blue) not primary colour of pigments
Is the colour that when mixed in a definite (paints and dyes)
ratio produce white (required) colour.  Adding different colours of light together
Consider the figure below increases the number of wavelengths
present

Subtractive mixing of pigments

 Is the mixing of colours of different paints
(pigments)
 Pigments: These are substances which give
color to paints by reflecting light of certain
colors only and absorbing all other colors.
 Mixing different paints results in a darker
NB: colour because most of the light
 From the figure above wavelengths are absorbed
 When mixing the primary colors (red,  Mixing two primary pigments produces a
blue and green), a white color is secondary pigment .
obtained

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That is  Green absorbs red and blue and reflects
a) cyan + magenta = blue (CMB) green.
b) magenta + yellow = red (MYR)  Blue absorbs - red and green and reflects
c) yellow + cyan = green (CYG) blue.
 The primary pigments are the secondary
 The pigments act as filters that subtract colours of light and the secondary pigments
one or more colours from the visible are the primary colours of light.
spectrum  If you mix a primary pigment with a
 Blue, Red and Green are, therefore, the secondary pigment you get total absorption
secondary pigments. (black). ie Blue + Yellow = Black
 Subtractive complementary colours  The primary pigments are the
combine to produce BLACK. complementary colours of the three
 That is Blue + Green + Red = Black (See primary colours of light.
the fig below)
Example:
1. A plant with green leaves and red flowers is
placed in: (a) Green (b) Red (c) Blue light

N B:
 Each primary pigment absorbs one
primary colour: FACT 1.
 Yellow absorbs blue and reflects red Why red light is used for danger signals?
and green ANS: Because red light is scattered the least by
 Magenta absorbs green and reflects air molecules due to its highest wavelength so
blue and red it is able to travel the longest distance through
fog, rain and alike
FACT;
Why many clothing shops use daylight lamp made
FACT 2.
of blue glass?
A red bus with blue letter on its stops in front
 Because blue glass it act as colour filter, it
of a yellow light at right. Describe the
absorbs the excess red and yellow light appearance of the bus
formed by the hot filament and the colours ANS: In yellow light
that pass through are in the sam  The red bus will appear red because
proportion as in daylight yellow is composed of green and red
 Cyan absorbs red and reflects green and  The blue letters will appear black
blue.
 A secondary pigment absorbs two primary
colours and reflects one: GENERAL COMPETITIVE BANK FILE
 Red absorbs green and blue and reflects 1. Explain what is meant by a spectrum
red. .Describe with the aid of a diagram how
would you obtain the spectrum of white light

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2. Distinguish between a pure and an impure 11. Explain the meaning of the term ‘’dispersion’’
spectrum. Explain with the aid of a diagram of white.
how a pure spectrum can be produced in the
laboratory .How are the colours of the 12. Explain why the result of mixing blue and
spectrum recombined? yellow paints is very different from that of
mixing blue and yellow lights.
3. A beam of white light is allowed into a dark
room through a hole .In the dark room ,the 13. A painter has a blue – green (cyan) paint
beam falls on a white screen .How will the which she wants to make pure green. What
screen appear if: color pigment should she add to the paint?
(a) a piece of red glass is placed in the Explain your answer
path of the beam
(b) a piece of green glass is placed 14. Briefly explain, why the sky looks blue?
between the screen and the red glass?
15. Under pure yellow light what will be the
4. Explain, giving examples , what is meant by: appearance of the blue piece of cloth?
(a) additive combination of colours
(b) subtractive combination of colours 16. Danger signs along the road as well as tail and
brake lamps of motor vehicles rear are painted
5. Why does an object appear coloured when red. Briefly explain the reason behind.
light falls onto it?
17. Explain each of the following:-
6. 6 Explain, giving examples, what is meant by (a) The appearance of a blue flag when
primary, secondary and complementary viewed in day light through a sheet of
colours. A flag has a green disc on a yellow red glass
background .How will the flag appear in: (b) The appearance of a red flag with
(a) green light green stripes when viewed in day ligh
(b) red light t through a sheet of green glass
(c) blue light (c) The appearance of a man wearing
7. State , giving a reason for each answer, the blue shirt and red trousers, holding a
colour that results when: handkerchief of green color when
(a) a blue light and a yellow light are mixed viewed in the pure yellow light
(b) (b) blue paint and yellow paint are mixed

8. What color would be seen if white light is

viewed through:
(a) a red filter?
(b) a cyan filter?
(c) an orange filter?
9. A book which looks red in white light is viewed
in magenta light. In what color does it appear?
10. White light is viewed through a combination
of a yellow filter and a red filter held in
contact. What color is seen

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CHAPTER 5: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Optical instruments are devices which are

used to help the human eye views Lateral Magnification
small or distant objects more clearly. The lateral magnification of a simple lens is
They use a combination of lenses (mirrors) to the ratio of the image height (IH) to the object
produce an enhanced image of an object. height (OH).

Optical instruments consist of:

 Simple Microscope
Linear Magnification
 Compound Microscope
 Astronomical Telescopes Is also given by the ratio of the image distance
v to the object distance u.
 Simple lens Camera
 Projection lantern

Simple Microscope Angular Magnification (Magnifying power)

 It consists of a biconvex lens which may Is the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye
be hand-held or placed in a simple by the object when viewed through the
frame. It magnifying glass (B) to the angle subtended at
 is sometimes referred to as a the eye by the object when viewed with naked
magnifying glass. eyes (A)
 Object is placed between f and lens ( u
<f)
 Virtual, upright and magnified image of From the diagram above
the object is formed.
 The image appears clearest when it is
about 25 cm from the eye, V = 25cm.
This distance is called the near point If the angle B subtended by the virtual image.
(D). Ignoring the small distance between the eye
and the magnifying lens
 The nearer the object is to the lens, the
further and larger the image formed.

Magnification ()
Consider the diagram below

( )
() ( )
Where
A = angle subtended by the object
B = angle subtended by the virtual image
D = distance between F and image ( ) ( )

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 The lens near the object is called the
Objective Lens while the lens near the
When the image is at the near point, v = 25 cm. eye is called the Eyepiece Lens
Therefore, using the lens formula,

See the figure below

𝟐𝟓
𝟏

COMPETITIVEBANK QUESTION SET 5.1 Mode of Action

1. A simple microscope with a focal length of 5  Objective lens enlarges object to form
cm is used to read division of scale 1.5 mm in image, I1
size. How large will the size of the divisions as  Eyepiece lens enlarges I1 (As object) to
seen through the simple microscope be? (ANS: form image I2. The image produced is
9 mm when viewed through the simple magnified, virtual and inverted
microscope.) compared to the original object
 In order I2 to be seen clearly, the
Uses eyepiece lens should be adjusted until
1. It is used to view specimen in the I2 is at the near point ,D , from the eye
laboratory as shown from the figure above
2. It is used to read small print
Magnification produced by a compound
Compound Microscope microscope
 A Compound microscope is composed Where V is the distance of I1 and U is the
of two convex lenses of short focal distance of object (O) from the objective lens
lengths placed in a tube.
 The two lenses are separated by a
certain fixed distance.

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()
 Also, the magnification produced by the
eyepiece lens is given by,
( )
Where D is the distance of I2 from the
eyepiece
 The total magnification (m) produced
by a compound microscope is the
product of the magnification produced
by the objective and the magnification Also consider the refraction from the eyepiece
produced by the eyepiece. lens

The total magnification M is given by

𝑴 ( 𝟏) ( 𝟏)
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆

Example
A compound microscope has an objective lens
of focal length 2 cm and eye piece of focal
length of 6 cm. An object is placed 2.4 cm from D = -30 cm, (According to real – is – positive
the objective lens. If the distance between the the final image is virtual)
objective lens and the eyepiece lens is 17 cm ∴ The distance of the final image from the
find:- eyepiece is 30 cm
(a) The distance of the final image from the
eyepiece. (b) Linear magnification (total magnification)
(b) The linear magnification. 𝑔

( )( )
𝑔
( )( )
( )( )

∴𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂 𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊 𝟐𝟎

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COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE QUESTION SET
5.2
1. A compound microscope consists of two lenses
of focal length 12 cm and 6 cm for the
objective lens and the eyepiece lens,
respectively. The two lenses are separated by a
distance of 30 cm. The microscope is focused
so that the image is formed at infinity.
Determine the position of the object. ANS: U =
24 cm

2. A parallel beam of light falls on a converging

lens arranged so that the axis lies along the
direction of the light which is brought to focus Mode of action
25 cm from the lens. The light then passes The objective lens forms a real, inverted and
through a second converging lens of focal diminished image of a distant object at its focal
length 7.5 cm placed at 30 cm from the first point, fo.
lens. Calculate the position of the final image. This becomes the object for the eyepiece lens.
Draw a ray diagram to show the final image The position of the eyepiece lens is adjusted
formed.(ANS: D = 15 cm) until the object is at its focal point, fe. This
3. The total magnification produced by a adjustment makes the final image to be
compound microscope is 20. The magnification formed at infinity.
produced by the eye piece alone is 5. The
microscope is focused on a certain object. The
distance between the objective lens and the
eyepiece is observed to be 14 cm. If least
distance of distinct vision is 20 cm, calculate
the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece
lenses.

Uses NB:
 Observing Brownian motion in science  The final image obtained in the
 Studying microorganisms and cells in astronomical telescope is small
biology compared to the original object.
 Checking for infections caused by  The image looks larger because it is
microorganisms in hospitals very much closer to the observer’s eye.

Astronomical Telescope Magnification produced by astronomical

 It uses two convex lenses that is the telescope
objective lens and the eyepiece lens. From: Angular magnification of the telescope
 The objective lens has a large focal
length while the eyepiece lens has a ( )
much shorter focal length as you ( )
compare to compound microscope

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Since both the object and the final image are (ANS: 40)
at infinity, the angles they subtend at the eye
are the same as those they subtend at the 2. Find the distance between the objective and
objective and at the eyepiece lens, eyepiece lenses in the telescope in the above
respectively. problem needed to produce a final image very
far (at infinity) from the observer, (ANS: 102.5
 Assuming that: angle A and B are very cm)
small, then tan A = A and tan B = B
3. A large reflecting telescope has an objective
mirror with a 10.0 m radius of curvature. What
angular magnification does it produce when a
3.0 m focal length eyepiece is used?

4. A small telescope has a concave mirror with a

2.0 m radius of curvature for its objective. Its
𝒃 𝒊 𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒍 𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 eyepiece is a 4.0 cm focal length. What is the
telescope’s angular magnification? What angle
𝒉 is subtended by a 25,000 km diameter
𝒇𝒆 𝒇𝒐 sunspot?
𝒎
𝒉 𝒇𝒆
𝒇𝒐 5. A 7.5x binocular produces an angular
magnification of 7.5, acting like a telescope. If
 Therefore the magnification produced
the binoculars have objective lenses with a
by an astronomical telescope is the
75.0 cm focal length, what is the focal length of
ratio of the focal length of the objective
the eyepiece lenses?
lens to that of the eyepiece lens, i.e.
∴𝒎 = 𝒇𝒐/𝒇𝒆
Uses
 An astronomical telescope is used to
Example 1:
view distant objects like stars and other
A refracting telescope has an objective lens
objects in space.
with a focal length of 5.0 cm and an eyepiece
 They are used in military bases to see
with a short focal length of 0.02 m; calculate
enemies
the magnifying power of such a telescope in its
normal adjustment
Differences between Compound microscope
Solution:
and Astronomical telescope
Given: fo = 5.0 cm, fe = 0.02 m

Therefore the magnifying power is 250

COMPREHENSICE COMPETITIVE QUESTION SET Projection Lantern

5.3  Projection lanterns are used to display a
1. What is the angular magnification of a large image on a screen.
telescope that has a 100 cm focal length One example, is the slide projector that
objective and a 2.5 cm focal length eyepiece? is the optical inverse of a camera.

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∴ 𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒎 𝒃𝒆 𝟐𝟒 𝒄𝒎 from the lens

and the approximate focal length is 23.5 cm

Magnification Comprehensive competitive question set 5.4

a. A projection lantern is used to project a slide
𝑴 measuring 3 cm x 3 cm onto a screen 12 m
from the projection lens. If the size of the
Example: screen is 1.5 m x 1.5 m, how far from the lens
1. A projection lantern is used to give the must the slide be for the image to fill the entire
image of a slide on a screen. If the image is 24 screen? ANS: U = 24 cm.
times as large as the slide and the screen is 72
m from the projecting lens, what is the position
of the slide from the lens Uses of Projection Lantern
Solution:
 Projection of films, slides and
Given: m = 24, v = 72 m, u =?
transparencies.
 Projection of opaque objects, i.e.
episcopic projection.
 In searchlights and headlights.
 In physical experiments such as
projection of the spectrum, polarisation
∴ 3 experiments and interference
experiments.
2. A lantern projector using a slide of 2cm x  Projection of minute objects, i.e. the
2cm projects a picture 1m x 1m onto a screen projection microscope.
12m from the projection lens. How far from
the lens must the slide be? Find the
Lens Camera
approximate focal length of the projection
lens. The lens is the image-forming device on a
Solution: camera.

Given: = 2 cm, = 1 m = 100 cm, v = 12 m

=1200cm, u =?, f =?

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Basic types of Lenses The film is a light-sensitive surface of the
(a) Normal (standard lens) camera.
(b) wide angle lens Mode of Action
(c) telephoto (long-focus lens)  The image of the object must be
sharply focused on the film by adjusting
Normal (standard) Lens the distance of the lens from the film
(a) The viewing is much wider-about 50  After focusing and correctly setting the
degrees. aperture size and shutter time ,the click
(b) The objects appear normal in size and button is pressed
shape, relative to the picture  The shutter opens to allow light to
background enter and expose the film to form an
image of the object being
Wide Angle Lens photographed. The film is then
 The viewing is much wider-about 90 developed to produce a photograph of
degrees. the object
 Used to make smaller objects look
larger or to photograph large objects Magnification
from close up. Since magnification is given by
Telephoto Lens
 It has wider fields of view than normal
lenses.
 They show an enlarged detail of the
image over the same film area.

Parts of the Lens Camera

Diaphragm
 The diaphragm determines the amount
of light that passes through the lens by
changing the size of the aperture. 𝑔
NB: Aperture is an opening whose ( )
diameter is adjustable

Shutter ( )
 The shutter is a mechanical device that
acts as a gate, controlling the duration 𝒇
of time that light is allowed to pass 𝒎
𝒇
through the lens and fall on the film.

Viewfinder Example
 The viewfinder defines the area 1. A lens camera of focal length 15 cm is used
covered by the lens that is in use on the to take a picture of a man of height 1.8 m. If
camera. the man is standing 10 m ahead of the camera.
Determine the:
Film (a) Magnification of the image (b) size of the
image

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Solution : Uses of Lens Camera
Given: f = 15 cm = 0.15 m, HO = 1.8 m, u = 10 (a) The sine or video camera is used to take
m, m =?, HI= ? motion pictures.
(b) High-speed cameras used to record
movement of particles.
(c) Closed-circuit television cameras are
used for surveillance in high-security
(d) Digital cameras are used to capture
𝑔 ( ) images
( )
The Human Eye
 Is an optical device able to respond to
an enormous range of light brightness
 It is able to focus on objects from
billions of kilometers away to those a
∴height of the image formed =2.7 cm few centimeters away. It can also
detects colour. (See the fig. below)
NB.
 Optometrists and ophthalmologists
usually prescribe lenses measured in
‘’diopters’’
 The power , P, of a lens in diopters
equals the inverse of the focal length
in metres
That is : 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆 =𝟏𝑭𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈 𝒉 (𝒎)

1. COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE QUESTIONS

SET 5.5
a. A lens camera of focal length 10 cm is used to
take the picture of a girl 1.5 m tall. Determine
the magnification of the image if the girl is 11m
from the camera.( m =0.009)
b. A lens camera has a lens of focal length 15 cm Parts of the human Eye
and a film (screen) of height 0.35 cm. How far 5. Cornea
would a boy of height 1.8 m stand from the  The cornea is the transparent, outer
camera so that his image just fits the film? part of the eye. It is the primary
c. A professional photograph has a camera of focusing tool of the eye. The outer layer
focal length 2.5 cm. He uses it to take a photo of the cornea is known as the
of a tree of height 60 m. The distance between epithelium.
the lens of the camera and its film is 2.5 cm.  Function of cornea: Its main job is to
Determine: protect the eye
i. Distance between the lens and the tree
ii. The height of the image (c) The magnification 6. Iris. The iris is the part of the eye which is
of the camera responsible for one’s eye colour.

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 Function of Iris: It acts like diaphragm  The vitreous humour is a jelly-like

of the camera, dilating and constricting substance that fills the body of the eye.
the pupil to allow more or less light into It is normally clear
the eye.
The Function of vitreous humour
3. Pupil  To maintain the eye pressure.
 The pupil is the dark opening in the  It also helps in focusing light rays
centre of the colored iris that controls
the amount of light that enters the eye. Accommodation
 The pupil functions in the same way as  Accommodation is the process whereby
the aperture of a camera. an eye focal length adjusted to see
 The size of the pupil determines the distant objects.
amount of light entering the eye.
Eye Defects
4. Lens.  Eye defect is the phenomenon where
The lens is the part of the eye immediately by eye defeat to see clearly.
behind the iris.
There are two common eye defects.
Function of lens:  Myopia (short-sightedness defect)
 To focus light rays on the retina.  Hypermetropia (long-sightedness
 In persons under 40 years of age, the defect)
lens is soft and flexible, allowing for fine
focusing from a wide variety of distance Myopia
 Occur when a person can see near
5. Retina objects clearly but cannot see distant
 The retina is the membrane lining the objects clearly.
back of the eye that contains Causes
photoreceptor cells it reacts to the  When the eyeball is too long
presence and intensity of light by  When the refractive power of the lens
sending an impulse to the brain via the is too strong
optic nerve.
 The retina compares to the film in a Correction
lens camera.  To wear suitable concave lenses to
diverge the rays from distant objects
6. Optic nerve before they reach the eye.
 The optic nerve (million nerve fibres) is Diagram:
the structure which takes the
information from the retina as electrical
signals to the brain.

7. Sclera
 The sclera is the white, tough wall of
the eye. Its function is to protects the
eye
Hypermetropia (Long – sightedness )
8. Vitreous humour

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 Occur when a person cannot see near Can be corrected by using cylindrical lenses
objects clearly but can see distant (b) Presbyopia
objects clearly. Occurs when the centre of the eye lens
hardens making it unable to
accommodate near vision

correction:
Eye glasses with progressive lenses are
prescribed to correct or improve the condition

Causes Similarities of Human Eye and Lens Camera

 When the eye ball is too short  Both have a convex lens system to
 When ciliary muscles are weak such focus the image
that unable to change the shape of the  Both save images
eye  Both form a real, reduced and inverted
 lens in order to focus the image (occurs image
when the refractive power of the eye  The amount of light entering is
 lens is too weak) controlled by a variable aperture
 They both have surfaces on which the
Correction image is formed
 The defect can be corrected by wearing  The retina behaves like the
suitable convex lenses so that the rays photographic screen of a camera
from the near object are made to
converge and focus on the retina. See Differences between Lens Camera and
the fig below . Human Eye

Example
1. The far point of a myopic person is 40 cm.
Other eye defects can be categorized into:- What should be the power of the lens that he
(a) Astigmatism must use to see clearly?
Occurs when the image is distorted because Solution:
light rays are blocked from meeting Given: f = 40 cm = 0.4 m, Power =?
at a common focus.

Causes
when the cornea shape is like an oblong rugby
ball and not spherical in shape as
normal

correction:
48 | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics
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GENERAL COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE image is at infinity. Calculate the position of
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS the object and the magnification of the
1. If the focal distance of the converging lens is 5 objective lens. (ANS: The magnification
cm the object distance is 4 cm. Find the produced by the eye piece lens is 4)
magnification of the image (ANS: M = 6 cm)
2. Given that the focal length of the simple 9. A simple microscope has a focal length of 15
microscope is 12cm.Find the magnification of cm
the image of the object distances. (ANS: M = (a)What is the maximum magnification of the
8.1) lens (ANS: 2.667)
(b)What is the magnification of this lens when
3. Given that an object 2m high is placed 2010cm the eye is relaxed (ANS: 1.667)
in front of the lens camera of focal length
10cm.calculate the minimum size of the film 10. The near point of a longsighted patient is 90
frame. (ANS: M = 0.0005) cm
i. Determine the focal length of a lens that can
4. The lantern projector uses a slide of 2 cm by 2 be used to enable the patient clearly see
cm, 2x2 to produce a picture 1 m by 1m on a objects that are 25 cm from the eye
screen 12cm from the projection lens. How far ii. What is the power of the lens
from the lens must the slide be? iii. What is the magnification of the lens?

5. A telescope is consisting of two converging lens 11. A short sighted person is unable to clearly see
of lens at focal length 25 and 4 respectively. objects that are beyond 150 cm from the eye
The final image is found at distinct vision that is .Determine the focal length ,power and
25 cm in front of the eyepiece lens. Find the magnification of the lens that should be used
position of the first image from the eyepiece. to detect the eye defect
ANS: Ue = 3.4cm
12. A patient requires a lens of -5 diopters in
6. An astronomer telescope has its 2 lens 78 cm order to see far away objects clearly
apart. If the objective lens has a focal length of .Determine the (a) Focal length of the lens
75.5 cm, what is the magnification produced by used (b) Far point of the patient ‘s eye
the telescope under normal vision ANS: The
magnification is 30.2 13. Define the term ‘’accommodation’’ as used in
the human eye
7. A compound microscope has an objective lens
of focal length 2 cm and eye piece lens of focal 14. Give two similarities and 2 differences
length 6cm.An object is placed 2.4 cm from an between the human eye and the camera
objective lens. If the distance between the
objective lens and eye piece lens is 19 cm. Find 15. State one advantage of human eye over a lens
(a) The distance of the final image from the camera
eyepiece lens (b) Compound magnification
ANS: The final image is at infinity and M = 16. The near point of an eye is 50 cm
i. What focal length lens should be used so that
8. A certain microscope consists of 2 converging the eye can clearly see an object 25 cm away?
lenses of focal length 4 cm and 10 cm for (ANS: f = 50 cm)
objective 3 eyepiece lenses respectively. The 2 ii. What is the power of this lens? (ANS: 2
lenses are separated by the distance of diopters)
30cm.The instrument is focused so that the
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17. (a) State the causes of the short – sightedness 24. A compound microscope expected to have a
and long – sightedness (b) Use a ray diagram to magnification of X600 has a tube length of 12
show how cm and the focal length of the objective lens is
(i) Short – sightedness in a human eye can be 0.5 cm Determine the expected focal length of
corrected the eye piece
(ii) Long – sightedness can be corrected
25. A magnifying glass of focal length of 15 cm is
18. A farsighted man has a near point of 100 cm used to view an object so as to obtain
.Wearing his glasses, he can see objects that maximum magnification
are 25 cm away .What is the focal length of i. Where should the object be placed?
the lens in his glasses? ii. What is the magnification of the magnifying
lens?
19. In a compound microscope ,the focal length of
the objective lens is 4.0 cm and that of the 26. A compound microscope has an objective lens
eyepiece is 3.3 cm and they are placed at a of focal length 25 cm and an eyepiece with
distance of 15.0 cm .A real object of size 2 mm focal length 14 cm, If it has a tube of length 36
is placed 6 cm from the objective lens .By using cm determine the magnification of the
the lens formula , Calculate microscope
i. Position of the final image (ANS: V = 12 cm) (b)
The size of the final image viewed by the eye 27. A lens of focal lens 10 cm is positioned from an
(ANS: VFINAL IMAGE = 33 cm) object so as to obtain maximum magnification
ii. Magnification produced by the arrangement of of the image .Determine the:
the lenses (ANS: HI = 44 mm) i. Object distance (b) Image distance (c )
Magnification
20. (a) Differentiate between a simple microscope
and a compound microscope 28. A lens camera is to be used to take a picture
of a man 2 m tall .If the lens of the camera has
21. With the aid of a diagram describe how a a focal length of 10 cm , Calculate the
compound microscope works. minimum size of the film frame required
,given that the man is 20.1 m from the
22. A compound microscope has an objective lens camera.
of focal length 2cm and an eyepiece of focal
length 6 cm. An object is placed 2.4 cm from 29. A certain microscope consists of two
the objective lens .If the distance between the converging lenses of focal lengths 10 cm and 4
objective lens and the eyepiece is 17m ,find cm for the objective and eye piece respectively
(j) The distance of the final image from the .The two lenses are separated by a distance of
eyepiece 30 cm .The instrument is focused so that the
(k) (ii) The linear magnification final image is at infinity .Calculate the position
of the and the magnification of the objective
23. Small object is placed 3cm from the lens of a lens (ANS u = 16.25 cm, m = 1.6)
simple microscope .If the focal length of the
lens is 5 cm ,Find the linear magnification 30. Draw a clearly labeled diagram of a lens
produced by the simple microscope .How far camera and explain briefly how the image of
from the lens would you place the object in an object is focused on the film .A camera
order to obtain maximum magnification of the with a lens of focal length 15 cm is used to
image ? take a photograph of a man standing 4.5 m
from the lens .Find the length of the image
50 | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics
 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
formed if the man is 1.75 m tall ii. Diameter of the image of the sun(image size)
(𝒎= / =𝒉𝒊/𝒉𝒐→ 𝒅𝒊=𝟏𝟔.𝟖 𝒄𝒎)
31. Describe with the aid of a diagram the optical 37. A person whose sight is normal wishes to view
system of the projection lantern .A projection objects which are 5 cm from his eyes. Find the
lantern is to be used for the projection of slides focal length of the lenses needed for his
measuring 7.5 cm by 7.5 cm onto a screen spectacles
measuring 2.1 m by 2.1 m .If the distance 38. When is a person said to be suffering from long
between the projection lens and the screen is 6 sight? Draw a diagram of the eye to show how
m, Find the focal length of the lens. this defect may be corrected by the use of a
suitable type of lens.
32. Describe how would you construct an
astronomical telescope. What will be the 39. Mention two ways in which a photographic
maximum distance between the objective camera is similar to the human eye and one
lens and the eyepiece lens?. Draw a ray way in which it is different.
diagram to illustrate the paths of two rays
from a point on an object which is not on the 40. A converging lens has a focal length of 5 cm
axis of the telescope. (ANS: P = 20 D)

33. Define and explain the terms near point and 41. What is the power of the lens?
far point as applied to the human eye .Draw
diagrams to illustrate the defects of long and 42. If this lens were used in an astronomical
short sight .How can each defect be corrected refracting telescope, for which part of the
by using lenses ? telescope would it be most suitable?

34. A man whose least distance of distinct vision (iii)What would be the distance between the two
of 75 cm wants spectacles to allow him to lenses if the telescope were in normal adjustment
read a book held at a distance of 25 cm from (i.e with the final image at infinity)? (ANS
his eyes. Find the focal length of the lens he :(=𝒇𝒐+𝒇𝒆)→ 𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈 𝒉 )
needs .Discuss briefly whether a short –
sighted person can use a telescope without 43. Explain the terms real image and virtual image
wearing any spectacles
44. Describe the construction of a photographic
35. Draw a clearly labelled diagram of the human camera. If the focal length of the camera lens is
eye and explain how it can focus near and 20 cm, how far away from the film must the
distant objects. How does the human eye lens be set in order to photograph an object
resemble the lens camera? 100 cm from the lens? (ANS: v = 25 cm)
45. A slide projector using a slide 5 cm x 5 cm
36. A telescope of 5.0 m diameter reflector of focal produces a picture 3 m x 3 m on a screen
length 18.0 m is used to focus the image of the placed at a distance of 24 m from the
sun. Using the distance of the sun from the projection lens. How far from the lens must the
earth and diameter of the sun as 1.5 x 1011 m slide be? (ANS: 40 cm x 40 cm)
and 1.4 x 109 m respectively, calculate the:
i. Position of the image of the sun ( v = f =18 cm,
since the object is at infinity)

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CHAPTER 6: THERMAL EXPANSIONS

 When solid is cooled, its molecules lose
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter kinetic energy and have less vibration.
to change in volume due to change in As the vibration become lower, the
temperature.

Terms used molecules are pulled closer and the

 Expansion is the process whereby solid contracts slightly in all directions
object increases its volume due to
increase in temperature Thermal Expansion of Solids
 Contraction is the process whereby  The expansion of solid substance is so
object decreases its volume due to small such that it is difficult to observe
decrease in temperature its changes
 As the temperature of a solid increases,
Sources of thermal Energy the atoms vibrate with large amplitudes
 The sun (the sun generates its energy and the average separation between
by nuclear fusion) them increases.
 Combustion of fuels As a result, the entire solid occupies a large
 Nuclear energy (is energy generated volume as the temperature increases.
from nuclear reactions) This can be seen in the ball and ring
 Geothermal energy (the heat energy experiment as shown in the fig. below
delivered from the earth core)

Why Substance expands?

 Substance expands when heated
because its particles vibrate more
rapidly. As a result they collide and
push each other further apart
 All states of matter (solids, liquids and
gases) expand when heated.

Explain what happen when solids (liquids or

gases) are heated? Observation and Explanations
 When a solid is heated, its molecules  The metal ball can just pass through the
gain kinetic energy and vibrate more ring at room temperature
vigorously. As the vibration become  On heating, the metal ball expands.
larger, the molecules are pushed There is an increase in volume and the
further apart and the solid expands ball cannot pass through the ring
slightly in all directions.  On cooling , contraction occurs and the
original volume is regained .The ball can
Explain what happen when solids (liquids or now pass through the ring
gases) are cooled?

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Linear expansivity (Coefficient of linear (ANS: L = 38 cm)
expansion)
 Is the ratio of increase in length to its 3. A metal rod has a length of 100 cm at 2000 C.
original length per degree rise in At what temperature will its length be 99.4 cm
temperature if the linear expansivity of the material of the
 OR rod is 0.00002/K (ANS: - 1020 C)
 Is the increase in length per unit length
of the substance when its temperature 4. A metal pipe which of 1M long at 40°C
rises by 1°C or 1 K. increases in length by 0.3% when carrying a
 The SI unit for linear expansivity is K-1 steam at 100°C. Find the Coefficient of Linear
Mathematically: Expansion (ANS: α = 5 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓/ K )
𝑔 (
5. A brick (30 cm x 18 cm x 10 cm) is at 20°C, If
𝑔 𝑔
the brick heated to a temperature of 150°C,
what will be its new dimensions? (The
coefficient of linear expansion of concrete is
1.2 x 10-5 K-1 (ANS: 30.05 cm x 18.03 cm x
Where 10.02cm)

6. An iron plate at 20°C has a hole of radius of

8.92 mm in the centre, an iron rivet with
radius of 8.95 mm at 20°C, inserted into the
hole. To what temperature the plate heated
for the rivet to fit into the hole. (Linear
Linear expansivities of different substances.
expansivity of iron is 1.24 x 10-5K-1). ANS:
Substance 291°C

7. Which is heavier, 1 dm3 of glass at 40 C or 1

dm3 of glass at 100 C? Explain your answer.

N.B
Superficial expansion of solids(Areal
COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE expansion) is the ratio of increase in area to its
EXAMINATIONS QUESTIONS SET 6.1 original area for every degree increase in
1. A block of concrete 5.0 m long expands to temperature
5.00412 m when heated from 25°C to 100°C.
Determine the linear expansivity of concrete.( The Bimetallic Strip
ANS: α = 1.1 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ℃ = 1.1 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 K-1) The bimetallic strip consists of two different
metals that expand at different rates when
2. The difference in length between a brass and heated through the same temperature change.
an iron rod is 14 cm at 100 C.What must be
the length of the iron for this difference to
remain at 14 cm when both rods are heated
to 1000 C? Given that the linear expansivity of
brass = 19 x 10-6/K and iron = 12 x 10-6/K.

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3. Construction of roads and pavements

 In order to prevent expansion always
NB: gapes are left between the slabs. Gape
 The metal that expands faster forms filled with pitch.(See the fig below)
the outside part of the curve while the
one that
 expands more slowly is on the inside of
the curve.
 Brass expands and contracts twice as
fast as steel.
 temperature must be measured in
Kelvin

4. The use of bimetallic strip

Applications of expansion of Solids The bimetallic strip is used in thermostats,
1. Applied in the construction of bridges and thermometers and valves.
house roofs
 In order to prevent expansion one end (a) Thermostat: Is a device used for
or both ends of steel bridge rest on maintaining a steady temperature.
rollers so Thermostat is used in many appliances such as
 when the bridge expands, the free end electric irons, heaters,
moves forward and backward without refrigerators, air conditioners, fire alarms and
breaking Valves
 If the ends were firmly fixed, the bridge  In Fire alarms circuit
or roof or its supports would break. When temperature rises bimetallic strip
bends to close a circuit which complete
the circuit and bell start to ring.

2. Railway lines construction

 In order to allow expansion during hot
weather always gapes are left between
 two rails.(See the figure below)
 In addition, the modern railway lines
have long lengths of special steel, which
 have sliding joints for expansion .On In Electric iron
these rails, trains run smoothly without
noise and bumps.
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 When a bimetallic strip bends due expansion joints

temperature change, it breaks the Expansion of the pipes when steam passes
circuit. merely increases the size of the bends.
6. Applied in designing of pendulum clocks
Pendulums and balance wheels in clocks are
compensated for expansion so that
the clocks keep correct time even when
temperatures changes

7. Overhead telephone and electrical cables

In Fire alarms circuit are loosely held
 When temperature rises bimetallic strip In order to allow for contraction and expansion
bends to close a circuit which complete during the cold and hot day Respectively.
the circuit and bell start to ring. During cold weather or at night, the metal can
contract without breaking

Some effects of expansion and contraction

1. Vessels made of thick or ordinary glass
break easily if hot liquids are poured in them.
(This is because the inside of the glass is
heated and expands, while the outside remains
cold and the same size. The force of expansion
(b) Bimetallic thermometer usually breaks the glass)
When temperature rises, the bimetallic strip
bends and causes the pointer to rotate across 2. Riveting of two metal plates
pulley.  Rivets are used in shipbuilding, boiler
making, etc to join metals sheets
 Rivets are heated to red hot condition
and are forced through holes in the
two plates
The end of hot rivets contract and bring
the plate tightly gripped to each other

3. Glass stoppers sometime stick in the necks

of bottle.
By warming the neck of such a bottle gently,
the stopper often comes out easily.
Bimetallic Valve
 Is also used to open and close
4. Weathering of rocks
temperature – sensitive valve
This is the action of sun, air and water
 The valve opens when the temperature
on rocks, causing them to break
rises and close when the temperature
Hot sun shine makes the outside of a
falls.
rock expand, and pieces break off
due to the force of expansion
5. Applied in hot-water pipes
In order to prevent destruction which arise
from expansion, pipes are fitted with
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5. Steel tyres or rims for wheels of railway  The end of hot rivets contract and bring
engines are slightly too small when cold. the plate tightly gripped to each other
They are made red–hot and expand enough to 3. Glass stoppers sometime stick in the necks of
fit the wheel. On cooling, the tyres contract bottle.
and fit tightly.  By warming the neck of such a bottle
gently, the stopper often comes out
easily
4. Weathering of rocks
 This is the action of sun, air and water
on rocks, causing them to break
 Hot sun shine makes the outside of a
rock expand, and pieces break off due
to the force of expansion
6. Applied in designing of pendulum clocks 5. Steel tyres or rims for wheels of railway
 Pendulums and balance wheels in engines are slightly too small when cold.
clocks are compensated for expansion  They are made red–hot and expand
so that the clocks keep correct time enough to fit the wheel. On cooling, the
even when temperatures changes tyres contract and fit tightly

7. Overhead telephone and electrical cables Thermal Expansion of Liquids

are loosely held
It is easier to observe expansion in liquids than
 In order to allow for contraction and in solids. This is because liquids expand much
expansion during the cold and hot day more than solids for equal change of
respectively temperature.
 During cold weather or at night, the
metal can contract without breaking Explain why when heating a liquid, its
level initially decreases and then it
Increases to become more larger than
the original level?
 The liquid level drops due to the
expansion of its container which initially
absorbed all the heat. The level of the
Some effects of expansion and contraction water will then keep rising as the
1. Vessels made of thick or ordinary glass break container due to the expansion of the
easily if hot liquids are poured in them. (This is water, its density decreases.
because the inside of the glass is heated and
expands, while the outside remains cold and
Apparent volume expansion of a Liquid
the same size. The force of expansion usually
breaks the glass)  Is the difference between the initial
2. Riveting of two metal plates volume of a liquid and its final volume
 Rivets are used in shipbuilding, boiler without consideration of the expansion
making, etc to join metals sheets of the container.
 Rivets are heated to red hot condition
and are forced through holes in the two
plates

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Absolute (Real) expansion of the liquid freezing point, the liquid water expands
 Is the difference between the final to become less dense.
volume of a liquid and its intermediate
volume.

The intermediate volume of a liquid

 Is the volume of a liquid attains due to
the change that was caused by the
expansion of the container.

Volume expansivity of a Liquid (coefficient of

volume of expansion)
 Is the fractional change in volume per Effects of Anomalous expansion of water
unit temperature change.
 A glass bottle filled with water and sealed
 Its SI unit is K-1 or °C-1
cracks if cooled in a deep freezer
 A glass tumbler breaks when a hot liquid is
poured in it because the inner wall expands
quickly while due to poor conductivity of glass,
( )
the outer wall remains unexpanded
Whereby:
 If water freezes in a pipe, it may cause the pipe
Original/initial volume of liquid = V1
to burst open due to expansion.
Final volume = V2
 Icebergs, being less dense than water, float in
Increase in volume of liquid = V2 – V1
oceans thus posing a danger to ships.
Initial temperature = T1
 Weathering of rocks .This happen when water
Final temperature = T2
freezes in the cracks of a rock the volume of
Rise in temperature = ΔT = (T2 – T1)
water increases .This causes the rock to break
Volume expansivity = β
into small pieces

Applications of Expansion of Liquids

 It supports the life of aquatic
organism. When water freezes, the ice
Anomalous expansion of Water floats to the top. This creates an
 Is the decrease in the density of water insulating layer, which allows liquid
as cooled from 4°C to 0°C. water to remain underneath. This
OR allows aquatic life to survive in freezing
 Is the unusual behavior of water where environments. (see the fig below)
its volume decreases when the
temperature rises from 00 C to 40 C
and increases when the temperatures
falls from 40 C to 00 C.
 The expansion of liquids used in liquid
What happens below 4°C to 0°C thermometers.
 At 4°C, just above the freezing point,
water reaches its maximum density. As
the water cool further toward its

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Thermal Expansion in Gases
 Gases expand much more than solids
and liquids when heated.
This is because the particles in gases
are not held closely together, as they
are in solids and liquids, but are instead
free to move in all directions.
 Three properties are important when
studying the expansion of gases.
 These include Pressure, Volume and
Temperature.
Analysis from the graph
NB
 From the graph above it seems that as
 The temperature must be converted
temperature increases also volume
into Kelvin scale
increases and vice versa
Charles’ Law
This law involves the relationship between the The Absolute Scale of temperature
volume and the temperature of a  When the temperature of the gas is -2730
fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure. The C, the volume of the gas is zero, at this
point the temperature is called ‘’absolute
law state that
zero or 0 K’’
“The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is
 The absolute zero temperature Is the
directly proportional to the absolute
lowest temperature that can be attained
temperature provided the pressure remains
theoretically.
constant”
OR
Mathematically
 Absolute zero is the temperature at which
V∝T
all particles of matter possess zero energy
∝
NB:
Practically, it is not possible to attain this
temperature because all gases liquefy before
attaining it
The figure below shows the relationship
between the Kelvin scale and the Celsius scale
of temperature

𝟏 𝟐

𝟏 𝟐

Whereby:
V1 = initial volume
V2 = final volume
T1 = initial temperature
T2= final temperature
Conversion
The graph of Volume against temperature
( ) ( )
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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
( ) ( )  A football inflated inside and then
taken outdoors during the cold season
Example: shrinks slightly
1. A gas of volume 300 cm3 was heated from
230 C to 830 C. Determine the volume at one Boyle’s Law
atmospheric pressure
This law involves the relationship between the
Solution:
volume and the pressure of a fixed mass of a
gas at constant temperature. The law state
that
“The volume of fixed mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure if the
temperature is kept constant”

COMREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE QUESTIONS SET 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

6.2
Whereby:
1. Change the following temperatures to Kelvin
P1 = initial pressure
scale (a) 33°C (b) 57°C. ANS: (a) T (K) = 306 K
P2 = final pressure
(b) T (K) = 330 K
V1 = initial volume
V2 = final volume
2. Change the following temperatures to Celsius
Graphically:
scale (a) 4K (b) 292K
ANS: (a) θ° C = - 269°C (b) θ° C = 19°C

3. A 0.20m3 container with a movable piston

holds nitrogen gas at a temperature of 20°C.
What will be the volume of the gas if the
temperature increased to 50°C? (ANS: V2 =
0.22 m3)

4. A gas occupies a volume of 20 cm3 at 27°C and

at normal atmospheric pressure. Calculate the
new volume of the gas if it heated to 54°C at ∴ P1 V1 = P2 V2
the same pressure. (ANS: V2 = 21 cm3)  From the graph above it seems that as
pressure increases also volume
decreases and vice versa.
Application of Charles’ Law  The figure below shows the relationship
 A balloon swells up when in the open between reciprocal of volume and
on a hot day, provided it is not inflated. pressure
If it is completely inflated ,it will burst  From the graph above it seems that as
the pressure increased also inverse of
volume increased and vice versa.
59 | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics
Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
bladders and other internal biological
Example structures due to increase in volume
1. A gas occupies 250 cm3 when the pressure is  Popping of ears at high altitude.
20 atmospheres. What will its volume be if When the plane starts to rise it is going
pressure is reduced to 15 atmospheres while from an area of high pressure where your
the temperature is kept constant? ears are accustomed to an area of low
solution pressure causing the air inside increases in
P1 = 20 atm, P2 = 15 atm volume, this straining your eardrums
V1 = 250, cm3 V2 = V2
From: P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 Pressure Law
20 x 250 = 15 x V2 This law involves the relationship between the
𝟐=𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓 =𝟑𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑 cm3 temperature and the pressure of a fixed mass
of a gas at constant volume. The law state that

COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE “At constant volume, the pressure of a fixed

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS SET 6.3 mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
1. A gas in a cylinder occupies a volume of absolute temperature”
465 ml when the pressure on it is
equivalent to 725 mm of mercury. What ∝
will be the volume of the gas when the
pressure on it rises to 825 mm of mercury
while the temperature is held constant?
(ANS: V2 = 408.6 ml)

2. Bubble of gas, which has a volume of 0.4 Where:

cm3, released by a diver 30 m in under the P1 = initial pressure
surface of a lake, what will be the volume T1 = initial temperature
of the bubble when it reaches the surface? P2 = final pressure
(Assume the barometric pressure is 10 m of T2 = final temperature
water.) (ANS: V2 = 1.2 cm3)
Graphically:
Application of Boyle’s Law
 Bubbles in water seem to grow as they
ascend from the bottom of the water to
the surface .This is due to the decrease in
Pressure
 Change of pressure in a syringe .
When the plunger of the syringe is pulled
back the volume of the syringe container
increases ,decreasing the pressure inside
 Death of deep sea creatures when brought
to shallow waters .
This happens when the pressure inside From the graph above it seems that as
their bodies is greater than the pressure of pressure increases also temperature increases
the surrounding water hence the balance is and vice versa.
distracted causing a burst of the cells

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Example
∝ ( )
1. A car tyre is at an air pressure of 4.0 x 105
Pa. at a temperature of 270 C. While it is ∝ ( )
running, the temperature rises to 750 C. What Combine equation 2 and 3
is the new pressure in the tyre? (Assume the ∝
tyre does not expand)

solution
Since the tyre does not expand, this implies
that the volume is constant
P1 = 40 000Pa, P2 = P2
T1 = (27+273) = 300K, T2 = (75 + 273) =384 K
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟐

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

 STP is a set of conditions for
experimental measurements to enable
comparisons between sets of data.
1. COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE QUESTION  The standard temperature is 0 °C (273
SET 6.5 K) while the standard pressure is 1
a. A rigid metal container holds carbon atmosphere (1.013 x 105 Pa or 760 mm
dioxide gas at a pressure of 2 x 105 Pa and of mercury).
a temperature of 30°C. What temperature
the gas be lowered for the pressure to COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE QUESTIONS
reduce to half (1 x 105 Pa)? ANS: T2 = UNIT SET 6.6
151.5K = -121.5°C 1. A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 0.11
b. A gas in a fixed-volume container has a m3 at a temperature of 12 °C and a pressure of
pressure of 1.6 x 105 Pa at a temperature 8.1 x 105 Pa while a sample of nitrogen gas has
of 27°C. What will be the pressure of the a volume of 0.18 m3 at a temperature of 22 °C
gas if the container heated to a and a pressure of 1.03 x 105 Pa. Which gas will
temperature of 277°C? ANS: P2 = 2.93 x have the larger volume at STP? (ANS: V2O =
105 0.084 m3 , V2N = 0.17 m3 At STP, nitrogen gas
would have a volume that is more than twice
Application of Pressure Law the volume of oxygen gas.)
Soda or soft drinks bottles are made of thick
glass. This is because, when gas is heated in a 2. A fixed mass of gas has a volume of 1.25 litres
closed container its pressure increases .Hence at a pressure of 76.0 cm of mercury and a
they are made of thick glass to withstand temperature of 27.0°C. The gas expands to a
pressure increase. volume of 1.55 litres raising the pressure to
80.0 cm of mercury. What is the final
The General Gas Equation temperature of the gas in °C? (ANS: T2 =
391.58K = 118.58°)
Any two of the three gas laws can be used to
derive the general gas law or equation
3. A fixed mass of gas occupies a volume of 0.001
∝ ( )
m3 at a pressure of 76 cmHg. What volume
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does the gas occupy at 17.0°C if its pressure is 6. A brass road of length of 0.997 m at 200 C is
72 cmHg? (A: V2 =1.12 x 10-3 m3) hung from a steel framework with a height of
1.00 mat 200 C as shown in the figure below
4. Cm3 of gas A was collected at 10°C and 78.0
cmHg pressure, while 120 cm3 of gas B was
collected at 50°C and 70.0 cmHg pressure.
Which of the two gases is denser at STP? ANS:
At STP, gas B has large volume than gas A so
gas A is denser than gas B . That is VA2 = 99.00
cm3 and VB2 = 93.42 cm3

5. 250 cm3 of a gas are collected at 25°C and 750

mm of mercury. Calculate the volume of the
gas at STP (ANS: V2 =226.01 cm3) 7. A brass has a hole whose radius is too small for
an iron rivet to fit in .Explain two ways the rivet
can be made to fit in the hole.
Applications of the Expansion of Gases
8. Convert the following temperatures on the
 Land and sea breezes Celsius scale to temperatures on the Kelvin or
 The piston engine absolute scale (a) 1000 C (b) 250 C (c ) -1000 C
 Firing bullets from guns
 Releasing of whether balloon 9. Convert the following temperatures on the
Kelvin scale to temperatures on Celsius scale:
GENERAL COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE (a) 273K (b) 400K (c) 100K
QUESTIONS
1. Define coefficient of linear expansion. A copper 10. State Charles law and describe how it is
pipe which is 1 meter long at 150 C increases in verified in laboratory.1000 cm3 of air at 0°C
length by 0.15% when carrying steam at 1000 are heated to 70°C. What volume will the air
c, find the coefficient of linear expansion of occupy if the pressure remains at atmospheric
copper throughout?
2. Explain why a compound metal bar made up
of two strips, one of iron and another of 11. The pressure of 440cm³ of the gas is 80cm of
brass, bends when heated mercury. What will be the new pressure of the
gas if its volume is reduced to 400cm³ at
3. A beaker containing water is heated a constant temperature?
temperature of 230 C to 900 C. State and
explain what happens to the Mass, volume and 12. The pressure in a metal glass cylinder at 15°c
density of water. is 2 atmospheres. At what temperature will
the pressure be doubled?
4. An aluminium lid on an ordinary glass jar fits so 13. When is a given mass of a gas said to be at
tightly that it cannot be unscrewed .Should the s.t.p? The volume of a gas collected at a
jar and lid be immersed in hot or cold cold temperature of 36° C and pressure of 78cm of
water to loosen the lid?. Explain your answer mercury is 230cm³. Find its volume at s.t.p.

5. A steel tower has a height of 324 m at a 14. A 500 cm3 Pyrex beaker is 95% full of
temperature of 180 C .How tall is the tower on methanol at 150 C. At what temperature will
a day when the temperature is 350 C?

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
it be 100% full with methanol? 22. A metal rod 80cm long increased in length by
0.09 cm when the temperature was raised by
15. A hollow glass sphere has a density of 1.30 93.6°C .Determine linear expansivity of metal.
g/cm3 at 200C . Glycerine has a density of
1.26 g/cm3 at 200C .At what temperature 23. The air in a bicycle tyre occupies a volume of
would the sphere begin to float in glycerine. 1000 cm³ when it is at a pressure of 2.5
atmospheres the air is released to the
16. The figure below shows a brass invar atmospheres (a)Assuming that the
bimetallic strip at room temperature. temperature of the gas does not change, what
volume does it occupy at the atmosphere
(b).A pump with a volume of 150 cm³ per
stroke is used to inflate the tyre .What is the
pressure of the tyre after two strokes?

24. An iron rod is 100 cm long at 0°C. What must

Given that brass expands more than invar be the length of alluminium rod at 0°C if the
when both are heated equally , sketch the difference between the length of the two rods
appearance of the strip after being cooled to are to remain the same at all temperatures?
several degrees below room temperature. (Linear expansivities of iron and alluminium are
1.2 x 10-5 K-1 and 2.4 x 10-5 K-1, respectively
17. A glass test tube was heated over a Bunsen
burner flame. Cold water was then quickly 25. A gas occupies a volume of 2m ³ when its
poured into the test tube. Explain why the test pressure is 1140mmHg at a temperature of
tube would break when cold water is poured 27° C. What volume will it occupy at s.t.p?
in.
26. The figure below shows a circuit diagram for
18. A rally a car tyre is at an air pressure 3 x 10⁵ controlling the temperature of a room
Pa and a temperature of 27°C at start of the
rally. The temperature rises to 57°C when the
car is racing. Assuming the tyre does not
expand, what is the new pressure in the tyre?

19. The pressure of 3 m³ at a gas at 27°C is 3

atmospheres .What will be the pressure of the
gas if it is compressed into a half the volume i. State and explain the purpose of the bimettalic
and heated to 102°C? strip. (b).Describe how the circuit controls the
temperature when the switch is closed.
20. (a). Define the term linear expansivity of a
solid . (b).The original length of ametal bar is 27. A container holds a gas at 0°C .To what
101.5cm at 15°C.Determine the linear temperature must be heated to its pressure to
expansivity of the metal if the bar increases in double? (Assume that the volume of the
length by 1.41mm when the temperature is container does not change )
raised to 100°C
28. Explain why a glass container with thick walls is
21. Why electrical cables are left sagging during more likely to crack than one with thin walls
installation? when a very hot liquid is poured in each of the
glasses.
63 | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics
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29. A balloon is filled with air to a volume of
200ml At a temperature of 20°C .The balloon
is then dipped in water at 80°C.Assuming two
leakage occurs and ignoring the pressure
change due to the water. Calcuate the new
volume of air.

30. A compound strip of brass and iron, 10 cm long

at 200C,is held horizontally with iron
uppermost. When heated from below with a
37. (a). Determine the pressure of the air in the
Bunsen burner the temperature of the brass is
cylinder given that the pressure comes from
8200 C and that of the iron is 7700C.Calculate
the weight of the cylinder (b).The cylinder is
the difference in lengths of the iron and brass
placed over a source of heat causing the air to
(ANS:Δ𝒍=𝟎.𝟎𝟔𝟐 𝒄𝒎)
expand and push the piston upward a distance
of 3.5cm as shown in the figure below.
31. State any three applications of bimetallic strip

32. Using the kinetic theory of gases explain how a

rise in the temperature of gases causes a rise in
the pressure of a gas when a volume is held
constant.

33. The pressure indicated by the gauge on a

constant -volume gas thermometer in a
thermal equilibrium with a room is 97 kPa
.When the thermometer was immersed in a
bath of ice water, the pressure was 90kPa 38. Assuming that the pressure of the air remained
.What is the temperature in the room in °C?. constant, what was the change in volume of
the air? (Volume of a cylinder = 𝜋r2h)
34. Helium gas at temperature of -30°C is held in a
rigid metal container at a pressure of 1.5 x 10⁵ 39. Distinguish between heat and temperature
pa. The container is heated to a temperature of
25°C.W hat is the new pressure of the gas? 40. (a) State Charles’ Law ,Boyle’s Law and the
Pressure Law (b) Write down the ideal gas
35. A metal rod is 10 m long at 200 C .At what equation (c) The volume of a certain gas at
temperature would its length increases by 5cm 100 C is 100 cm3 .Calculate the volume of the
if its linear expansivity is 2x 10-6/K gas if it is warmed at a temperature of 300 C
at constant pressure.
36. A cylinder closed at both ends as an inner
radius 0.021 m. The cylinder is fitted with a 41. Explain each of the following observations: (a)
movable piston of mass of 2(ANS: temp = A lid on a metal can be unscrewed easily if the
25200 C) kg. The space between the piston and can is immersed in hot water for a few minutes
the bottom of the cylinder contains 1.11 x 10-⁴ (b) Corrugated iron – sheet roofs make
m³ of air at 25°C while the space above the cracking noises on a night preceded by a hot
piston has been evacuated as shown in the day.
figure below.

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
42. It is difficult to unscrew wheel nuts in the happening to the copper?
morning , while it is relatively easy to unscrew
them on a hot day. 52. Why are the over head power cables more
likely to break and fall during the cold season
43. Define (a) Heat (b) Thermal expansion (c) of the year than during the warm season of the
Linear expansivity (d) Absolute zero year even though they carry the same weight
temperature (e) Anomalous expansion of all year round?
water
44. Differentiate between (a) Apparent expansion 53. A grandfather’s clock is controlled by a
of liquid and absolute expansion of liquid (b) swinging brass pendulum of length 1.3 m at a
Heat and temperature. temperature of 20°C.(∝ =19 x 10-6 °C-¹)
i. What is the length of the pendulum rod when
45. What do you understand by intermediate the temperature drops to 0°C?
expansion of liquid? ii. If the period of the pendulum is given by
46. Show how the combined gas law is obtained. T=2𝝅√ , where L is its length, does the change
in the length or the brass rod cause the clock
47. Explain the following observations: to run fast or slowly?
i. An inflated balloon hung in the open at a
wedding bust when the temperature of the 54. A gas is a contained in an 8 litre vessel at a
environment rises temperature of 20°C and pressure of 9 atm. At
ii. A whale cannot survive in a shallow water what temperature will the gas fill 3 litre vessel
iii. Soda bottles are thick at a pressure of 13 atmospheres?
iv. Water bubbles seem to increase in size as they
rise from the bottom of a tank 55. The temperature of a body is 47°C .What
v. Electric wire are seem to sag when its hot but would this temperature be in the absolute
look very straight when its cold scale?
vi. Fish living in polar regions such as Antarctica
do not die even when the temperature fall 56. Given that at s.t.p a gas occupies 5600cm³,
below 0°C determine the pressure at which it will occupy
the volume of 28.5 litres at a temperature of
48. Mention two demerits of anomalous expansion 220°C.
(a) State Boyle’s law.
57. States Charles’ Law .An ideal occupies a
49. Sketch the graph of pressure (P) against the volume of 500 cm3 at a temperature of 300 C
reciprocal of volume (1/v) for air at constant .At what temperature will it occupy a volume
temperature. of 456 cm3
58. Explain why inflated balloon swells up and
50. A bubble of air of volume 50.0mm3 is released even bursts when in the open on a hot day?
by a diver at a depth where the pressure is
304.0 cm Hg .Assuming that the temperature 59. A form three student carried out an
remains constant ,what is its volume just experiment on one of the gas laws .She
before reaches the surface where the pressure obtained the following results
is 76.0 cm

51. A piece of copper is dropped into water, if the

temperature of the water is rising what is
i. Plot a graph of volume V against temperature
65 | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics
Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

CHAPTER 07; TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

Way of heat transfer 2. Cross-sectional area that is perpendicular to
Heat can be transferred from one place to the heat flow
another in three ways, these include  The larger the cross-sectional area, the
1. Conduction faster the rate of heat conduction
2. Convection 3. Difference in temperature between the two
3. Radiation ends of the material
 The higher the difference, the faster the
rate of conduction.
Conduction of Heat
Conduction Is the transfer of heat though 4. Thermal conductivity of the material.
matter from a region of higher temperature to
 This is a measure of the rate at which a
a region of lower temperature.
material conducts heat. The higher the
thermal conductivity of the material,
How heat transferred?
the faster the rate of conduction
 When heat is supplied to one part of a
solid, the atoms vibrate faster. This
vibration is passed onto neighboring Minimizing heat losses by Conduction
atoms through the bonds. This spreads  In a system where heat needs to be
the heat throughout the object. conserved , heat losses by conduction
can be minimized by thermal insulation
Good and Bad Conductors  This involves the use of poor
Good Conductors conductors of heat used in boilers, hot
 Are the materials that allow heat to – water pipes and in the textile industry
flow through them easily. For example,  In the house is achieved by using
iron etc. the conduction on liquid is double – glazed windows , carpets
minimal due to the large intermolecular curtains and draught excluders
spaces
 Conductors have different rate of heat Application of Conduction
conduction. Example, copper is the best  Cooking vessels are made of metals
conductor of heat while steel is the (copper), which are good conductors.
poorest conductor.  Aluminium is used in making motor
engines, pistons and cylinders due to its
Bad Conductors (Thermal Insulators) low density and high thermal
Are materials that cannot allow heat to flow conductivity
through them easily
For example, plastic, wood, glass etc. Our clothes are thermal insulators in order to
prevent heat loss from our bodies
Factors affecting the rate of Conduction The bottoms of cooking pots need periodic
1. Length of the material cleaning to remove layers of soot, which
 The longer the material, the more the impede the flow of heat
time it will take to conduct heat
through it. Refrigerators and ice – boxes have an air –
space between double walls. Air is a good
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insulator. Cork or porous material is used to Application of Convection
stop convection currents in the air  Domestic hot water supply system
 Fiberglass is used under roofs of This system works on the principle of
buildings to prevent heat loss in cold Convection Current. Hot water moves from the
areas boiler to where it is used under convection
 Blocks of ice are usually covered with current. Inside the boiler water is heated
cloth, paper or sawdust when being making it less dense, water rises and flow into
moved or stored. the hot water reservoir where it is stored until
 Sawdust (A poor conductor) is used for needed for use main water supply.
lagging hot-water pipes Diagram:
 Heat Sinks are attached in electronic
devices used for preventing damage
due to high temperature

N.B Heat Sinks are made of Aluminium

Convection of Heat
Is the transfer of heat in fluids (liquids and
gases) by currents
OR
Is the movement of heat through fluids (liquids
or gases) caused by movement of liquid from Chimneys
the hotter to the colder parts.  Smoke and gases from fires in houses
and factories rise up chimneys and the
 If temperature of fluids increase , it
flow is convection current. Gases pass
tends to cause convection currents
up a tall chimney faster than up a short
which circulate heat continuously
one, this is because high chimneys have
throughout the fluid until the whole
greater pressure difference.
fluid is at a steady temperature (See the
Ventilation
fig. below)
 Damp, warm, breathed – out air is less
dense than ordinary air; it rises and can
escape through openings near the roof.
Houses and cinemas have openings in
or near their ceilings.
Winds
 Are convection currents .Some parts of
the earth’s surface are hotter than
others .The warm air rises over the hot
How can we minimize Convection? surface and its place is taken by cooler,
 It can be minimized by keeping the denser air
place vacuum, Example, vacuum flask Land and sea breeze
minimizes heat loss by convection.  Land and sea breezes are a result of
 It can also be reduced by filling air expansion of air caused by unequal
cavities with insulating materials heating and cooling of adjacent land
and sea surfaces
 During the day time the land is warmer
than the sea thus the air over the land
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surface becomes less dense and so it heated air rises up and cold air moves
rises. The space left is occupied by down to take the place of the rising
cooler air from above the sea surface. warm air. This forms convectional
Thus sea breeze occur current which continue to circulate
until the air in the room is at the
desired temperature

Radiation of heat
 Radiation Is the movement of heat by
waves emitted by vibrating particles of
hot substances
OR
 During the night time the sea is hotter Radiation is the heat transfer between two or
than the land thus the air over the sea more bodies by means of electromagnetic
becomes less denser and therefore waves that do not need material medium.
replaced by cooler, denser air from the NB:
land . Thus land breezes occur  Heat travels in form of infrared
radiations
 All bodies at a temperature above
absolute zero emit some radiant energy
(heat)
 Between the sun and the earth’s
atmosphere is a vacuum
 Radiant heat travels with the speed of
light and can be reflected , absorbed
and transmitted
N.B: The land gets warmer quickly than the  Heat loss by radiation is minimized by
sea, because sea water has a higher heat covering a body (surrounding) with
capacity than the land (sea water needs more shiny surfaces
time to raise its temperature)
Radiant Detector
Motor – car cooling system. There are two instruments which can be used
 Car radiators cool water heated by the to detect radiations
engine.  Thermopile
 Liquid in thermometer
Air condition.
 Air conditioning systems relied on Thermopile is an instrument used to converts
convectional current to heat of cool radiant heat energy into electrical energy
room. When it is hot, cool air is blown Absorbers, Emitters and Reflectors
into the room from the air conditioner. Absorber
This sinks to the bottom of the room  Absorber is a material that delivers/gain
taking place of the less dense warmer all radiant energy.
air (warmer air rises and is led out to be  A surface that absorbs all radiant
cooled then re – circulated). energy is called black body.
 When it is cold, the heated air is turned  Good radiators of heat are also good
on heating the surrounding air. The absorbers. Example, black cooking
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vessel, black clothes dry faster than between the walls. It has a stopper
others colored clothes etc made of insulating materials or cork
(See the fig. below)
Emitter
 Emitter is a material that delivers out all
radiant energy.
 A surface that emits all radiant energy
is called black body

Reflector
 Reflector is a material (surface) that
bounces back all radiant energy.
Example, white or bright – colored
surfaces are poor emitters and
absorbers of heat, solar cookers etc
 Uses of good and bad radiators or
absorbers
 White clothes. In hot countries white How thermos flask prevents heat Loss?
clothes are slightly cooler than other Heat losses by conduction is minimized by
clothes  The stopper which is a bad conductor
 White buildings. These are cooler than (made of wood, rubber or cork)
buildings with dark colours on the  Glass flask (Poor conductor of heat)
outside. Storage tanks containing oil or  The supporting pad (separator). It is
petrol are usually painted with also a poor conductor of heat
aluminium paint. The polished, silvery  Heat losses by convection can be
surface is a bad absorber. minimized by
 Vacuum flask. This is used to keep hot  Vacuum between the walls of the flask
liquids hot and cold substances cold  The stopper which is a bad conductor
 Question (made of wood, rubber or cork)
Why do we prefer white clothes in summer?  Heat losses by radiation is minimized by
Ans: Because they are poor absorbers and  Using silvered walls (to reflect infrared
good emitters radiation back to the content of the
thermos flask)
Minimizing heat losses by radiation?
 It can be minimized by keeping the Metal Foil
place shine (polished).  Is the polished material used to cover
items to minimize heat loss by
Thermos Flask radiation. For example, aluminium foils
 Thermos flask is a device used to hold are used in wrapping hot food.
hot or cold liquid for long period of
time. How metal foils prevent heat Loss?
 It consists of a double-walled glass Metal foils prevents heat loss by reflecting
(polished by coated with a thin layer of radiant energy
aluminium), container with vacuum

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Applications of radiation 7. A thermometer having a blackened bulb
 Electric kettles, iron boxes and cooking records a higher than an ordinary thermometer
pans have polished surfaces to reduce when they are both held at an equal distance
heat loss through radiation from a fire Explain this
 Houses in hot regions are painted white 8. Explain briefly how a fire can assist in the
to minimize heat absorption through ventilation of a room
radiation 9. Explain how heat transfer by radiation takes
 Green houses act as heat trap by place.
preventing longer wavelength 10. Why does heat transfer by radiation not
radiations from passing through glass require a medium?
 Cloudy nights are warmer than clear 11. A good cooking vessel should be black on the
nights because clouds reflect radiation outside and not shiny white. Explain.
back to the earth 12. Give one way through which heat losses by
radiation can be prevented.
GENERAL COMPREHENIVE EXAMINATION 13. List three areas where heat transfer through
QUESTIONS each of the following methods is applied: (a)
1. Explain what is meant by the conduction of conduction (b)convection (c)radiation
heat .Use the kinetic theory to explain how 14. explain how heat transfer by conduction takes
heat is transferred along a metal road. place
15. Why are gases poor conductors of heat
2. Explain briefly the reason why steam pipes are 16. Why are cooking vessels made of aluminium
covered with felt or asbestos and not iron?
17. Why are stadium seats made of plastic and
3. A piece of iron and a piece of wood are both not steal?
cooled to a temperature of 0 0 C .When 18. Give two ways through which heat losses by
touched with a finger ,the iron feels colder convection can be prevented?
than the wood .Why ? 19. Why is it not possible for heat transfer by
convection to take place in solids?
4. Discuss the uses of good and bad conductors of 20. Explain the importance of making ventilation
heat energy in everyday life. on the top of the walls in a room
21. Explain briefly how heat travels in metals
5. What do you understand by convection? 22. How is heat loss by conduction ,convection and
Describe how you would demonstrate the radiation reduced in a vacuum flask
formation of convection currents in a liquid. 23. Explain, how land and sea breeze occurs.

6. Explain the following:

(a) Cork is packed between the double
walls of refrigerating chambers
(b) Most cooking pots are made of
Aluminium
(c) Ice blocks are wrapped in paper when
they are stored
(d) Water tanks in the tropics are
painted white
(e) White clothes are worn in the Arctic
in preference to dark ones

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CHAPTER 8; MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL

ENERGY
Heat Content (internal thermal energy) COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
Heat content is the energy possessed by a body EXAMINATION QUESTIONS SET 8.1
due to its temperature. 1. Define the term heat capacity. 3000 J of heat
is lost when the temperature of an iron rod
reduces from 500 C to 30.50 C. Determine its
Factors that determine the heat Content heat capacity. (ANS: C = 153.85 J/K)
 Mass of the substance 2. A solid with a heat capacity of 320 J/K
 Temperature change of the substance requires 2000 J of heat to raise its temperature
 Specific heat capacity of the substance to 800 C. Find its original temperature (ANS: T1
= 73.750 C)
Heat Capacity of a Substance
 Is the amount of heat required to raise Specific heat Capacity
the temperature of a given mass of a  Is the quantity of heat required to raise
substance by 1Kelvin (K). the temperature of 1Kg of the
 It is denoted by letter C, Its SI unit is J/K substance by 1K or 1°C
( )  It is denoted by letter c, its SI unit is
( ) J/kg K
Mathematically:

Example,
In an experiment to determine the heat
capacity of steel, 100KJ of heat energy was
supplied to a block of steel initially at 22°C. If
the final temperature of the block was 2190 C, Specific Heat Capacities of Some Materials
determine the heat capacity of steel.
Soln:
Given: Q = 100 KJ = 100000 J, T1 = 22 oC, T2 =
222 oC, C =?

( )

⁄
Example:
1. Calculate the specific heat capacity of a body
of mass 3 kg if it requires 6000 J of heat to
raise its temperature from 30 oC to 34 oC
Soln:
Given: m = 3 kg, H = 6000 J,
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o o
T1 = 30 C, T2 = 34 C energy lost by hot water due to the
principle of conservation of energy.

Calorimetry
( )
Is the measurement of the quantity of heat
⁄
Calorimeter
Is a device used to control the losses of heat
energy when determining specific heat
capacities of substances
COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
EXAMINATION QUESTION SET 8.2
1. How much heat is required to raise the
temperature of a 25kg sample of mercury
from 20°C to 30°C? (ANS: H = 348750J)
2. The temperature of a 6kg block of copper
rises from 15°C to 30°C on being heated.
Determine the amount of heat energy
supplied to the block. (Specific heat
capacity of block is 390Jkg°C) (ANS: H = 35
100J)
3. How much heat energy is given out by an
iron block of 20g mass when it cools from
920°C to 20°C. (ANS: H = 8 640J)
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT
4. A piece of copper of mass 40 g at 2000 C is
CAPACITY OF METAL
immersed into a copper calorimeter of
mass 60 g containing 50 g of water at 250 C Consider a metal of mass ( ) whose initial
.Neglecting heat losses ,what will the final and final temperatures are and
temperature of the mixture be ? (ANS: respectively is quickly transferred into a copper
36.00 C) calorimeter whose mass is ( ) containing a
5. A brass cylinder of mass X was heated to water having a mass ( ) having the same
1000 C and then transferred into a thin initial and final temperatures as that of metal
aluminium can of negligible heat capacity NOTE
containing 150 g of paraffin at 110 C .If the In order to determine the specific heat
final steady temperature of the paraffin capacity of metal follow the following
attained was 200 C, Determine the value of procedures
X (ANS: X = 0 . 116 Kg)
Step 1:
Determine the heat lost by metal when placed
Determination of Specific Heat Capacity
into a copper calorimeter.
In determination of specific heat capacity of ( )
substance two methods are used
 Method of mixtures ( )
 Electrical method ( ) ()

Method of mixture
 If the heat loss controlled when mixing Step 2:
the water, the heat energy gained by Determine the heat gained by coper
the cold water is equal to the heat calorimeter

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Specific heat capacity of water
( ) mass of meta.
( ) ( ) are initial and final temperatures
Step 3: respectively
Determine the heat gained by water
N.B
Under the assumption that, if heat is not
( ) absorbed by any of the apparatus used to carry
( ) ( ) out this experiment. Then
Heat lost by substance = heat gained by liquid
Step 4
Compare the heat gained and the heat lost

𝑔 Assumption made when using this method:

𝐻 𝐻 𝐻  No heat is lost to the surrounding
 Heat is not absorbed by any of the
( ) ( ) apparatus used to carry out this
( ) experiment.(case II)

Since we are required to determine the specific Precautions to be taken when carrying out
heat capacity of metal ( such experiments
 Use a highly polished calorimeter so as
to minimize heat loss by radiation
 The calorimeter should be heavily
( ) ( ) lagged so as to minimize heat loss by
( ) conduction
 The calorimeter should be covered with
Hence the specific heat capacity of metal is a lid of poor conductor so as to prevent
given by the relation; heat loss by evaporation and
convection.

Example
𝒎𝒄 𝒄( 𝒇 𝒊) 𝒎𝒘 𝒘( 𝒇 𝒊)
𝒎 A block of metal of mass 5 kg is heated to 1100
𝒎𝒎 ( 𝒊 𝒇) C and then dropped into 1.5 kg of water. The
Where final temperature is found to be 500 C. What
was the initial temperature of the water?
mass of copper calorimeter (Specific heat capacity of metal = 460 Jkg-1 K-1)
Specific heat capacity of copper
Soln:
calorimeter. Let initial temperature of the water be θ
mass of water Heat lost by block = mCΔθ
= 5 x 460 (110 – 50) = 5 x 460 x 60 =138 000J

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Heat gained by the water = mCΔθ C in 8 minutes and 20 seconds by an electric
= 1.5 x 4200 x (50 – θ) = 6300 x (50 – θ) = heater coil rated 54 W. calculate:
315000 –6300 θ (a) The quantity of heat supplied by the heater
(b) The specific heat capacity of the block
Heat gained by water = Heat lost by the metal Soln:
block (a) Electrical 𝐻 𝐸 𝑔 𝑆
315 000 - 6300 θ = 138 000 𝐸 𝑔
6 300θ = 315 000 – 138 000
𝐸 𝑔
℃

1.
COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION
(b) Thermal energy supplied
QUESTIONS SET 8.3
2. 2.5 kg of a metal at 2000 C is immersed into 1.2
kg of cold water of temperature 200 C. The ( )
mixture, after thoroughly stirring attained a
final temperature of 34.50 C. Given that the
specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kgK,
determine the specific heat capacity of the
metal.(ANS: Cmetal = 176.63 J/kgK)

3. A block of metal of mass 0.20kg at a ⁄

temperature of 100°C is placed in 0.40kg of
water at 20°C.if the final steady temperature of
Change of State
the water is 24°C, determine the specific heat
capacity of the metal. (Neglect heat absorber Matter can under goes three states that is
by the container) (ANS: c = 442.1 J/kg K) solid, liquid and gas.
Consider the diagram below.
4. A block of aluminum of mass 0.5kg at a
temperature of 100°C is dipped in 1.0kg of
water at 20°C. Assuming that no thermal
energy is lost to the environment, what will the
final temperature of the water be at thermal
equilibrium? (A:θF = 27.7°C)

(b) By electrical method

Electrical energy supplied by heater = heat
gained Explanations
∴  From point A the temperature is rising
steadily as more heat is added until
Example: point B where the solid starts to melt
A block of metal of mass 1.5 kg which is with steady temperature from point B
suitably insulated is heated from 300 C to 500 to C

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 Once the melting is over, addition of Example, water freezes and melts at
heat leads to a steady rise in 0°C
temperature in region CD. D is the  Triple point of water is the
boiling point of the liquid temperature at which three states of
 Then the liquid is transforming into gas water (i.e liquid water, water vapor and
(vaporization occurs in DE) ice) co – exist in equilibrium.
 As the point E is reached ,all the liquid
has been converted into gas Factors affecting freezing point
 Reversing the process is also possible  Impurities
by removing the heat from gas reduces  Pressure change
its temperature from point E to D,D to NB:
C,C to B and finally from B to A (Cooling  Presence of impurities always lower
takes place) the melting point or freezing point of
substance (This explains why sea / salty
Melting, Boiling and evaporation water freezes at a much lower
Melting Point temperature than pure /distilled water)
 Melting is the change of state from  Increase in pressure lowers melting
solid to liquid point of a solid
 Melting point is the temperature at  Freezing point depression. Occurs
which a substance changes from a solid when the particles of the impurity get
to a liquid. between the particles of the liquid and
disrupt the formation of the solid
At melting point the substance absorbs heat crystals
but the temperature does not change until the
substance has completely melted. Regelation: Is the phenomenon of melting
under pressure and re- freezing when the
Pressure affects melting. pressure is reduced.
Increase in pressure lowers the melting point Boiling (Ebullition)
of a substance while decreasing in pressure  Is the process by which a liquid turns
raises the melting point into a vapor when it is heated to its
The melting under the pressure and refreezing boiling point
after the pressure is released is called Boiling Point
 Is the temperature at which all of a
liquid changes into a gas
Regelation
OR
Freezing Point
Is the temperature at which its saturated
 Freezing is the change of state from
vapour pressure becomes equal to the external
liquid to solid
atmospheric pressure.
 Freezing point is the temperature at
which a liquid changes into a solid
without a change in temperature. Mechanism of Boiling
 During solidification a substance loses  The molecules at the surface of the
heat to its surrounding but its liquid gain more kinetic energy move
temperature does not fall faster and are able to overcome
 NB: intermolecular forces holding them
 The freezing point of a pure substance together and hence escape.
is the same as its melting point.
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What happens when a liquid boils? cooker. That is why food cooked in a
 If a liquid is heated its temperature pressure cooker takes less time to get
begins to rise, and therefore the ready than food cooked in common
saturated vapour pressure will increase. cooking pots
Ultimately, the saturated vapour
pressure becomes equal o the external Applications of boiling at increased and
atmospheric pressure reduced Pressure
 At this stage the further addition of
 Boiling under increased pressure is
heat will cause bubbles of vapour to
important for fast cooking
form inside the body of the liquid and
 Boiling under reduced pressure is used
rise to the surface.
in preparation of drug tablets
Example
Factors affecting boiling point 1. The figure below shows a block of ice with
 Impurities two heavy weights hanging such that the
 Pressure change copper wire/string connecting them passes
over the block of ice. It is observed that the
NB: wire gradually cuts its way through the ice
 Impurities raises the boiling point of a block, but leaves it as one piece. Explain
liquid (This explains why sea water
boils at a higher temperature than
pure / distilled water)
 Pressure raises the boiling point of a
liquid (ie P ∝ ) (This explains water
boils at a higher temperature at sea
level than at the top of a high Answer:
mountain) Because of the hanging weight, the wire exerts
 At sea level, an altitude of 0 m above pressure on the ice block, the high pressure
sea level water boils at 1000 C (The lowers the melting point of ice at the point of
atmospheric pressure is at its contact
maximum)
 As one goes to higher altitude ,the  The ice block absorbs the heat from the
atmospheric pressure keeps decreasing, wire so the region in contact with the
thus decreasing the boiling point of wire melts and lowers itself to water
water  As soon as the water passes above the
 Water boils faster at the top of wire, it is no longer under pressure and
mountain than at the bottom, this is therefore freezes. In this case, the wire
because the higher the altitude, the gradually sinks through the ice block
lower the pressure. Thus at the top and comes out of the block
water will boil at lower temperature
than it does at sea level (bottom).This
means that it requires less energy and Evaporation
therefore a shorter heating time to Is the process through which a liquid changes
reach its boiling point. to vapour (gas) at a temperature below its
 Water in a pressure cooker boils at a boiling point
very high temperature nearly 1200 C OR
due to the high pressure created in the

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Is the change of state from liquid to gas Melting /Freezing Point Of some Substances
(vapour) at STP

NB:
Evaporation is more rapidly when there is
windy, sunny and less humidity
Difference between Boiling and Evaporation
Boiling

Latent heat of Vaporization

Is the quantity of heat energy required to
change a liquid to vapour at boiling point
Latent heat without any change in temperature
Specific Latent heat of Vaporization
 Latent heat is the heat absorbed or
Is the quantity of heat energy required to
released when matter changes its state
change completely a unit mass (1kg) of the
of matter without change in
liquid to vapour at its boiling point.
temperature.
Its SI Unit is J/kg
 The latent heat associated with melting
a solid of freezing a liquid is called THE
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION
 The latent heat associated with Where by Lv = Specific latent heat of
vaporizing a liquid or a solid or vaporization
Condensing a vapor is called THE
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION FACT
Why steam is hotter (dangerous) than boiling
Latent heat of fusion water (liquid)?
Is the quantity of heat energy required to Steam is hotter than boiling water because it
change a solid to liquid at melting point has enough energy (Latent heat of
without any change in temperature vaporization) to escape the boiling water. The
OR Is the heat absorbed when matter changes water remains at the boiling temperature of
from solid to liquid without change in 1000 C and cannot get hotter till all the water
temperature. has changed to steam. Since Steam has much
more thermal energy than liquid that is why
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of a substance steam is used in engines to convert thermal
Is the quantity of heat energy required to energy to mechanical energy
change completely a unit mass (1kg) of the
solid to liquid at its melting point. Examples
Its SI Unit is J/kg 1. Calculate the quantity of heat required to
covert 50 grams of ice at 00 C to water at 00 C.
𝑳𝒇 (Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.4 x 105
𝒎
𝒎𝑳𝒇 J/kg)
Whereby, Lf = Specific latent heat of fusion Solution:
From: 𝑸 = 𝒎𝑳𝒇
𝒎=𝟓𝟎𝒈=𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝒌𝒈,=𝟑.𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑱/𝒌𝒈

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SELF EVALUATION
1. How much heat is required to change a 500
J g ice cube at 00 to water at 00? (Lf = 3.36 x 105
J/kg) [ANS: 186 kJ]
Example 1 2. How much heat is required to change 100 g
How much heat would be required to change of ice from ice at 00C to vapour at 1000C (Lv =
of ice at ℃ to a steam at ℃. 2.26 x 106 J/kg, Lf = 3.36 x 105 J/kg, c = 4200
(the specific heat capacities of ice, water and J/kgK). (ANS:301600 J)
steam are: 2144J/kg℃, /K℃ and 3. How much heat would be required to
2010J/kg℃ respectively) change 1.5kg of ice at -10°C to stream at
120°C.? The specific heat capacities of ice,
water and stream are 2144J/kg° C, 4186 J/kg° C
Stage 1: Energy required to raise the
and 2010 J/kg° C respectively (ANS: Ht = 4,
temperature of ice from 𝟏𝟎℃ 𝟎℃
627, 860J)
( )
⁄ ℃
Cooling effect of evaporation
( ( ))  When a liquid evaporates, it gives up its
latent heat of vaporization
Stage 2: Energy required to melt the ice  If NO heat is supplied from outside this
results in COOLING
 Dogs expose their tongues when it is
hot so as to keep the body cool
Stage 3: Energy required to raise the
temperature of water from 𝟎℃ to 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
Cooling of human body
( ) When it is too hot, sweat glands release water
which then evaporates from the skin taking
Stage 4: energy required to convert the water away latent heat of vaporization. This causes
to steam. the body to cool

FACT
A volatile liquid like alcohol or ether poured on
Stage 5: Energy required to raise the the skin feels much colder than water at the
temperature of the steam from 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ to same temperature. Why?
𝟏𝟐𝟎℃ This is because the alcohol evaporates quickly
taking latent heat of vaporization from the
( ) skin ,thus cooling the skin

The total energy required for the whole

process is given by; FACT:
Why does spirit poured on the skin feel much
colder than water at the same temperature?
ANS: (This is because spirit evaporates much
faster than water due to its lower boiling
point. This allows more heat to be transferred
𝟒 𝟔𝟐𝟖 𝟏𝟎𝟔 faster, which makes it feel colder to the
touch)

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 Lastly, the refrigerant evaporates to a gas,
The Refrigerator then flows back to the compressor ,where
 Is a machine which can enable heat to the cycle starts all over.
flow from a cold region to a hot region
 Refrigeration is the process in which
work is done to move heat from one GENERAL COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION
location to another QUESTION (SELF EVALUATION)
 The basic principle used in refrigeration  Use the following constants where
is cooling by absorption of latent heat necessary when solving the questions
(cooling effect by evaporation) below
 Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/
(kg oC)
 Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100J/ (kg
o
C)
 Specific heat capacity of steam = 2000
J/(kg oC)
 Specific latent heat of fusion of ice 3.3 x
105 J/kg
 Specific latent heat of steam = 2.26 x 106
J/kg
 Specific latent heat of vaporization of
Mechanism of Refrigerator water = 2.3 x 105 J/kg
In the refrigeration cycle ,there are five basic  Acceleration due to gravity ,g = 10 m/s2
components:
a. Fluid refrigerant 1. Which contains the greater amount of heat
b. A compressor (controls the flow of – a lake of water at 20 0C or a bowl of
refrigerant) water at 900C? Explain
c. The condenser coils (on the outside of
the fridge) 2. An iron bar of mass 80 g is heated from a
d. The evaporator coils (on the inside of temperature of 150 C to a temperature of
the fridge) 650 C .How much heat is absorbed by the
e. Expansion valve (coolant) bar ,given that iron has a specific heat
capacity of 460 J/(kg OC)
 The compressor constricts the refrigerant
vapor, raising its pressure , and pushes it 3. Water of mass 20g at a temperature of
into the coils on the outside of the 42˚C is poured into a well lagged copper
refrigerator vessel of mass 27 g at a temperature of
 When the hot gas in the coils meets the 20˚C.find the final temperature of the
cooler air temperature of the kitchen, it water.(specific heat capacity of copper =
becomes a liquid. 400J/(kg˚C)
 Now in liquid form at high pressure, the
refrigerant cools down as it flows into the 4. Calculate the heat content of a piece of
coils inside the freezer and the fridge. brass of mass 120g at a temperature of
 The refrigerant absorbs the heat inside the 20˚C .Find the final temperature of water.
fridge , cooling down the air (specific heat capacity of copper = 400J/(kg

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˚C) 13. A refrigerator can convert 0.4 kg of water
at 20˚C to ice at -10˚C in 4 hours .Find the
5. In an experiment to determine the specific average rate of heat extraction from the
heat capacity of a piece of metal, the water in joules per second.
following results were obtained: 14. (a) what is meant by the following terms (i)
Mass of piece of metal =200g melting point (ii) freezing point
Initial temperature =25˚C 15. Describe how to find the melting point of a
Final temperature=80˚C substance by means of cooling curve
Heat absorbed by the piece of metal = 1430 J
Calculate the specific heat capacity of the piece 16. Explain why:
of metal. i. Heat energy has to be supplied to a solid in
order to change it into liquid.
6. Distinguish between latent heat of fusion (b)Heat energy has to be supplied to a liquid
and the specific latent heat of fusion of a in order to change it to vapor
substance. Find the amount of heat
required to change 1kg of ice at 0˚C to 17. A 0.2kg block of ice at 0˚C is placed into a
water at the same temperature. Styrofoam calorimeter cup with unknown
mass of water at 20˚C .When thermal
7. Define the term latent heat of vaporization equilibrium is reached, the final
and specific latent heat of vaporization. temperature is measured to be 5˚C.What
Find the quantity of heat required to was the mass of the water initially in the
change 5kg of water at 60˚C into steam at cup?
100˚C 18. A pressure cooker is a pot with a tight
fitting lid that does not allow steam to
8. Determine the final temperature obtained escape until a preset pressure is reached.
when 500 g of water at 1000 C was mixed Explain how the pressure cooker can cook
with 500 g of water at 100 C and well food faster than a sufuria with a loose –
stirred. (ANS: Tf = 550 C) fitting
19. A container holds 1.5kg of ice initially at
9. (a) Differentiate between heat and 40˚C.Heat is supplied to the container at
temperature the rate of 12.6kJ per minute for 120
10. The specific heat capacity of a certain minutes.
substance is 800J/kg0 C; what does this i. Plot a graph of temperature versus time for the
statement mean? 120 minutes during which heat is supplied.
ii. What will the temperature of the contents of
11. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the container be at the end of the 120
mercury, if 980 J of heat is required to raise minutes?
the temperature of 7 g of mercury from 00 iii. What will the mass of the steam in the
C to 10000 C container be at the end of the 120 minutes

12. A piece of metal of specific heat capacity 20. A 0.15kg aluminium cup holds 0.2kg water
840 J/(kg ˚C) and mass 30 g is heated to a at 180 C. A 0.12 kg iron block at 85˚C is
temperature of 99˚C and then dropped into placed into the water and the entire
a cavity in a block of ice at 0˚C. Find the system surrounded by an insulating jacket.
amount of ice that will melt What will be the final temperature of the
system when thermal equilibrium is

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reached? transferred to internal energy in the lead
when it strikes the ground, calculate the
21. The temperature of 500 g of a certain rise in temperature of the lead if its specific
metal is raised to 100 oC and it is then heat capacity is 130 J/kgK. State the energy
placed in 200 g of water at 15oC. If the changes which occur from the moment the
final steady temperature rises to 21oC, lead strikes the ground until it has cooled
Calculate the specific heat capacity of the to air temperature again.(P.E =123 J ,K.E
metal. (ANS: C = 128 Jkg-1K-1) =123 J,Δ𝜽=𝟏.𝟖𝟗 𝑲)

22. How much thermal energy is required to 28. A waterfall is 100 m high and the difference
raise the temperature of 3kg of aluminium in temperature between the water at the
from 15˚C to 25˚C? top and that at the bottom is 0.24 K. Obtain
23. Explain the following: a value for the specific heat capacity of
i. When the brakes of a moving car are water in J/kgK explaining the steps in your
applied for an applicable time, they get hot calculations. Mention any assumptions you
ii. When the tyre of a car is pumped up, the make.(C = 4100 J/kgK)
pump gets warm
24. A car of mass 1000 kg travelling at 72 km/h 29. A 0.5 kg block of aluminium at a
is brought to rest by applying the brakes. temperature of 100˚C is placed in 1.0 kg of
Assuming that the kinetic energy of the car water at 20˚C. Assuming that no thermal
becomes transferred to internal energy in energy is lost to the surroundings, what will
four steel brake drums of equal mass, find the final temperature of the aluminium and
the rise in temperature of the drums if their the water be when they attain the same
total mass is 20 kg, the specific heat capacity temperature?
of steel is 450 J/kgK, and the work done is
equal on all four drums.(ANS: Δ𝜽=𝟐𝟐.𝟐 𝑲) 30. When a certain quantity of heat was
supplied to a substance, its temperature
25. A bath contains 100 kg of water at 600 C. rose from 5˚C to 20˚C.What will the final
Hot and cold taps are then turned on to temperature of the substance be if twice
deliver 20 kg per minute each at the amount of heat is removed from the
temperatures of 700 C and 100 C sample?
respectively. How long will it be before the
temperature in the bath has dropped to 31. Why is water used as a coolant in car
450? Assume complex mixing of the water engines?
and ignore heat losses.(ANS: t = 7.5 mins) 32. State what changes, if any, take place in the
following:
26. Some hot water was added to three times i. Melting point of ice when salt is added to
its mass of water at 100 C and the resulting the ice
temperature was 200 C. What was the ii. The volume of water if it changes into ice
temperature of the hot water. (ANS:T = iii. The boiling point of a liquid when the
500 C) pressure on the liquid is reduced

27. A piece of lead of mass 500 g and at air 33. Two substances A and B have the same
temperature falls from a height of 25 m. mass and are at the same temperature.
What is (a) Initial potential energy (b) Its Substance A has a higher specific heat
kinetic energy on reaching the ground. capacity than substance B. Which
Assume that all the energy becomes substance will have a higher final
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temperature if the same amount of heat is bar, given that iron has a specific heat
supplied to each substance? capacity of 460J/(kg ˚C)

34. 31. An electric heater is rated at 250 W. 42. Water of mass 20 g at a temperature of
Calculate the quantity of heat generated in 42˚C is poured into a well lagged copper
10 minutes (ANS: H = 150 kJ) vessel of mass 27 g at a temperature of
35. A tin contains water at 290 k and is heated 20˚C. Find the final temperature of the
at constant rate. It is observed that the water.(specific heat capacity of copper =
water reaches boiling point after 2 minutes 400J/ (kg˚C)
and after further 12 minutes it is
completely boiled away .Calculate the 43. Calculate the heat content of a piece of
specific latent heat of steam.(ANS: brass of mass 200 g at a temperature of
2092kJ/kg) 20˚C .Find the final temperature of
water.(specific heat capacity of copper
36. An insulated cup holds 0.1kg of water at =400J/(kg˚C)
0˚C. 0.1 kg of boiling water at a
temperature of 100˚C is poured into the 44. Differentiate between
cup. What will be the final temperature of a. Melting point and boiling point (c)
the mixture at thermal equilibrium? Evaporation and boiling
b. Freezing and vaporization (d) Melting and
37. A 50 watt heater is immersed in a 2 kg cooling
block of alluminium which also holds a
thermometer .The temperature of the 45. Explain the following
block rises by 8 k in 5 minutes . Neglect a. The boiling point of water in Dar es salaam
heat losses , Calculate the specific heat is higher than at the top of Mt. Kilimanjaro
capacity of alluminium. (ANS: 937.5 J) b. Why does water boil faster at the top of a
mountain than at the bottom?
38. A metal sphere of unknown composition c. Water being heated while covered boils
has a mss of 0.4kg.The sphere is heated in a faster than uncovered water.
furnace to a temperature of 150˚C and d. When one wipes spirit on the skin he feels
then dropped into an insulated cup holding cold
0.35 kg of water at 20˚C.upon reaching e. When snow is pressed by the hands, it
thermal equilibrium ,the temperature of melts to water .The water then
the system is measured to be 32.4˚C. immediately freezes.
a. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal. 46. The use of ammonia as a household
refrigerant is discouraged.
39. (b)Use the values of specific heat capacity
in table 8.1 to identify the metal. 47. How much heat is required to change 40 g
ice cube from ice at –100 C to steam at
40. Which contains the great amount of heat – 1100 C?.
a lake of water at 20˚C or a bowl of water
at 90˚C? Explain. 48. Describe how a household refrigerator
preserves food.
41. An iron bar of mass 80 g is heated from a
temperature of 15˚C to a temperature of 49. If 200 g of water is contained in a 500 g
65˚C.How much heat is absorbed by the aluminium CAN at 100 C then an additional
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100 g of water at 1000 C is added into the 57. In an experiment , the following data was
CAN , what is the final equilibrium obtained .Use the data to calculate the
temperature of the mixture? time taken by the heater to raise the
temperature of water container and the
50. An unknown liquid of mass 400 g at a stirrer from 200C to 230 C . What
temperature of 800 C is poured into 400 g assumption have made in your
of water at 400 C. The final temperature of calculations? Power of electric heater = 30
the mixture is 490 C .What is the specific W ,mass of the container and the stirrer =
heat capacity of the unknown liquid 200 g ,specific heat capacity of the
container and the stirrer = 400 J/kgK ,mass
51. 20 g of steam at 1000 C is added to 50 g of of water in the container = 100g, specific
ice at 00 C .Find the amount of ice that is heat capacity of water = 200 J/ kgK (ANS: t
melted and the final temperature. = 50 s)

52. Explain how the following factors affect the 58. A class of Physics students decided to
melting and boiling points: determine the specific heat capacity of
a. Pressure (b) Impurities water in a waterfall. They used a sensitive
thermometer to find the difference in
53. Explain how a refrigerator works. temperature of water at the top and the
bottom of the waterfalls and obtained the
54. An electric heater rated 1500 W is used to following results; height of the waterfalls =
heat water in an insulated container of 52 m ,temperature of the water at the top
negligible heat capacity for 10 minutes .The = 21.540 C and that at the bottom = 21.670
temperature of water rises from 200 C to C . Stating any assumptions made, calculate
400 C. Calculate the mass of water heated a value for specific heat capacity of water

55. An electric kettle rated 2 kW is filled with 59. A 200 g of liquid at 210 C is heated to 510 C
2.0kg of water and heated from 200 C to by a current of 5 A at 6 v for 5 minutes.
980 C. Calculate the time taken to heat the What is the specific heat capacity of the
water assuming that all the electrical liquid? (ANS:C = 1500 J/kg 0C)
energy is used to heat the water in the
plastic kettle and the kettle has negligible 60. An electric kettle rated 1 500 W is used to
heat capacity. boil 500 g of water into steam at 1000 C
.Calculate the time required to boil off
56. The following data was obtained from an water.
experiment .Mass of copper metal block =
200 g, initial temperature of the block = 61. Why steam is hotter than boiling water?
220 C, ammeter reading = 0.5 A, voltmeter
reading = 3.0 v, final temperature of the 62. Explain as fully you can what happens
block = 300 C, time of heating = 7 minutes when a liquid boils. Why would you expect
.Use the data to calculate the specific heat the boiling point of a liquid to be lowered
capacity of copper .What does this value when the pressure above the free surface is
mean? (ANS: CC = 394 J kg-1K-1) vapour

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CHAPTER 9: VAPOUR AND HUMIDITY

Evaporation of Liquids  Evaporation coolers can significantly

Evaporation is a gradual change of state from cool a building by simply blowing dry air
liquid to gas that occurs at the surface of a over a filter saturated with water
liquid.  Cooling effect from evaporation used in
Refrigerators
 In a clothes drier, hot air is blown
Factors affecting Evaporation through the clothes allowing water to
Temperature evaporate very rapidly
 Temperature is directly proportional to
the rate of evaporation
Vapour Pressure (VP)
Surface Area
 Surface area is directly proportional to  Vapour is a substance that is in a
the evaporation increase in Surface gaseous state at a temperature below
area increases the rate of evaporation its boiling point
Concentration of Vapour Liquid  Vapour pressure is the pressure
 Concentration of vapour liquid (the created by the vapour of a substance
same or different molecules) is that forms above a liquid of the same
inversely proportional to the substance.
evaporation. Because the surrounding Question: How can you differentiate between
air has little space for the escaping gas and vapor
gaseous molecules comes from  A gas refers to a substance that has a
evaporation single defined thermodynamic state at
Wind (The rate of flow of air) room temperature whereas vapor
 Wind is directly proportional to the refers to a substance that is a mixture
evaporation increase in Wind increases of two phases (ie. gaseous and liquid
the rate of evaporation. Wind lowers phase) at room temperature
the Concentration of vapour liquid
Types of Vapour Pressure (VP)
Applications of evaporation  Saturated vapour pressure
Evaporation has cooling effect  Unsaturated vapour pressure
 Because it takes thermal energy away  Ambient pressure
from the surface.This is because the
faster particles escape from the liquids Saturated Vapour Pressure (SVP)
surface leaving behind the slower ones Is the pressure created by the vapour of a
and the faster ones have more energy substance that forms above a liquid of the
,hence the temperature of the liquid same substance
drops This happens when “the state of dynamic
Sweating uses the cooling effect caused by equilibrium is reached in which the rate at
evaporation which molecules leave the liquid is equal to
 As the sweat evaporates, It takes away the rate at which others returns to it”
thermal energy from the skin to the Under these conditions the space above the
surrounding liquid is said to be saturated

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Before equilibrium has been reached in the Sources of Humidity
condition stated above, the vapor is said to be Evaporation from rivers, lakes and
unsaturated oceans
Transpiration (evaporation of plant
Unsaturated Vapour Pressure (USVP) leaves)
Is the pressure exerted above the surface of
the liquid when the surface of the liquid NB:
contains vapour less than the maximum Water vapor from atmosphere
amount that it can hold condenses to form clouds, fog, dew
See the figure below and frost
Frost is a deposit of small white ice
crystals formed on the ground or other
surfaces when the temperature falls
below freezing
Fog is a cloud floating just above the
ground
Earth’s surface may or not saturated
Saturation depend temperature and
Ambient Pressure (AP) water availability
Ambient pressure is the pressure The density of water vapour in
created by the vapour of a substance saturated air is called absolute
and other gas pressure humidity (AH)
Hailstones are water droplets in clouds
NB: formed due to super cooling below 00 C
A substance of high vapour at room without freezing
temperature is called volatile Mist is the condensation of vapour
Increase in temperature of a solid or into water droplets occurring near the
liquid ,the rate evaporation or ground
condensation increases which results to Snow is formed when the dew point is
an increase in the vapor pressure below the freezing point (00 C)

Measurement of SVP DEW

Saturated vapour pressure is measured Is water in the form of droplets that appears
by mercury barometer. on exposed objects in the morning or evening
It is given by, ( due to condensation.
) OR
Where: Is the condensation into liquid droplets of
760 mmHg = atmospheric pressure (atm), X water vapour on a substance
mmHg = vapour pressure
Dew Point (DP)
Humidity Is the temperature at which the atmospheric
Is the amount of water vapour present in the air becomes saturated with water vapour
atmosphere
NB:
 Hot Air contains more moisture
(humidity) than cold air,

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 Dew is formed at night because hot air
comes into contact with a cold surface
,now water vapour present in it
condenses on the cold surface in the  Since absolute humidity is the density
form of droplets (dew drops) of water vapor in saturated air
 The formation of dew is more when the Thus;
sky is clear and less when it is cloudy. 𝐻
 DP is measured by Renault hygrometer
 DP occurs when RH of air is 100%
 Below DP clouds, dew or frost formed Actual vapour density and Saturated
vapour density has equal volume,
therefore relative humidity can also be
Factors influencing the formation of Dew
defined as
(a) Temperature
 The temperature of the atmospheric air
must fall below the dew point for dew Absolute Humidity
to be formed Is the mass of water vapor divided by
(b) Wind the mass of dry air in a certain volume
 As wind increases, the rate of of air at a specific temperature
evaporation also increases, thus it ( 𝐻)
prevents the formation of water
droplets (dew)
(c) Water Vapour 𝐻
 The atmospheric air must be saturated
with water vapour for dew to be Also can be defined as;
formed Specific Humidity (Humidity Ratio)
Is the ratio of water vapour to dry air in a
particular mass
Relative Humidity (RH)
Thus,
Is the ratio of the saturated vapour pressure at
the dew point to the saturated vapour 𝑆𝐻
pressure at the current air temperature
𝑆 𝑆𝐻
𝐻
𝑆 𝑔
OR
Difference between Absolute humidity and
Relative humidity is the ratio of the Actual
Relative humidity
vapour density to the saturated vapour density
( )
𝐻

For example, if the actual vapor density is 12

g/m3 at 200 compared to the saturation vapor
density at that temperature of 20.5 g/m3, then Measurement of Relative Humidity
what will be its relative humidity? It is measured by dry and wet bulb
Soln: hygrometer and Renault hygrometer
AVD = 12g/m3, SVD = 20.5 g/m3, T = 200 C Hygrometer is an instrument used to
( ) measure the amount of humidity and
( )

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water vapor in the atmosphere ,in soil
or in confined spaces

Dry and Wet Bulb Hygrometer Example 2:

It consists of dry bulb thermometer which is The relative humidity of a place was measured
used to measure the temperature of the at ℃ and found to be and found to be
surrounding air while wet bulb which is 53.6%. if the absolute humidity is 23.05g/cm3,
wrapped with piece of cloth around the bulb determine the actual water vapour density at
which immersed in a reservoir of water which this temperature.
cool the wet thermometer Solution
Diagram:

g/cm3
The water vapour density = 12.35g/cm3

Renault Hygrometer
It consists of an enclosed thin silver tube
containing ether and a thermometer.
There is also a tube through which air can be
pumped into the ether.
Diagram:
Relative Humidity by using dry and wet bulb is
a ratio of the difference between the
temperature of the dry bulb and the
temperature of the wet bulb to the
temperature of the dry bulb.
That is
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Example 1:
Mechanism of Renault Hygrometer
7. A dry bulb thermometer reads 300 C and a
wet bulb thermometer reads 240 C .What is The heat transfer from atmosphere to ether by
the Relative Humidity of the air convection in a tube, Ether evaporates result
SOLUTION: cooling of the silver tube surface. Cooling
Dry bulb reading = 300C continues until air adjacent to the outside
Wet bulb reading = 240C surface of the tube becomes saturated with
Difference in temperature = 300 – 240 = 60 C water vapour. Some water vapour condense
Relative Humidity =? outside the tube to form dew

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Applications of Humidity 8. Explain the principles used to measure
(i) It is used by meteorological relative humidity?
departments to forecast the weather
(ii) It is used to determine the appropriate 9. Explain the factors that affecting
site to locate cotton evaporation
(iii) Electrical and electronic components
are usually transported and stored in a 10. Explain the difference between a vapour
dry air and a gas
(iv) Used in hospitals in an operating room. 11. At a given pressure the thermometer of a
RH at operating room is at least 50% wet bulb reads 210 C. If the Relative
(v) It is used in storage and transportation Humidity is 30 %, what is the temperature
of food items of the air?

12. A mass of air at 20˚C has a relative humidity

GENERAL COMPREHENSICE COMPETITIVE of 39%.if the air is cooled to 15˚C, what will
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS its relative humidity be?
1. The dry bulb temperature reading of a
hygrometer is 220C and the wet bulb 13. A mass of air has a relative humidity of 57%
temperature reading is 180C. What is the and a dew point of 20˚C. What is the
RH? (ANS: 18.2%) temperature of the air mass?

2. The dry bulb temperature reading of a 14. Why does air cool when it rises through the
hygrometer is 400 C and the wet bulb atmosphere? (ANS: As air rises, it expands
temperature reading is 300 C. What is the because air pressure decreases with an
RH? ( ANS: 25%) increase in altitude. When expands, it
cools adiabatically)
3. The relative density of a place was 15. A room with dimension of 7m x 10m x2m
measured at 250 C and found to be 53.6%. holds air that is saturated with water
if the absolute humidity is 23.05g/m3, vapour. The saturated vapour pressure of
determine the actual water vapour density the water vapour is 7.37 kPa. If all the
at this experiment (ANS: AVD = 12.35 water vapour in the room was condensed,
g/m3) What volume would the water occupy?
give your answer in m³.
4. Define evaporation and state the factors
which affect the rate of evaporation of a 16. A sealed box with the volume of 1.2m³
liquid .How does the kinetic theory account holds air with relative humidity of 22% at a
for the cooling produced in a liquid which is temperature of 15˚C. A beaker of water
evaporating also at 15˚C is placed in the box. After 2
5. Distinguish between : (a) snow (b) hours ,the level of the water in the beaker
hailstones (c) mist stopped dropping
i. What mass of water evaporated from the
6. Define the following terms (a) Dew (b) Dew beaker?
point (c) Specific humidity ii. If the temperature of the air in the box is
increased to 30˚C, how much more water
7. What factors determine saturation of will evaporate?
vapour pressure? b. The table gives the temperature and dew
point in four towns at 12 noon.
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23. What are the two processes that change a
liquid into a gas. The state their difference

24. A student is investigating the evaporation

of water in the Laboratory. He pours 200
(a) In which town is the relative humidity cm3 of water in a 250 cm3 beaker . He
the highest? pours another 200 cm3 of water in a 1000
c. In which town is the relative humidity the cm3 .The water in both beakers is initially
slowest? at 500 C
d. Briefly explain the reasons for the i. Use the kinetic theory of matter to explain
following: which beaker evaporates faster
i. When a cold bottle is brought into a warm ii. List three other factors that affect
room, it becomes misted over evaporation of a liquid
ii. Frost is more likely to occur on a clear night iii. Explain why the liquid that remains during
than on a cloudy night. evaporation cools

17. Define the term relative humidity. At a 25. The actual vapor density of a region at 230
certain temperature and pressure, air holds C temperature is 15g/m3 , if the saturation
120 g of water vapor. If at this temperature vapour density at that temperature of 21.3
and pressure the air is holding only 40 g of g/cm3 determine the region ‘s relative
water vapor, what is the relative humidity humidity.
of the air?
26. At a temperature of 300 C the mass of
18. On a given day,the room temperature is water vapour in town K is 22 g while dry air
20˚C and the dew point is 5˚C.Find the has a mass of 15 g. Determine the specific
relative humidity,given that saturated humidity of town K at the stated
vapour pressure of water at 5˚C is 6.54 temperature.
mmHg and that the saturated vapour
pressure of water at 20˚C is 17.5 mmHg. 27. A wet bulb thermometer reads 17.20 C, If
the relative humidity of the air is 40%, what
19. (a) What does the term saturation of water is the temperature of the air? (ANS: TAIR =
vapor mean? 28.70 C, → TAIR = TDRY BULB)

20. what is the difference between vapour 28. A mass of air at 300 holds 15 g/cm3of
pressure and saturated vapour pressure. water vapor .If the saturation point of the
air is 30 g/cm3 ,calculate the relative
21. Differentiate between humidity of the air.
i. Absolute humidity and Relative humidity (c)
Saturated and unsaturated vapour
ii. Evaporation and Boiling

22. Explain why dew is formed at night.

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CHAPTER 10: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric current is the rate of flow of charges This law shows the relationship between
past a point or region. current and potential difference which passed
It is measured by an instrument called through a conductor. The law state that
Ammeter; “At constant temperature and other physical
The SI unit of electric current is Ampere. factors, a current in conductor is directly
It is denoted by symbol (I) proportional to the potential difference across
its end”
()
∝

“k” is the constant of proportionality which is

equal to resistance of a conductor.
Where ∴ =𝐈
I = electric current Graphically:
Q = Quantity of charge
T= is the time taken for charge to flow in a
conductor.

Electric Potential difference (P.d)/ Electric

pressure
Is the work done per unit charge in moving
electric charge from one point to another in an
electric field. The slope of the graph above
OR
Is the difference in electrical potential between ( )
any two points. since the slope of the graph is equal to the
( ) resistance of the conductor.
( )
The common SI unit of P.d is Volt (V)
The SI unit of Resistance is Ohm (Ω)
Electromotive Force (e.m.f) Limitation of ohm’s Law
Electromotive force of a cell is the maximum  It does not apply to some electrolytes
potential difference between the terminals of a e.g dilute H2SO4
cell when the cell is not doing any work  It does not apply for conduction of
It is also called voltage. It is measured in electricity in gases
VOLTMETER  It does not hold in semiconductors
 It pumps charges to flow through an (diodes and transistors)
electric circuit although it is not a force
is just a potential Example 1
 The difference between the 1. An electric heater draws 3.5 A from a 110 V
electromotive force and the terminal source. What is the resistance of the
voltage is known as LOST VOLTS heating element? (ANS: R = 31.4Ω)
Ohm’s Law
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() For example, Nichrome wire has more
( ) resistance than a copper wire of the same
dimensions. Nichrome wire is used in
heating element of electric fires Copper
wire is mostly used for connecting wires.

 Cross-section area
A thin wire has more resistance than a thick
wire. That is the cross – sectional area of a
conductor increases with decrease in the
Example 2; resistance ∝
A current of 2 A is passed through a conductor
of resistance 10 Ω. What is the potential ∝
difference between the ends of the conductor.
(ANS: V = 20V)

() “k” is the constant of proportionality called

resistivity of the material which is denoted
by and its SI unit is Ωm

Factors affecting the Resistance of a Resistivity is the ability of a material to oppose

conductor the flow of an electric current.
Consider the diagram:
Other terminologies used
 Conductance(G) is the reciprocal of
resistance of a conductor.
Its SI unit is siemen (S)
 Conductivity(𝝈) is the reciprocal of the
resistivity of a conductor
 Length of the conductor Its SI unit is siemen per metre ( Sm-1)
The longer the wire the higher the
resistance and vice versa ie R ∝ 𝑳

 Temperature
The higher the temperature, the higher the
resistance and vice versa
For semiconductors increase in
temperature decreases the resistance and
vice versa

 Nature of material
Resistance depends on the type of material Example 1;
used for making conductor
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A wire of length 40 m and cross – sectional
( )
area 0.8 mm2 has a resistance of 10Ω. What is
the resistivity of the material of the wire? ( )
( )
()
If the wires are made of the same material
means that have the same resistivity

()

( )

Example 2;
What is resistance of a copper wire of length
20m and diameter of 0.080 cm? Resistivity of
copper is 1.68 x 10-8 Ωm (ANS: R = 0.67Ω)

() ( )

( )

( )

( ) ( )( )

( )

SELF EVALUATION
1. A steel bar has a length of 2.3m and
Example 3: diameter of 2 x 10-5 m. what is resistance?
The resistance of a certain wire is 12 Ω. What (Resistivity is 10.5 x 10-8 Ωm) (ANS: R =
are the resistance of another wire of the same 768.72 Ω)
material but with half the length and half the 2. What length of a wire of cross –sectional
radius of the first wire? area 0.2mm2 and resistivity 0.072 Ωm is
needed to wind a coil of resistance 9 Ω.
( ) (ANS: L = 25m)
( )
( )

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Resistors  It has a resistor value which cannot be
 Resistor is a device which offers changed. Eg. 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω etc.
resistance to the flow of an electric  Most carbon resistor are fixed resistor
current.
 It used to control the magnitude of Variable Resistor
current and voltage according to ohms It has a resistor value which can be changed by
law means of control.
Example, potentiometers, thermistors, photo
Types of Resistors resistors and rheostat
They are divided according to the materials
used to make them and the value of Combination of Resistors
resistance offered. Resistors can be combined in series or in
parallel arrangement
Types of Resistors due to material used
o Wire wound resistor Series Connection
o Carbon resistor  In this arrangement, the resistors are
o Metal film resistor connected end to end consecutively.
o Metal oxide film resistor  The same current, I, is flowing through
each resistor
Wire Wound Resistor
 It is made by winding wires made of
certain metallic alloys into spools (used
to control amount of resistance)

Carbon Resistor
 It is made by mixing carbon granules
with varying amount of clay and From: P.d across the battery = sum of p.d
moulding them into cylinders around a conducting path
()
Metal Film Resistor
 It is made up of a stable ceramic core
coated with metal alloys such as nickel
chromium. It is more accuracy and
more expensive than carbon resistor
( )
Metal Oxide Film Resistor
 It is made up of a stable ceramic core The total resistance ( ) for resistance in
coated with metal alloys such as tin series connection is given by
oxide 𝟏 𝟐
NB:
Types of Resistors due to Value Offered  As the branches increases, the
 Fixed resistor voltmeter reading keeps increasing for
 Variable resistor the total volts
 Each branch has its own voltage value
Fixed Resistor  Series arrangement results high total
resistance

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FACT:
Parallel Connection  It is advisable to connect bulbs in parallel
 Resistors are connected across two during electrical installation so that when
common points in a parallel arrangement. the bulb blows out or disconnected, the
 The total current, IT in this connection other bulbs will keep working
divides into its individual branch (ie I1, I2  If you connect in series when one bulb
….) disconnected (blows out) will cause the
 The voltage, V is the same throughout the other bulbs not working
circuit
 As the branches increases, the ammeter Example 1;
reading keeps increasing for the total What is the potential difference across 2 Ω
Current. Each branch has its own current resistor?
value
 Parallel arrangement results low total
resistance
 Parallel connection is used in house wiring
See the figure below.

( )

( )
Example 2:
Consider the diagram below
Hence the total resistor is given by

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

Whereby: Rn = the last resistor

(a) What is the total resistance of the circuit?
(b) What total current flows in the circuit?
(c) What current flows through each resistor?

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( ) point A? (ANS: (a) 15 ohms (b) I = 0.6 (c) 2V,
3.6V and 3 V (d) VA= 6.6V)

2. Determine the current reading on the

ammeter in the circuit shown in the diagram
below

( )

Internal Resistance of a Cell

 Cell has an internal resistance that
opposes the flow of electric current and
 Causes the potential drops across this
( ) resistance.
 The relationship between internal
resistance (r) and emf (E) of a cell is
given by
𝐄 = 𝐈( + ) = 𝐈 + 𝐈 . (See the fig. below)

Whereby:

SELF EVALUATION SET 02 ( )

1. Consider the diagram below

Where;
R = External resistance (load resistance)
(a) What is the total resistance of the circuit? r = internal resistance
(b) What current flows in the circuit?  The Potential difference across external
(c) What is the potential drop across each resistance is called terminal voltage.
resistor? (d) What is the electric potential at Given as

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𝐈
 The potential difference across Example 2
internal resistance is called lost voltage What is the internal resistance of cell when
Given as there is current of 0.4A, when a battery of 6 V
is connected to a resistor of 13.5Ω.

()
( ) ( )

𝐄
𝐈

( )

𝐄 𝐈 𝐄
𝐈 𝐈

Example 3:
NB: An old cell with an emf of 1.7 V has an internal
(a) When the terminals of the battery are short resistance of 0.8 Ω. How much current will
circuited (when disconnected from their initially flow it its terminals are short –
external circuit), the resistance of the circuit is circuited?
the internal resistance of the cells that is:

𝐄 = ( + ) = 𝐈 + 𝐈 , here 𝐈 = =𝟎
∴𝐄=𝐈

(b) The total e.m.f available in the cell is used

up in two ways
 Driving the current trough the cell i.e to
overcome internal resistance (r)
 Driving the current through the
external resistance R Example 4;
A cell supplies a current of 0.6A through a 2 Ω
Example 1 resistor and a current of 0.2A through a 7 Ω
1. The potential difference across the cell when resistor. Calculate the e.m.f of the cell and the
no current flows through the circuit are 3 V. internal resistance
When the current I = 0.4A is flowing, the
terminal potential difference falls to 2.8 V. CASE I
Determine the internal resistance (r) of the
cell. ( )
Solution:
Given: E = 3V, V = 2.8 V, I = 0.4A, r =? ()
CASE II

( )

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5. A complete circuit consists of a 18 V,
( ) battery and a resistor R. The terminal
voltage of the circuit is 15.8V and the
{ current is 4A. What is the internal
resistance, r of the battery. (ANS: r = 0.55
𝛀)
i. The resistance R of the circuit resistor.
(ANS: R = 3.95 𝛀)
( ) 𝟎𝟓
Wheatstone bridge (Meter Bridge)
Wheatstone bridge is an electrical bridge
( ) circuit used to measure the unknown
resistance of a conductor.
𝟏𝟓
Consider the circuit in the figure below
whereby X is the unknown resistor
COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS SET 10.2
1. What is the maximum current of a battery
of e.m.f 3.0 V and internal resistance of
1.0Ω (ANS: I = 3 A)

2. A dc source with an internal resistance of

0.11 Ω is connected across a length of
nichrome wire having a resistance of 20 Ω
.If a voltmeter across the nichrome
indicates a drop of 5 V, what is the emf of By adjusting one of the known resistors,
the source? (ANS: emf = 5.0275 V) usually resistor Q, we can reach a value at
which the galvanometer shows no deflection
3. A cell with an emf of 1.4 V and internal (zero reading) .The bridge at this point is said
resistance of 0.05 Ω is placed in a circuit to be balanced and there is NO p.d across BC,
with several resistors. The cell provides thus two points have the same potential
0.52 A to the circuit. What is the terminal At balancing point
voltage of the cell? (ANS: V = 1.374 V)

4. In the circuit shown below, the battery has

an e.m.f of 6.6 V and internal resistance of
0.3 ohms. Determine the reading of the
ammeter.

Since the current through the galvanometer is

0, P and R carry the same current.

(ANS: 2.357A)
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( )

The meter Bridge ( )

 The metre bridge is one of the practical
forms of the Wheatstone bridge used for
measuring resistance
 It consists of a uniform resistance wire; AC 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐( )
(usually 100 cm long) stretched along side a 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏
metre scale. See the fig below
 The resistance R1, is connected across the Example
gap “ab” and another resistor (R2) is What is the resistance of a wire if it balances a
connected across the gap b1c. standard resistor of 5 ohms at the 56 cm from
 A galvanometer G is connected to the the end of the metre bridge?
terminal B and to a jockey D. Solution:
Given: R2 = 5Ω, L1 = 56 cm

𝟏
𝟏 𝟐( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏

( )

1. SELF EVALUATION
The galvanometer in the bridge network shown
 As the jockey is moved along the AC, at one in the fig. below, gives no deflection.
position D, the galvanometer will read zero.
The metre bridge is then said to be
balanced. D is the balancing point and the
length is the balance length
 R1 is the resistance to be measured; R2 is a
standard resistance of a value near to R1.
Then we can write What is the value of X? (ANS: X = 6Ω)
∝
Heating effect of an Electric Current
() When an electric current is passed through a
conductor, the conductor becomes hot after
∝
some time and produce heat. This happens due
to the conversion of some electric energy
passing through the conductor into heat
energy. This effect of electric current is called
heating of current.

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Factors affecting Heat Quantity Example

Resistance of a Conductor An electric iron box has resistance of 30 and
The higher the heat, the higher the resistance it takes a current of 10 A. Calculate the heat In
and vice versa kJ developed in 1 minute.
Solution:
Magnitude of the Electric Current Given: R = 30Ω, I = 10 A, t = 1min = 60 seconds
 The higher the current, the more the
heat produced

The time for which Current flows

Whenever an electric current passes through a
 The heat produced by an electric
conductor, electrical energy is converted to
current is proportional to the time
other forms of energy e.g heat, light etc
taken by the current to pass through a
(According to the law of conservation of
conductor
energy)

Joule’s Law
Electrical Power
It tells us the relationship between resistance,
Electrical power is the rate of potential
current and heat generated.
difference.
State that.
OR is the rate at which electrical energy is
“The rate at which heat is produced in a
dissipated
resistor is proportional to the square of the
current flowing through it, if the resistance is
constant.”
∝

Example
1. An electric bulb is rated 60 W, 240 V.
𝐈𝟐 Determine:
(a) The resistance of the filament
(b) The current flowing through the bulb when
But
it is connected to the mains supply
( ) Solution:
Given: P = 60W, V = 240 V
𝐈

Also ( )

( )

𝟐
(b) From ohms law: V = IR

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𝐄 𝟐 𝟔𝟎𝟑
Example 4:
A water boiler is connected to the 240V power COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE QUESTIONS
supply. The boiler contains 150kg of water SET 10.4
initially at a temperature ℃. Given that the 1. An electric kettle draws a current of 10A
resistance of the heating coil in the boiler is when connected to the 230V mains
, supply. If
(a) How long will it take to raise the 2. all the energy produced in 5 minutes is
temperature of the water to ℃ when used to heat 2kg of water. Calculate
the heater is turned ON? (specific heat i. The power of the kettle (b) The
capacity of water is /kgK. energy produced in 5 minutes
(b) How many KWH of electrical energy will be ii. The rise in temperature (Specific
consumed? heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-
1K-1) ANS (i) 2.3 kW (ii) 690 kJ (iii)
82.14 K
( ) 3. An electric motor powered by a 240 V
𝐄𝐈 mains supply requires a current of 30A to
lift a load of mass 3 tonnes at the rate of 5
m per minute. Calculate:
i. The power input (ANS: PIN = 7200 W)
( ) ii. The Power output (ANS: POUT = 2500 W)
iii. The overall efficiency of the machine (ANS:
Eff = 34.72%)
4 What is the maximum number of 100 W
()
bulbs which can be safely connected from a
𝐄 𝐈𝐈
240 V source supplying a current of 5 A?
( ) (ANS: n = 12 bulbs)
( )
Applications of heating effect of electric
current
 It is used in electrical heating
appliances such as iron, room heaters
water heaters etc
 It is used in electric bulbs to produce
light
 It is used in electric fuse
℃ ℃
NB: The wire used in the filament of household
(b) required electrical energy in KWH bulbs should have high resistance and high
melting point (heated to a very high
temperature) in order to emit light

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Electrical appliances Measurement of Electrical Power & Billing
Electrical appliance is the device which of electrical energy
uses heating element to produce heat Power Is the rate of doing work.
energy. OR
Nichrome wire is among of the heating Is the work done per unit time (second)
elements due to its high melting point. Power companies like TANESCO usually
The common electrical appliances measure the electrical energy in
includes Heaters, Electric iron, Bulbs, kilowatt hours (KWh)
kettles, Cookers, fridges, Televisions
and Air conditioner. 1KWh = (1KW x 1hour) J
(1000W x 60 x 60)
Rating of the Electrical Appliance 1KWh = 3600000J = 3600KJ
Rating of the appliance is the rate at Example 1;
which the appliance dissipate energy. A television set rated 200W is switched ON for
Power rating is the maximum power 5 hours every day. How much energy does it
that can be used to operate an consume in 30 days?
electrical device
Each electrical appliance has its own
rating which enables us to know energy
dissipated
Example 2
For example, an appliance marked
A house has five rooms, each with a 60W, 240V
3000W, 240V dissipates energy at the
bulb. If the bulbs are switched ON from
rate of 3000 Joules per second when
7.00P.M. to 10:30P.M, determine the power in
connected to 240V
KWH consumed by the bulb per by the bulbs.
The resistance of a filament increases
with the increase in temperature
Power Ratings of common Electrical
Appliances

FACT
Why is high voltage used for commercial
transmission of electrical energy?
Answer
NB:
In order to reduce the power loss during
If the mains supply falls below 240 V,
electrical transmission. OR.
the rating of the appliance would drop
Step up transformer converts high current low
Similarly when the power supply rises
voltage to low current high voltage, hence low
,the rating would rise and it would
current results to low heating effect on the
damage the appliance due to
cable hence reduce power loss
overheating

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COMPREHENSIVE COOMPETITIVE shock on touching. It represented by
EXAMINATION QUESTION SET 10.5 blue or black colour
1. An electric cooker has a coil of resistance
5000Ω. If is operated on a 250 V mains Earth Cable (E)
supply for 1 hour, how much heat energy The earth cable introduces to provide
does it produce? (ANS:E = 45kJ) extra safety especially in electrical
appliances. It is represented by yellow
2. A television set rated 200W is switched on or green color
for 5Hours every day. How much energy
does it consume in 30 days ANS: E = 1.08 x Three Pin Plug
105Kj  It consists of all three cables which are
Live cable, Neutral cable and Earth
3. A house has five rooms, each with a 60W, cable with a fuse connected to live
240V bulb. If the bulbs are switched on cable, sometimes fuse can be
7:00p.m to 10:300p.m determine the connected to neutral cable which is not
power consumed by bulbs per day. ANS: P safe
= 1.05kWh

4. A bulb rated 120 V, 75 W burns

continuously for two days. Given that the
cost of one unit ( 1kW) is 320 Tsh
.Determine the:
i. Total electrical energy consumed (b) Total
power bill ANS: (a) 3.6 kWh (b) 1152 Tsh
NB:
Electrical Installation of a House  The earth pin usually longer than the
 Domestic electricity is supplied by two other two
cables, live (L) and Neutral (N), the  Switch must be off when you push the
third cable is Earth(E) used to provide plug into the socket
extra safety
Two Pin Plug
Live Cable (L)
 It consists of only two cables which are
 The live cable is 240V relative to the
live cable and Neutral cable.
neutral. The current in the live cable
 An appliance using a two – pin plug its
alternates 60 times a second (60 Hz). It
body is not connected to earth (see the
is represented by brown or red colour
fig below)
 The potential difference between the
LIVE and the NEUTRAL wire is 240 V–0
V = 240 V

Neutral Cable (N)

 The Neutral cable is earthed at the Fuses
power station. This is to ensure current  A Fuse Is a safety device used to protect
at neutral cable remains zero potential an electric circuit against excess of
(V = 0V) so it cannot give an electric current.
OR

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 A fuse is a short piece of special wire Circuit Breaker
which melts when more than a rated  Is a type of switch that cuts off the flow
amount of current passes through it of electric current when the current
 It is made of a thin copper wire covered exceeds a specific value. (See the fig.
with tin or a lead – tin alloy. below)
 It works as a circuit breaker or stabilizer
which protects the device from damage

Types of Fuses
(a) Rewireable fuses

Mechanism of Circuit Breakers

(c) Cartridge fuses When current exceeds, it increases the
temperature and bimetallic strip bends to push
latch mechanism, enables the spring to cut off
current

Applications of fuses
Fuses are used in:-
 Electrical appliances (devices) 1. SELF EVALUATION
 Automobiles such as car, trucks and 2. You have a choice of the following fuses
other vehicles 1A, 3 A, 5 A, 9 A, 13 A and 30 A Select
 Scanners, portable electronics, hard the best fuse for
disk drives (a) 240 V , 7.2 kW electric cooker
 Fuses in capacitors, transformers, (b) a 240 V ,2kW electric iron
power converters, motor starters, ANS:
power transformers (a) The best fuse is a 30 A fuse
(b) The best fuse is 9 A fuse.
What happen if we don’t use fuse?
 If we don’t use fuses, electrical faults
occur in the wiring and it burns the wire Domestic Wiring Circuit
 and electrical appliances and this may  The power company connects power to
start fire at home. the house up to the consumer unit
 Also the lives of television, computers, where the house wiring starts
radios and other home appliances may  Consumer unit is the place where the
put at risk main switch, main fuse and distribution
board are placed in a single box or unit
 From the consumer unit , the cables
branch into the various parts of the
house.
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Repairing of Faults Procedures
Types of Domestic Wiring Circuit If electrical appliance fails to work the
(a) Ring main circuit following procedure should be done
(b) Lighting circuit Check by using live mains lead
indicator if there is power or not
Ring Main Circuit Check the cable from the socket to the
This is a cable which begins and ends at the appliance
consumer unit. Its three cables are forming If no fault is detected , open the plug
ring around part of the house. Its fuse is of 30A and check the fuse
fuse Check each cable for continuity by using
a Multimeter
Lighting Circuit If cables are working properly, then
In this circuit the first lamp connected from the check the fault is in the element by
customer unit, in turn is connected to the using a Multimeter
second lamp and so on. If element is in fault, replace element as
repair may not be possible
Types of Lighting Circuit If the element is not in fault , look for
(a) Loop – in lighting circuit loose connections, these should be
(b) Junction box lighting circuit made firm and/or cleaned of rust and
other dirt
Loop In Lighting Circuit
All three cables from consumer unit run to
Sources of Faults in domestic system
each ceiling roses, one after another.
From each rose another set of cables runs to  When fuse blows or melt
the switch which operates the light  Wire cutting
 Wire joining
Junction Box Lighting Circuit  Socket getting dirty
All three cables from consumer unit run to one  Switches breaking
junction box to another, where
one cable runs to the light and another run to Cells
the switch for that light. A Cell is a device used to cause a flow of
electric current in a conductor
Repairing Electrical Appliances Faults
Multimeter and Live mains lead indicator are Types of electrochemical Cells
devices important when checking electrical (a) Primary cell
appliances faults. (b) Secondary cell

Multimeter Primary Cell

Multimeter is the single meter for measuring  Is a cell which produces current as a
current (both a.c and d.c), voltage and result of irreversible chemical changes
resistance taking place within the cell
 Examples of primary cells are A Simple
Live Mains Lead Indicator (Testor) cell ,Leclanché cell and Dry cell
Is an electronic device used for testing the flow
of electric current

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 Local action can be minimized by
Simple Cell coating the surface of zinc with mercury
(Amalgamating)
Made from copper as anode, zinc as cathode
and Dilute sulphuric acid as electrolyte
Polarization
Diagram:
 Is the formation of a layer of hydrogen
bubbles on the copper plate
 The hydrogen insulates the copper
plate thus increasing the internal
resistance of the cell, this lowers the
current
 Polarization can be minimized by
adding a chemical (depolarizer). Which
reacts with hydrogen bubbles to form
water
 Example of depolarizer is potassium
dichromate
The processes that occur when the cell is in
operation
 The dilute sulphuric acid separates into Leclanché Cell
sulphate ions ( ) and hydrogen ions  Made from carbon as anode, zinc as
(H+): cathode, ammonium chloride (NH4CL)
𝟐 solution and depolarizer manganese
𝟐 𝟒( ) 𝟐 ( ) 𝟒 ( )
dioxide (MnO2) (See the fig. below)
At anode
 Zinc metal dissolved into solution to
form zinc cation which reacts with
sulphate anion to form zinc sulphate
𝟐 𝟐
𝟒 𝟐

At cathode:
 Hydrogen cation discharges to liberate
Dry Cell
hydrogen gas (bubbles)
𝟐 𝟐  Is a modified Leclanche cell in which the
𝟐
ammonium chloride solution is
replaced with ammonium chloride jelly
Defects of a Simple Cell  These Manganese(iv) oxide acts as
 A Simple cell has two defects which depolarizer
cause the current to drop quickly when  Ammonium chloride (NH4CL) and zinc
the cell is being used. chloride act as electrolyte. (See the fig
 These defects are local action and below)
polarization

Local Action
 Is caused by the presence of small
impurities in the zinc electrode

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Uses of Dry Cell  Cathode joining together to form
It is used to operate on radios, electronic negative terminal while anode joining
calculators and other small electrical devices together to form positive terminal. (see
the fig. below)
Advantages of Dry Cell
(a) It is portable
(b) The chemicals for its production are
relatively cheap
(c) It has a relatively high e.m.f
(d) It is able to recover from its polarized

Disadvantage of dry cell

(a) Cannot be recharged thus disposed
after use Discharging of Lead – Acid Battery
 Discharge is the process of a battery to
Secondary Cell provide electrical energy.
(b) Secondary cell is the cell which can be  The energy is produced when the acid
recharged after running down. (electrolyte) gradually combines with
(c) Eg lead acid cell and nickel ferrous cell. the active material of the electrodes.
Also called accumulators  This lowers the concentration of the
sulphuric acid.
Advantages of secondary cells
 Last longer than primary cell Charging of Lead Acid battery
 Can supply large current(low internal  The aim of charging is to drive all the
resistance) for a long time acid out of the plates and return it to
 Can be recharged the electrolyte.
 During charging, the negative terminal
Disadvantage of secondary cells of the battery charger is connected to
 Heavy and cumbersome to carry negative terminal of battery while the
 The electrolyte is corrosive positive terminal of the charger is
 It produces gases which may explode if connected to the positive terminal of
ignited the battery
 It cannot produce large currents in cold  When the battery is fully discharged
weathers (Lowering the temperature ,the battery is said to be sulphated (will
causes chemical reactions to proceed not function as it cannot be recharged)
more slowly)
Taking Care of Accumulators
Lead Acid battery  Cells should be charged regularly and
 It consists of two plates of lead should never left discharged
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid  The acid level should be maintained by
.These are Anode of lead(IV) oxide and adding distilled water when necessary
cathode of spongy lead (never add acid)
 An electrode is separated by insulator  The terminal should be kept clean and
called separator. greased
 Rough handling should be avoided

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 The cells should not be short – circuited  The total voltage of all of the cells is the
, Example, if you connect two terminals same as that of a single cell
to each other  Total current across the cells is equal to
 The rate specified by manufacturer the sum of the current across each cell,
should not be exceeded during charging that is why lead acid accumulator uses
this arrangement
Uses of Accumulators GENERAL COMPREHENSIVE COMPETITIVE
 Used to provide power in motor QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION
vehicles 1. A current of 1.5 A flows in a wire .Find the total
 Used to provide energy to power charge passed in 20 seconds(Q = 30 C)
domestic appliances such as radio
 Used together with solar panels to 2. A charge of 3600 C passes through an electric
convert solar energy to electrical lamp in 3.0 minutes .What is the current in the
energy lamp (ANS: I = 20 A)
 They are used to store electrical energy
3. How many electrons pass through a lamp in 10
seconds, if the current is a 125mA and the
Arrangement of Cells
charge of one electron is 1.6 x 10-19 C? (ANS: n
Series Arrangement of Cells = 7.813 x 1018 electrons)
 In this series arrangement the positive 4. Electron in hydrogen atom revolves around the
terminal of one cell is connected to the nucleus with frequency 6.0 x 10-4 per second
negative terminal of another cell .Calculate the current in the orbit .Given that
 Electric current is the same at each cell charge on an electron = 1.6 c. (ANS: I =
 Total voltage across the cells is equal to 9.6 x 10-5 A)
the sum of the voltage of the individual
cells, that is why torch light uses this 5. If a container of surface area 2.1 m2 is to be
arrangement (see the fig. below) coated with silver about 0.1 mm thick
,calculate the time it will take if a current of 4
amperes has to flow

6. A nichrome wire of radius 0.35 mm has a

resistivity of 1.5 x 10-6 Ωm .Given that the wire
Parallel Arrangement of Cells has a length of 80 cm .Calculate
(a) its resistance
In parallel arrangement, all the positive
(b) Conductance
terminals of the cells are connected together
(c) Conductivity
and negative terminals of the cells are
connected together. (see the fig below)
7. Explain the factors which determine the
resistance of a conductor
8. When resistors are connected in series ,which
of the following is the same for all the resistors
(a) potential difference (b) current
9. Find the resistance of a wire of 1100 cm long ,
0.2 mm diameter and of resistivity x 10-6 Ω
(ANS: R = 546.7 𝛀)
NB:

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10. Calculate the energy dissipated by a resistor of 16. State the factors which determine the
12 Ω in 4 seconds if a voltage of 6V is applied. resistance of a conductor. Define Resistivity
(ANS: H = 12 J) and give its SI unit. Find the length of
11. Calculate the heat lost by a wire of resistance constantan wire of diameter 1cm needed to
16 Ω when a current of 30 A flows through it in make a resistor of 3Ω.Take the resistivity of
1 second. (ANS: H = 14 400 J) constantan as 4.9 x 10 -7Ωm
12. A battery consisting of two cells of 2 V and 17. Two wires A and B are made of the same
internal resistance of 1 Ω each is sending a material .A has half the length and twice the
current through the filament of the lamp as diameter of B .What is the ratio of the
shown in the circuit below resistance of B to that of A?
18. A battery consists of three accumulators in
series, each having an e.m.f of 2 V. A second
battery consists of four dry cells also in series,
each having an e.m.f of 1.5 V. What is the e.m.f
of each battery? Why could you get a bigger
current from the battery of
accumulators.(ANS: 6 V each)
19. Each of the two new dry cells has an e.m.f of
1.5 volts and internal resistance of 1.0
ohm.The two cells are connected to a 10 ohm
Calculate The current in the circuit when
resistor. Find the current and heat developed
(i)Switch K is open (ANS: I = 0.67 A)
per second on the 10 ohm resistor.
(ii)Switch K is closed (ANS: I = 0.8 A)
20. A fine wire has a resistance of 4.0 Ω/ .When
(b) the potential difference across the battery
a coil made from this wire is connected to a 50
of two cells when K is closed(P.d =2.4 V)
V supply a current of 25 mA flows
13. Define resistance and state its SI units. When is
(a) what is the length of wire making this coil?
the resistance of a conductor said to be one
(b) Determine the resistivity of this wire if
ohm? A current of 2 A is observed to flow
its diameter is 0.35 mm
through a conductor when a potential
21. Show that if two resistors are joined in parallel
difference of 50V is applied between its ends.
and in series, the effective resistance R is given
Calculate the resistance of the conductor.
𝟏 𝟐
14. Distinguish between primary and secondary by: and R = R1+R2 respectively,
𝟏 𝟐
cells 22. Three resistors of resistances 10Ω, 25Ω and
15. Find the current in the 12 Ω resistor (ANS: I = 50Ω respectively, are to be connected between
0.429 A) two points A and B. What will be the resistance
between A and B if the three resistors are
connected (a) In series (b) In parallel
23. Three conductors of resistances 10Ω,15Ω and
25Ω are joined in series across a 100V supply,
Find (a) The total resistance (b) The current in
the circuit (c) The potential difference across
each conductor
24. Calculate the current passing through the 6Ω
resistor in the circuit shown in the figure below

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
(i) (a) the internal resistance of the cell
(ii) (b) The e.m.f of the cell
32. State joule’s law of heating. Describe an
experiment to show that the heat developed in
a conductor by the passage of an electric
current depends on the magnitude of the
current.
33. Give joule’s formula for the quantity of
electrical energy generated in a wire carrying a
current and define all symbols used. A current
of 2A is passed through a conductor of
25. State the main facts about cells connected resistance 10Ω for 5 minutes. Calculate the
(a) in series and (b) in parallel. Three cells each quantity of heat dissipated in the conductor
of e.m.f. 1.5V and internal resistance 0.6Ω are 34. In an experiment to find the resistance of a
connected in parallel. The group of cells is then resistor R using the wheat stone bridge, the
connected across a conductor of resistance balance point was found to be at the 35 cm
1Ω.Calculate the current in the circuit. mark on a 100 cm nichrome wire. If the value
26. A cell has an e.m.f of 1.5 V, and an internal of the resistance needed to balance the bridge
resistance of 1 Ω, and is connected to two on the other side was 30 Ω, calculate the value
resistances of 2 Ω and 3 Ω in series. Find the of the resistance of the resistor R. (ANS: R =
current flowing and the potential difference 16.2 Ω)
across the ends of each resistance.(ANS: 0.25A 35. When is an electrical conductor said to
,0.5 V, 0.75 V) dissipate one joule? The current in an electrical
27. Two cells each having an e.m.f of 1.5 V and an appliance operating from a 240V supply is
internal resistance of 1Ω are connected to a 5A.How much energy is used up in operating it
resistance of 4 Ω. What is the current in this for 20 minutes?
resistance if the cells are connected in parallel? 36. The resistance of a heating coil of an electrical
(ANS: I = 0.33 A or 1/3 A) hot water system is 100 ohm. If the coil
28. Two resistors of resistances 3Ω and 5Ω operates from a 240V supply, calculate the rate
respectively, are connected in the gaps of a at which the coil consumes electrical energy.
metre bridge. At what point on the wire of the 37. What is the resistance of a wire if it is balances
bridge will a centre-zero galvanometer show a standard resistor of 2 ohms at the 56 cm
no deflection? from the end of the metre bridge? (ANS: R =
29. The P.d across the terminals of a cell is 3.0 V 2.54 cm)
when it is not connected to a circuit and no 38. Find the value of the unknown resistor S in the
current is flowing. When the cell is connected balanced wheat stone bridge circuit in the
to a circuit and a current of 0.37 A is flowing figure below
the terminal P.d falls to 2.8 V. What is the
internal resistance of the cell?. (ANS: r = 0.54
Ω)
30. Two resistors of resistance 30 Ω and 80 Ω are
connected in parallel. Calculate their
equivalent resistance
31. A cell pushes a current of 2.0 A through a 0.6 Ω
resistor. When the same cell is connected to a
1 Ω resistor, the current that flows is now 1.2 A 39. (a)A domestic electric bulb is marked 240 V,
.Calculate: 100 W. Calculate

109 | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics

 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
(i) The maximum current it can take 50. State the defects of a simple cell and explain
(ii) The resistance of the filament of the bulb how these defects may be minimized?
(b) If the bulb in (a) above is switched on for 8 51. What is the difference between a dry and a
hours , find the total amount of energy wet Leclanche cell
dissipated in the filament 52. Explain why a Leclanche cell is not suitable for
40. (a) The heating coil of an aluminium electric use as a continuous sources of energy.
kettle is labeled 240 V, 4 Kw. Water of mass 3 53. State four household electrical appliances
kg at a temperature of 25oC is poured into the where electrical energy is converted into heat
kettle. If the kettle is connected to a 240 V 54. A washing machine is marked 240 V, 3Kw
supply when its temperature is 35oC, Calculate .What does this mean? Hence calculate the
the time taken for the water to reach its boiling electrical energy used up by this machine in 1
point hour
(b) In what further time will 10% of the water 55. Calculate the (a) current through (b) resistance
in the kettle evaporates away? (Mass of kettle of the filament of
= 0.5 kg, specific heat capacity of aluminium =(i) (a) a bulb rated at 240 V , 60W
900 J/kgK , Specific latent heat of vaporization(ii) (b) an electrical kettle rated at 2 KW, 240 V
of water = 2.268 x 106 J/kg-1K-1) 56. The filament of the bulb is made of tungsten
41. If electrical energy is charged at the rate of Tsh and the bulb contains a mixture of argon and
100 per kilowatt – hour , Calculate the cost of nitrogen at low pressure what is the purpose
using : of the presence of the gases inside the bulb.
(i) a 60 W light bulb for 8 hours (i) why is tungsten a suitable material for the
(ii) a 1 kW electric iron for 1.5 hours filament
(iii) a 6000 W electric cooker for 2 hours 57. Electrical heaters are said to be
42. An electric iron consumes 2.592 MJ of energy environmentally friendlier than the heating
in 1 hour when connected to the mains power devices which use firewood or charcoal
supply of 240 V. Calculate the current through .Explain this statement
the filament in the electric iron.(ANS: I = 3 A) 58. Starting from electrical work done W = ItV ,
43. State the properties and functions of a fuse. show that electrical power (P) generated in a
How does a fuse in the lighting circuit differ conductor is given by V2/R ,where the symbols
from that used in the heating or power circuit? have the usual meaning
44. (a) What is the importance of using a fuse in an 59. Three cells each of e.m.f 1.5 v and internal
electrical appliance resistance 0.6 Ω in series to form a
45. A refrigerator is marked 250 V, 400 W. battery and connected across a 0.5 Ω resistor
Calculate the maximum current that can flow .Calculate (a) the current (b) The P.d between
through it? the terminals of the cell
46. Discuss what might happen to the refrigerator 60. Which bulb in the figure below is the
if it is connected to: brightest? Explain your answer
(i) a 230 V supply (ii) a 110 V supply
47. State and explain the causes of electrical short
– circuit.
48. Explain briefly why cables in a lighting circuit
are different from those in a power circuit
49. Fuse wires are labeled 2 A, 3 A, 5 A ,13 A and
14 A .Which of these is most suitable for:
(i) (a) a 220 V ,2.8 kW electric iron?
(ii) (b) a 240 V, 400 kW refrigerator?
(iii) (c) a 220 V, 3 kW water heater?
110 | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics
 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics
61. (a) State Ohm’s law and state two of its hour, and the stove is used for 30 minutes per
limitations day. (a) How much will the cost be in the
62. Determine the internal resistance of a cell and month of January? (b) What is the maximum
the value of R given that the p.d of the cell in current that flows through the element
open circuit is 1.5 v, when connected to a 10 without destroying it?
resistor its p.d becomes 1.0 v, but when 73. When two resistors are connected in series,
connected to a resistor of R the p.d falls to the total resistance is 25 ohm .If they are
0.5 v (ANS: r= 5Ω,R = 2.5Ω) connected in parallel ,the total resistance is 6
63. The power rating of an electric bulb is ’60 W, ohm. Find the resistance of each ( ANS: 15
240 V’ ohm and 10 ohm)
(c) Calculate the current through the filament and 74. The emf of a cell is 12 V and its internal
the resistance of the filament (ANS: R = 960 Ω, resistance is 2 ohm .Find the current and the
I = 0.25 A) terminal potential difference across the cell , if
(d) By comparison with the answers to (a) above it is connected to 4 ohm external resistor
determine the current and the resistance of 75. Briefly, explain what the fuse is
the filament of a ‘120 W,240 V’ bulb. Explain 76. Select the best fuse for the following
your answer (ANS: I = 0.5 A, R = 480Ω, ∝ (i) (a) a refrigerator rated 250 V, 400 W
64. An electric bulb is labeled ‘ 40 W,240 v’.(ii) (ANS: I = 1.6A, the best is 2 A)
Calculate (iii) (b) the electric cooker rated 240 V, 7.2kW
(i) the resistance of the filament used I the (ANS: I = 30 A, the best is 30A)
bulb(ANS:R = 1 440 Ω) (iv) (c) the electric iron rated 240V, 2 kW (ANS: I =
(ii) The current through the filament when the 8.3A, the best is10 A)
bulb works normally (I = 0.167 A) 77. The ratings of a bulb is 60 W, 240 V. Due to a
65. A 3 kW immersion heater is used to heat water power outage, the voltage drops down to 200
.Calculate the electrical energy V .Find the new power of the bulb .What would
66. converted into heat energy in 40 minutes you notice in the bulb?
(ANS: E.E = 7.2 MJ) 78. The ratings of an iron is 1200 W, 240 V. Find
67. A current of 2 A is passed through a resistor of the current and the energy used up in an hour
20 ohms for 1.0 hour .Calculate the electrical 79. In the two circuits (a) and (b) shown in the
energy converted into heat energy in the figure below which bulb, A or B is
𝟐
𝟐
resistor (ANS:E.E = 2.88x105 J) 80. brighter? (ANS: From P = 𝑹 𝑹, in parallel
68. Why does a bird safely porch on a high V is the same while in series I is the same. This
potential electric wire? (ANS: When a bird is gives that in fig (a) Bulb B has more power so
perched on a single wire, its two feet are at it is more brighter but in fig (b) Bulb A has
the same electrical potential, so the electrons more power than B so it is more brighter than
in the wires have no motivation to travel B)
through the bird’s body)
69. A torch bulb is labeled 2.5 V, 0.3 A. Calculate
the power of the bulb(ANS:P=0.75 W)
70. What is the terminal p.d for a cell of emf 2 V
and internal resistance 1 ohm when it is
connected to a 9 ohm resistor?
71. Explain the terms Live, Neutral and Earth as
applied in domestic electrical appliances
72. An electric stove is rated 1000 W, 250 V.
81. In the circuit shown below ,each bulb is rated
Electricity is charged at shs. 45/= per kilowatt –
at ‘ 6 V, 3 W’

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 Mr. Chambilo “PM” Complete Form Three Physics

(i) Calculate the current through each bulb, when (a) Calculate the current in the circuit
the bulbs are working normally. (i) (b) What would be the difference, if any, to the
(ii) How many coulombs of charge pass in 6 current, if the two cells are connected in
seconds through each bulb? parallel.
(c) What would the ammeter read when all the 83. The p.d across the terminals of a cell is a 1.5 V
bulbs are working normally where there is no current in the cell .Where is
(iii) Calculate the electrical power delivered by the a current of 0.50 A in the circuit the p.d falls to
battery 1.3 V
82. Two cells, each of 1.5 V are used to drive a(i) (a) What is the e.m.f of the cell?
current through a wire AB of resistance 90(ii) (b) What is the terminal voltage at the cell?
ohms (see the figure below ) (iii) (c) Calculate the internal resistance of the cell
84. Explain the term internal resistance of a cell
.How does it arise?

REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS

2. Oxford University press 2008, Physics for Zanzibar Secondary Schools Forms 3 & 4.
3. Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE), 2017 Physics for secondary Schools Book 3. Published by
Education Books Publishers
4. Oxford University Press 2015. Physics for secondary schools form 3
5. Contemporary Physics for form three, published by Nyambari Nyangwine publishers limited.

112 | © C o p r e h e n s i v e Ordinary level form three Physics