Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)

LENGTH AND TIME

LENGTH
 A rule (ruler) is used to measure length for distances between
1mm and 1meter
 SI unit for length is the meter (m)
 To find out volume of regular object, use mathematical
formula
 To find out volume of irregular object, put object into
measuring cylinder with water. When object added, it
displaces water, making water level rise. Measure this rise.
This is the volume.
MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
Determination of the diameter 'd' of a wire
Determination of the diameter 'd' of a wire

ACCELERATION
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏=(𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅−𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅)/𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
 Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit of time,
measured in meters per second, or m/s2
 Acceleration is a vector quantity
 An increase in speed is a positive acceleration, a decrease in
speed is a negative acceleration/deceleration/retardation.
 Place the wire between the anvil and spindle end as indicated
 If acceleration is not constant, the speed/time graph will be
in the diagram.
curved.
 Rotate the thimble until the wire is firmly held between the
 The downwards acceleration of an object is caused by gravity.
anvil and the spindle.
This happens most when an object is in free. Objects are
 The ratchet is provided to avoid excessive pressure on the
slowed down by air resistance. Once air resistance is equal to
wire. It prevents the spindle from further movement -
the force of gravity, the object has reached terminal velocity.
squashing the wire
This means that it will stay at a constant velocity. acceleration
 To take a reading:
of free fall for a body near to the Earth is constant (G=10m/s)
 First look at the main scale. This
has a linear scale reading on it. The MASS AND WEIGHT
long lines are every millimetre the  Mass: amount of matter an object contains, and is a
shorter ones denote half a millimeter property that ‘resists’ change in motion
in between.  Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object,
 On the diagram this reading is 2.5 mm measured in Newtons, and given by the formula:
 Now look at the rotating scale. That denotes 46 divisions - 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕=𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔×𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
each division is 0.01mm so we have 0.46mm from this  Weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a
scale. balance
 The diameter of the wire is the sum of these readings:
 2.5 + 0.46 = 2.96 mm DENSITY
TIME 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚=𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔/𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
 Interval of time is measured using clocks  Density of a liquid: place measuring cylinder on a
 SI unit for time is the second(s) balance, fill measuring cylinder with the liquid. The
 To find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make a change in mass is mass of liquid and volume is shown on
spin, time ~25 circles and then divide by the same number as the scale, then use formula.
the number of circles.  Density of solid:
 Finding the volume: To find out volume of a regular
SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION object, use mathematical formula. To find out volume of an
irregular object, put object into a measuring cylinder
SPEED with water and the rise of water is the volume of the
 Speed is the distance an object moves in a time object
frame. It is measured in meters/second (m/s) or  Finding the mass: weigh object on a scale
kilometers/hour (km/h).  Then use formula
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅=𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 /𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
 Speed is a scalar quantity FORCES
EFFECTS OF FORCES
 A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body,
give an acceleration or deceleration or a change in
direction depending on the direction of the force.

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
HOOKE’S LAW
CENTRE OF MASS
 Springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they
 Centre of mass: imaginary point in a body
are under their proportional limit.
where total mass of body seems to be acting
Working out the center of mass:

 Limit of proportionality: point at which load and

extension are no longer proportional
 Elastic limit: point at which the spring will not return to  Mark three points on the edge of the card
its original shape after being stretched  Make a hole using a pin on each point
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑁)=𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡×𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛  Hang it on a cork board and make a line
when it is stable
𝑭=𝒌𝒆  Do this for all three points
 Where all three lines intersect, this is the center of
F=MA mass
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆=𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔×𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 STABILITY
 Forces measured in Newtons  An object will be in stable equilibrium when it returns
to its original position given a small displacement
CIRCULAR MOTION  For an object to start rotating it needs to have an
 An object at steady speed in circular orbit is always unbalanced moment acting on it
accelerating as its direction is changing, but it gets no SCALARS AND VECTORS
closer to the center  A scalar is a quantity that only has a magnitude (so it
 Centripetal force is the force acting towards the center can only be positive) for example speed.
of a circle. It is a force that is needed, not caused, by  A vector quantity has a direction as well as a
circular motion, magnitude, for example velocity, which can be
 For example, when you swing a ball on a string round negative.
in a circle, the tension of the string is the centripetal ENERGY, WORK AND POWER
force. If the string is cut then the ball will travel in a ENERGY
straight line at a tangent to the circle at the point 
where the string was cut. (J)
 Centrifugal force is the force acting away from the  An object may have energy due to its motion or its
center of a circle. This is what makes a slingshot go position
outwards as you spin it. The centrifugal force is the  Conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or
reaction to the centripetal force. It has the same destroyed, when work is done, energy is changed
magnitude but opposite direction to centripetal force. from one form to another
NEWTON’S LAWS  Energy can be stored
 First law of motion: If no external for is acting on it, an Energy type What it is Example
object will, if stationary, remain stationary, and if Kinetic Due to motion Car moving
moving, keep moving at a steady speed in the same Gravitational From potential to Book on shelf
straight line fall
 Second law of motion: 𝑭=𝒎𝒂 Chemical In chemical bonds Bonds in starch
 Third law of motion: if object A exerts a force on (food)
object B, then object B will exert an equal but opposite Strain Compress/stretch Stretched elastic
force on object A band
Nuclear Atoms Released in
TURNING EFFECT rearranged/split nuclear plants
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝑵𝒎)=𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆(𝑵)×𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑷𝒊𝒗𝒐𝒕(𝒎) Internal Motion of In a glass of water
 In equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise molecules
moment. Electrical Carried by Battery to bulb
 Levers are force magnifiers electrons
 Turning a bolt is far easier with a wrench because Light Carried in light From sun
distance from pivot is massively increased, and so is waves
the turning effect. Sound Carried in sound From speaker
waves

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
 1 joule of work = force of 1 Newton moves an object
by 1 meter
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦=12⁄×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠×𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝟐 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝑱)= 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑵)×𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒎)
𝑾=𝑭𝑫
𝑲.𝑬.=𝟏𝟐⁄𝒎𝒗𝟐 POWER
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦=𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠×𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦×𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
 Power is the rate of work
𝑮.𝑷.𝑬.=𝒎𝒈𝒉  The unit for power is Watts (W)
 Example of conversion of energy: A book on a shelf has
 1W = 1J/s
gravitational potential energy, if it falls of the shelf it will
have kinetic energy
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑾)=𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝑱)/𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒔)
ENERGY RESOURCES PRESSURE
 Renewable sources are not exhaustible
PRESSURE IN SOLIDS
 Non-renewable sources of energy are exhaustible
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝑷𝒂)=𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑵)/𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝒎𝟐)
Type Advantages Disadvantages 𝑷=𝑭/𝑨
Fuel burnt to make  Unit: Pascals (Pa) = N/m𝟐
thermal energy, Cheap Harmful wastes:
produces steam, Plentiful o Greenhouse and PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
turns turbine Low-tech pollutant gases 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆(𝑷𝒂)=𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒌𝒈/𝒎3)×𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒎/𝒔𝟐)×𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕(
producing o Radiation 𝒎)
electricity 𝑷=𝒉𝝆𝒈
Wave energy:  At a depth of 10m in water, the pressure is always
generators driven No greenhouse Difficult to build 100,000 Pa (1bar) and is constant for each further
by up and down gases produced 10m.
motion of waves at ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
sea.
 1 atm = 101.325 X 103 Pa = 101 KPa
Tidal energy: dam
built where river No greenhouse Expensive
Manometer Barometer
meets sea, lake fills gases produced Can’t be built everywhere
when tides comes
in and empties
when tide goes
out; water flow
runs generator
Hydroelectric:
river & rain fill up Low impact on Few areas of the world
lake behind dam. environment suitable
Water released, Energy produced
at constant rate
generator
Geothermal: water
pumped down to No CO2 produced Deep drilling difficult and Tube with vacuum at the
A manometer measures the top and mercury filling the
hot rocks rising as expensive
pressure difference. rest..
steam
The height difference shows Pressure of the air pushes
Nuclear fission:
the excess pressure in addition down on reservoir, forcing
uranium atoms Produces a lot of Produces radioactive waste
to the atmospheric pressure. mercury up the tube.
split by shooting energy with very
neutrons at them little resources You measure height of
mercury in the test tube
Solar cells: made , and units used are mm
of materials that No CO2 produced Variable amount of ~760 mm of mercury is 1
deliver electrical sunshine in some countries atm.
current when it
absorbs light PRESSURE IN GASES
Solar panels: absorbs energy and use it to heat water  The pressure gases exert on a container is due to
the particles colliding on the container walls.
In the sun, energy is created through a process called nuclear fusion:  If the volume is constant, then increasing the
hydrogen nuclei are pushed together to form helium. temperature will increase the pressure.
Efficiency: how much useful work is done with energy supplied

WORK
 Work is done whenever a force makes something
move.
 The unit for work is the Joule (J).

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
BROWNIAN MOTION MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
 A physical property that varies with temperature
may be used for measurement of temperature
Liquid-in-glass thermometer:

 Gas molecules move at a random motion

 This is because of repeated collisions with other
gas molecules
 Small molecules move much faster and have higher  As temperature rises or falls, the liquid (mercury
energy than larger molecules or alcohol) expands or contracts.
 The small particles can help move the larger  Amount of expansion can be matched to
particles temperature on a scale.
 Brownian motion can be seen visually in smoke Thermistor thermometer:

EVAPORATION
 It is the escape of the more energetic particles and
occurs constantly on the surface of liquids.
 If more energetic particles escape, liquid contains few
high energy particles and more low energy particles
so average temperature decreases.  The probe contains a thermistor
Evaporation can be accelerated by:  The thermistor is a material that becomes a
 Increasing temperature: more particles have energy better electrical conductor when the temperature
to escape rises (semi-conductor)
 Increasing surface area: more molecules are close to  So when temperature increases, a higher current
the surface flows from a battery, causing a higher reading on
 Reduce humidity level in air: if the air is less humid, the meter
fewer particles are condensing.
 Blow air across the surface: removes molecules Thermocouple thermometer:
before they can return to the liquid
PRESSURE CHANGES 𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏=𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐

THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS & GASES

 Solids, liquids and gasses expand when they are

heated as atoms vibrate more and this causes them to
become further apart, taking up a greater volume.
 Expansion is highest in gases, then liquids and
lowest in solids.
Applications and consequences of thermal expansion:  The probe contains 2 different metals joined
 Overhead cables have to be slack so that on cold metals to form 2 junctions.
days, when they contract, they don’t snap or  The temperature difference causes a tiny voltage which
detach. makes a current flow.
 Gaps have to be left in bridge to allow for  A greater temperature difference gives a greater
expansion current.
 Bimetal thermostat: when temperature gets too  Thermocouple thermometers are used for high
high, bimetal strip bends, to make contacts temperatures which change rapidly and have a
separate until temperature falls enough, then large range (-200C° to 1100°C)
metal strip will become straight again and Fixed points are definite temperatures at which something
contacts touch, to maintain a steady temperature happens and are used to calibrate a thermometer. For example,
 For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the melting and boiling point of water
volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature Calibrating a thermometer:
Place thermometer in melting ice, this is 0 °C.
Place thermometer in boiling water, this is 100 °C.
Sensitivity: change in length or volume per degree
To increase sensitivity:
 Thinner capillary
 Less dense liquid
 Bigger bulb
Range: change the upper and lower fixed points
Linearity: change the distance between intervals

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
Responsiveness: how long it takes for the thermometer to  Conduction is the flow of heat through matter
react to a change in temperature. from places of higher temperature to places of
THERMAL CAPACITY lower temperature without movement of the
Thermal capacity: capacity for absorbing thermal energy, given by matter as a whole
this formula:  In non-metals - when heat is supplied to
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚=𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑱/𝑲𝒈)×𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 something, its atoms vibrate faster and pass on
Specific heat capacity: is the amount of energy needed to their vibrations to the adjacent atoms.
raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of a substance by 1°C,  In metals – conduction happens in the previous
the unit for specific heat capacity is J/(Kg°C) way and in a quicker way – some electrons are
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦=(𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 free to move, they travel randomly in the metal
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑)/(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠×𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) and collide with atoms and pass on the vibrations.
𝑪=𝑬/(𝒎×Δ𝑻) CONVECTION
𝑬=𝒎𝒄Δ𝑻  Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid
MELTING from places of higher temperature in places of
 This is when a solid turns into a liquid. lower temperature by movement of the fluid
 Temperature increases thus kinetic energy in itself.
solid increases and particles vibrate more rapidly  As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles
but there is no increase in temperature of the which are warmer become less dense and rise.
substance when melting because thermal  They then cool and fall back to the heat source,
energy supplied is instead being used to break creating a cycle called convection current.
bonds between particles of the solid thus  As particles circulate they transfer energy to
making it into a liquid. other particles. If a cooling object is above a
BOILING fluid it will create a convection current
 This is when a liquid turns into a gas RADIATION
 Temperature increases thus kinetic energy in  Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to
liquid increases and particles vibrate more another by means of electromagnetic waves
rapidly but there is no increase in temperature of  Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but
the substance when boiling because thermal very hot objects also give out light waves. Infra-
energy supplied is instead being used to break red radiation is part of the electromagnetic
bonds between particles of the liquid thus spectrum.
making it into a gas.  An emitter sends out thermal radiation.
 The difference between boiling and  A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is
evaporation is that: a bad absorber.
 Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature and  An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber
throughout the liquid will heat up more quickly and a reflector will not
 Evaporation occurs at any temperature and heat up quickly
only on the surface APPLICATION OF ENERGY TRANSFER
LATENT HEAT Solar panel:
 The latent heat of fusion is the amount of the sun’s thermal radiation is absorbed by a matt black
energy needed to melt 1Kg of a substance. surface and warms up the pipes containing water
 The latent heat of vaporization is the amount Refrigerator:
of energy needed to boil 1Kg of a substance the freezer compartment is located at the top of the
refrigerator. It cools down the air which then sinks. Any
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= warm air rises to the top and then is cooled. This creates a
(𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑)𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 convection current which maintains a cold temperature.
𝑳𝒇/𝑳𝒗=𝑬𝒎 CONSEQUENCES OF ENERGY TRANSFER
CONDENSATION AND SOLIDIFICATION  Metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because
 Condensation is when a gas turns back into a it conducts heat
liquid.  Convection currents create sea breezes. During
 When a gas is cooled, the particles lose energy. the day the land is warmer and acts as heat
They move more and more slowly. When they source. During the night the sea acts as the heat
bump into each other, they do not have source.
enough energy to bounce away again so they  A black saucepan cools better than a white one,
stay close together, and a liquid forms. white houses stay cooler than dark ones
 When a liquid cools, the particles slow down
even more. Eventually they stop moving except GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES
for vibrations and a solid forms. Frequency: the number of waves passing any point per second
TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY measured in hertz (Hz)
CONDUCTORS
 Good conductors are used whenever heat is 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚=𝟏/𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅
required to travel quickly through something
 Bad conductors (insulators) are used to Period: time taken for one oscillation in seconds
reduce the amount of heat lost to the Wavefront: the peak of a transverse wave or the compression
surroundings of a longitudinal wave
Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
CONDUCTION
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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
Wavelength: distance between a point on one wave to Laws of reflection:
the equivalent point on the next wave in meters Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Amplitude: maximum distance a wave moves from its rest The incident ray, reflected ray and normal are always on
position when a wave passes the same plane (side of mirror)
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
 Refraction is the bending when light travels from one
medium to another
EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION – RAY BOX
 Using the ray box, pass a ray through a glass slab on a
white sheet of paper.
 Mark two points on the incident ray, refracted
ray, emergent ray and draw an outline of the
glass slab with a pencil on paper
 Then by connecting the dots you can produce a
diagram like the one below, a protractor is used to
find the angles.
Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves  When a ray passes through a parallel sided
Travelling waves in which Travelling waves in which transparent material its passage will look like this:
oscillation is perpendicular oscillation is parallel to
to direction of travel. direction of travel.
Has crests and troughs. Has compressions and
For example, light, water rarefactions
waves and vibrating string For example, sound waves

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚/𝑠)=𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝐻𝑧)×𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑚)
𝑽=𝑭𝝀
REFRACTION
 Speed and wave length is reduced but frequency
stays the same and the wave changes direction
 Waves slow down when they pass from a less to a
more dense material and vice versa
 When wave is slowed down, it is refracted towards
normal (i > r) Note: the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
 When wave is sped up, it is refracted away from
normal (i < r) CRITICAL ANGLE
 Deep water is denser than shallow water  Angle at which refracted ray is parallel to the
surface of material.
 If angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
there is no refracted ray, there is total internal
reflection.
When water wave travels When water waves travel  If angle of incidence is less than the critical
from deep to shallow; speed from shallow to deep; speed angle the incidence ray will split into a refracted ray
decreases, wavelength increases wavelength and a weaker reflected ray.
decreases and frequency increases and frequency
remains constant remains constant

REFLECTION
 Waves bounce away from surface at same angle
they strike it
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
 Speed, wavelength and frequency are unchanged by
reflection
LIGHT
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
 Plane (flat) mirrors produce a reflection.
 Rays from an object reflect off the mirror into
our eyes, but we see them behind the mirror.
The image has these properties:
 Image is the same size as the object
 Image is the same distance from the mirror as
the object
 A line joining equivalent points of the image
and object meet the mirror at a right angle
 Image is virtual: no rays actually pass through
the image and the image cannot be formed on a
screen

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
OPTICAL FIBRES Refraction by a prism:
 Light put in at one end is totally internally reflected  When light is refracted by a prism, the incidence ray is
until it comes out the other end. not parallel to the emergent ray, since the prism’s
 Used in communications: signals are coded and sent sides are not parallel.
along the fiber as pulses of laser light  If a beam of white light is passed through a prism it is
 Used in medicine: an endoscope, an instrument used dispersed into a spectrum.
by surgeons to look inside the body; contains a long  White light is a mixture of colors, and the prism
bundle of optic fibers. refracts each color by a different amount – red is
THIN CONVERGING LENS deviated least & violet most
Principal focus: the point where rays parallel to the principal LIGHT SPECTRUM
axis converge with a converging lens.
Focal length: distance from principle focus and the optical
center.
Principal axis: line that goes through optical center, and the 2 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
foci.
Optical center: the center of the lens

Real Image
When object is further away from the optical centre than F’ is

All electromagnetic waves:

A) A ray through centre of the lens passes straight  Travel at the speed of light: 3 × 108m/s
through the lens.  Don’t need a medium to travel through (travel
B) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the through a vacuum)
focus on the other side of the lens  Can transfer energy
C) A ray through F’ will leave the lens parallel to the  Are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy
principal axis. in some way
 Are transverse waves
Virtual Image
When the object is closer to the optical centre than F’ is USES
Radio waves: radio and television communications
Microwaves: satellite television and telephones
o Safety issue: cause internal heating of body tissues
Infrared: electrical appliances (radiant heaters and grills),
remote controllers for televisions and intruder alarms
X-rays: medicine (x-ray photography and killing cancer cells)
and security
O Safety issue: is a mutagen, it cause cancer (mutations)
Monochromatic: light of a single wavelength and color (used in
lasers)
SOUND
Magnifying glass: when a convex lens is used like this - an PRODUCTION
object is closer to a convex (converging) lens than the principal  Sound waves come from a vibrating source e.g.
focus (like the diagram above), the rays never converge. loudspeaker
Instead, they appear to come from a position behind the lens.  As the loudspeaker cone vibrates, it moves forwards
The image is upright and magnified, it is a virtual image. and backwards, which squashes and stretches the air
in front.
DISPERSION OF LIGHT  As a result, a series of compressions (squashes) and
rarefactions (stretches) travel out through the air,
these are sound waves.
PROPERTIES
 Sound waves are longitudinal: they have
compressions and rarefactions and oscillate
backwards and forwards.
 Humans can hear frequencies between 20 and
20 000Hz.
 Sound waves need a medium to travel through.
 Compression: high pressure section of the wave
 Rarefaction: low pressure section of the wave

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL
 The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch. Iron Steel
 The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound. Gets magnetized faster but Slow to be magnetized but
EXPERIMENT: FINDING SPEED OF SOUND loses its magnetism as soon retains acquired magnetism
 When sound reflects off of a wall, it will come back to as inducing magnet is for a long time.
you; echo removed. Low susceptibility but high
 If you know the distance between you and the wall, High susceptibility but low retentivity.
and measure how long it takes for the echo to sound, retentivity
you can figure out the speed of sound in air. Use: core in the transformer Use: making magnets
 Remember to take into account that sound has gone
there & back PERMANENT MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETS
SIMPLE PHENOMENA OF MAGNETISM Design: Hard magnetic Design: Uses a solenoid to
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS material create magnetic field
 Has a magnetic field around it Use: For applications where Use: For applications where
 Has 2 opposite poles (North and South) which magnetism is needed over magnetic field needs to be
exert forces on other magnets. Like poles repel long periods – fridge doors turned on & off – scrap
and unlike poles attract. metal moving
 Will attract magnetic materials by inducing
(permanent or temporary) magnetism in them. ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
 Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic ELECTRIC CHARGE
material  You can detect an electrostatic charge using a leaf
electroscope.
INDUCED MAGNETISM  If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges
 Magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in are induced. The metal cap gets one type of charge
them; the material becomes a magnet as well. (positive or negative) and the metal stem and gold
 The side of the material facing the magnet will leaf get the other type of charge so they repel each
become the opposite pole as the magnet. other.
Ferrous Non-ferrous  There are 2 types of charges: positive and negative.
Magnetic materials Non-magnetic materials  Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
Iron  Electric field: region in which electric charge
Nickel experiences a force
Cobalt  Conductors: materials that let electrons pass through
MAGNETISATION METHODS them.
 A piece of steel becomes permanently magnetized  Metals are the best electrical conductors as they have
when placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is free electrons.
usually weak.  Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all.
 It can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it  Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly
with one end of a magnet move, but they can be transferred by rubbing
 Most effective method: place it in a solenoid and pass  The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).
a large, direct current (d.c.) through the coil. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
DEMAGNETISATION METHODS
 If a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are
thrown out of line and it becomes demagnetized.
 Heating a magnet to a high temperature also
demagnetize it.
 Most efficient method: place magnet inside a
solenoid connected to an alternating current (a.c.)
supply.
EXPERIMENT: FIELD LINES AROUND BAR MAGNET INDUCED CHARGE
 The magnetic field lines can be traced on a paper by a  A charge that “appears” on an uncharged object
compass needle (a tiny magnetic needle). because of a charged object nearby
 The compass needle is first placed near the north pole  For example if a positively charged rod is brought
of magnet. near a small piece of aluminum foil, electrons in foil
 The position of poles of needle are marked on paper. are pulled towards rod, which leaves the bottom of
 Then needle is moved to new position such that the foil with a net positive charge.
position of its south pole coincides with previous  The attraction is stronger than repulsion because the
position of its north pole. attracting charges are closer than the repelling ones.
 This process is continued until the needle reaches
South Pole. CURRENT
 By joining these points we get to magnetic line of Current: a flow of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
force. An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is connected
 Then it is placed at some other position near North in series
Pole and above procedure id repeated. Current is a rate of flow of charge.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐶) = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴) × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑄=𝐼𝑡

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is less than
 The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the that of either resistor by itself
electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts. Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:
 When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower o If one lamp breaks, the other still works
because of the energy wastage inside the cell. o Each lamp gets maximum PD
 A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit In series: PD across the supply = PD across all the components
and not supplying current. combined
 In parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents in the
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (P.D) separate branches
 Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as
voltage. POTENTIAL DIVIDER
 Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts.
electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts
(V) and is measured by a voltmeter (connected in
parallel). If a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of
energy to each coulomb of charge (J/C).

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑉=𝐸𝐶

RESISTANCE
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡=𝑉𝐼
Factors affecting resistance:
Length
𝑅∝𝐿
Cross-sectional area
𝑅∝1/𝐴  To find the voltage (at VOUT) we use the following
Material formula:
Better conductor = less resistance
Temperature
 For metal conductors higher temperature = more
resistance
 A variable potential divider (potentiometer) is the
 For semi-metal conductors higher temperature = less
same as the one above but using a variable resistor; it
resistance
acts like a potential divider, but you can change the
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESISTOR
output voltage.
INPUT TRANSDUCER
Thermistor: input sensor and a transducer. It is a temperature-
dependent resistor. At higher temperature there is less
resistance.
Light dependent resistor (LDR): input sensor and a transducer.
When light intensity increases, resistance decreases.
RELAY

 Ohm’s law states that voltage across a resistor is

directly proportional to the current through it. This is
only true if the temperature of the resistor remains
constant.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
 1 Watt is 1J/s

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)×𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)

𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)× 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)× 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑬 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS A switch operated by an electromagnet
 The current at any point in a series circuit is the same
 The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit DIODE
so the total current is always greater than the current  A device that has an extremely high resistance in one
in one branch direction and a low resistance in the other, therefore
Combining resistors it effectively only allows current to flow in one
direction
 Forward bias is when the diode is pointing in the
direction of the conventional current and reverse
bias is the opposite
It can be used in a rectifier; turns AC current into DC current.
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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY
HAZARDS
Damaged insulation: contact with the wire (live wire
especially) due to gap in the insulation causes electric shock
which can cause serious injury or shock.
Overheating of cables: when long extension leads are
coiled up, they may overheat. The current warms the wire,
but the heat has less area to escape from a tight bundle.
This might cause a fire.
Damp conditions: water can conduct a current, so if
electrical equipment is wet someone might get
electrocuted
Bar magnet pushed into coil
Fuse Circuit Breaker
Thin piece of wire which An automatic switch which if
overheats and melts if current current rises over a specified
is too high. It is placed on the value, the electromagnet
live wire before the switch. pulls the contacts apart,
This prevents overheating and breaking the circuit. The
catching fire. A fuse will have a reset button is to rest
specific current value (e.g. everything. It works like a  The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:
13A) so when choosing a fuse but is better because moving the magnet faster
suitable fuse you must use the it can be reset using a stronger magnet
one above miniimum value increasing the number of turns in the coil
but less than maxiumum value  If the magnet is pulled away, the direction of the
induced EMF (and current) is reversed
ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS  Using South pole instead of North pole reverses
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION direction of induced EMF (and current)
Wire passed across a magnetic field:  If the magnet is held still, there is no EMF
 An induced current always flows in a direction such
that it opposes the change which produced it.
 When a magnet is moved towards a coil the pole of
the coil and magnet next to each other are the same.
 When the magnet is moved away the poles are
opposite (opposite poles attract).
 The pole-type (north or south) is controlled by the
direction in which the current is induced.

 he direction of the current is given by the right-hand

grip rule:
 If a wire is passed across a magnetic field, a small
EMF is induced,
 If the wire forms part of a complete circuit, the EMF
makes a current flow and this can be detected using a
galvanometer.
 The EMF induced in a conductor is proportional to
the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut by
the conductor.  The fingers point in the conventional current
 The induced EMF can be increased by: direction and the thumb gives the North Pole.
moving the wire faster
using a stronger magnet A.C. GENERATOR
Increasing length of wire in magnetic field, e.g. looping the  The oil is made of insulated copper wire and is rotated
wire through the field several times. by turning the shaft; the slip rings are fixed to the coil
 The current and EMF direction can be reversed by: and rotate with it.
moving the wire in the opposite direction  The brushes are 2 contacts which rub against the slip
turning the magnet round so that the field direction is rings and keep the coil connected to the outside part of
reversed the circuit, usually made of carbon.
The current direction is given by Fleming’s right-hand rule:  When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines,
so an EMF is generated, which makes a current flow.
 Each side of the coil travels upwards then
downwards then upwards etc. so the current flows
backwards then forwards then backwards etc. so it is
an alternating current.
 The current is maximum when the coil is horizontal
since field lines are being cut at the fastest rate and

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
0 when the coil is vertical, since it is cutting NO field ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECT OF A CURRENT
lines. Magnetic field around a Magnetic field around a
 The EMF can be increased by: current carrying wire current carrying solenoid
o increasing the number of turns on the coil
o increasing the area of the coil
o using a stronger magnet
o rotating the coil faster

 Increasing the current increases the strength of the

field
 Increasing the number of turns of a coil increases the
strength.
 Reversing the current direction reverses the magnetic
field direction (right-hand rule).
 Magnetic effect of current is used in a relay and a
circuit breaker.
FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR
 If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic field,
it warps the field lines.
 The field lines from the magnet want to straighten
TRANSFORMERS
out naturally.
 AC currents can be increased or decreased by using
 This causes a catapult like action on the wire creating
a transformer.
a force.
 Consists of a primary coil, a secondary coil and an
iron core.
 The iron core gets magnetized by the incoming
current and this magnetism then creates a current
in the leaving wire.
 The power is the same on both sides
(assume= 100% efficiency).
 You can figure out the number of coils and the
voltage with:

 If you reverse current, you will reverse direction of

force
 If you reverse direction of field, you will reverse
direction of force.

 When magnetic field is changed across the primary  The direction of the force, current or magnetic field is
coil by connecting it with A.C. an e.m.f. induces given by Fleming’s left-hand rule:
across the secondary coil.
 The iron core channels the alternating field through
the secondary coil, inducing an alternating e.m.f.
across it.
 A step-up transformer increases the voltage and a
step-down transformer decreases it.
 Transformers used to make high voltage AC currents.
 Since power lost in a resistor 𝑷= 𝑰2×𝑹, having a
lower current will decrease the power loss.
 Since transmission cables are many kilometres long
they have a lot of resistance, so a transformer is used
to increase the voltage and decrease the current to
decease power lost.
 The advantages of high-voltage transmission:
o less power lost
o thinner, light, and cheaper cables can be used since current is
reduced

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
D.C. MOTOR SIMPLE TREATMENT OF CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

 There is a bright spot on the fluorescent screen where

the beam of electrons hits it.
 If you deflect the beam, the spot can be moved.
 If the spot moves fast enough, it appears to be a line.

The beam is deflected using 2 sets of deflection plates:

 When a current-carrying coil is in a magnetic field, it
 Y-plates move the beam vertically. The amount of
experiences a turning effect.
vertical movement can be increased by turning up the
 A DC motor runs on a direct current.
gain control
 The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is free
 direct current moves the position of the spot
to rotate between the poles of the magnet.
 alternating current makes the spot oscillate vertically
 The commutator (split-ring) is fixed to the coil and
 X-plates move the beam horizontally, controlled by a
rotates with it.
circuit called a time base.
 When the coil overshoots the vertical, the
 if time base on, spot moves horizontally with a steady
commutator changes direction of the current through
speed
it, so the forces change direction and keep the coil
 If time base on and AC voltage across Y-plates, then
turning.
spot oscillates vertically and moves horizontally at
 The brushes are two contacts which rub against the
steady speed.
commutator and keep the coil connected to battery,
usually made of carbon
 The maximum turning effect is when the coil is
horizontal.
 There is no force when the coil is vertical but it always
overshoots this position
Turning effect increased by: Reversing the rotation can be
done by:
 The period is given by:
-reversing the battery
-reversing the poles
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅= 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍
o Increasing number of coils
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟏 / 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅
o increasing area of the coil
 The beam can also be deflected using a magnetic
field
RADIOACTIVITY
CATHODE RAYS
DETECTION OF RADIATION
 Thermionic emission: emission of electrons when a
Background radiation: small amount of radiation around us all
metal is heated to a high temperature.
 When metal is heated, the electrons within gain time because of radioactive materials in the environment. It
mainly comes from natural sources such as soil, rocks, air,
enough kinetic energy to escape from inward pull of
building materials, food and drink – and even space.
the positive nuclei at surface.
 The metal filament is also called the cathode and
Geiger-Müller (GM) tube (detects 𝛼,𝛽 and 𝛾)
hence the emitted electrons are also called cathode
rays.
 When the filament, is heated, a current flows to the
anode.
 This happens in a thermionic diode (vacuum tube)
because in air, electrons would collide with air
particles and filament would burn
 The current can be detected with a milliammeter.

 The ‘window’ is thin enough for alpha particles to

pass through.
 If an alpha particle enters the tube, it ionizes the gas
inside.
 This sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas and a
pulse of current in the circuit.

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Cambridge O Level Revision Notes Physics (5054)
 A beta particle or gamma radiation has the same ATOMIC MODEL
effect. Atoms consist of:
 It can be connected to a rate meter (tells the counts Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons (positively
per seconds) or a scaler (tells total number of charged) and neutrons. These two types of particles are called
particles or bursts of gamma radiation) nucleons. They are bound together by the strong nuclear force.
Electrons: almost mass-less particles which orbit nucleus in
shells
RUTHERFORD’S EXPERIMENT
 Thin gold foil is bombarded with alpha particles,
which are positively charged.
 Most passed straight through, but few were repelled
so strongly that they were bounced back or deflected
at large angles.
 Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely
empty space, with its positive charge and most of its
mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive decay: A radioisotope (unstable arrangement of
neutrons and protons) is altered to make a more stable
arrangement.
The parent nucleus becomes a daughter nucleus and a particle
(decay products).
NUCLEUS
Alpha decay:
An element with a proton number 2 lower and nucleon number
4 lower, and an alpha particle is made (2p + 2n) e.g.
Radium-226 nucleus → Radon-222 + helium-4 nucleus

The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons.

Proton number: number of protons in an atom
Beta decay: Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons + neutrons)
A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an in an atom
antineutrino so an element with the same nucleon number but
with a proton number 1 higher e.g. ISOTOPES
iodine-131 → xenon-131 + antineutrino + beta particle Isotope: atoms of the same element that have different
(electron) numbers of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14.
 There are non-radioactive isotopes and radio-
isotopes.
 Radio isotopes are unstable atoms, which break down
giving radiation
Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) – rays kill cancer
Gamma emission: cells using cobalt-60
Gamma emission by itself causes no change in mass number or Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes (tracers)
atomic number; they just emit energy. added to oil/gas. At leaks radiation is detected using a Geiger
Some isotopes do not change in mass or atomic number counter.
however they emit energy as their particles rearrange Archaeological use: carbon 14 – used for carbon dating
themselves to become more stable.

HALF LIFE
Half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for half the nuclei
present in any given sample to decay.
Some nuclei are more stable than others.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 Radioactive material is stored in a lead container and
locked away
 Picked up with tongs, not bare hands
 Kept away from the body and not pointed at people
 Left out of its container for as short a time as possible

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