PHYS 347 Electronics I

Analog Quantities
Most natural quantities that we see are analog and vary
continuously. Analog systems can generally handle higher
power than digital systems.
Temperature
(°F)

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
Time of day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A .M . P.M .

Digital systems can process, store, and transmit data more

efficiently but can only assign discrete values to each point.
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Digital Quantities
Digital quantities operate with digital signals.
Digital signals are essentially a series of pulses or rapidly
changing voltage levels that vary in discrete steps or
increments.

This two-level, off-on or up-down fast switching

characteristic is fundamental of all digital
Electronic circuits that process these digital signals are
called digital, logic or pulse circuits.
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Analog and Digital Systems

Many systems use a mix of analog and digital electronics to

take advantage of each technology. A typical CD player
accepts digital data from the CD drive and converts it to an
analog signal for amplification.
CD drive

10110011101 Digital-to-analog Linear amplifier

Digital data converter Analog
reproduction
of music audio Speaker
signal
Sound
waves
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Binary Digits and Logic Levels

Digital electronics uses circuits that have two states, which

are represented by two different voltage levels called HIGH
and LOW. The voltages represent numbers in the binary
system.
VH(max)
In binary, a single number is HIGH
called a bit (for binary digit). A VH(min)

bit can have the value of either Invalid

VL(max)
a 0 or a 1, depending on if the
voltage is HIGH or LOW. LOW
VL(min)
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Decimal Numbers
The position of each digit in a weighted number system is
assigned a weight based on the base or radix of the system.
The radix of decimal numbers is ten, because only ten
symbols (0 through 9) are used to represent any number.
The column weights of decimal numbers are powers
of ten that increase from right to left beginning with 100 =1:
…105 104 103 102 101 100.
For fractional decimal numbers, the column weights
are negative powers of ten that decrease from left to right:
102 101 100. 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 …
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Decimal Numbers
Decimal numbers can be expressed as the sum of the
products of each digit times the column value for that digit.
Thus, the number 9240 can be expressed as
(9 x 103) + (2 x 102) + (4 x 101) + (0 x 100)
or
9 x 1,000 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 10 + 0 x 1

Express the number 480.52 as the sum of values

of each digit.

480.52 = (4 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (0 x 100) + (5 x 10-1) +(2 x 10-2)

 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Binary Numbers
For digital systems, the binary number system is used.
Binary has a radix of two and uses the digits 0 and 1 to
represent quantities.
The column weights of binary numbers are powers of
two that increase from right to left beginning with 20 =1:
…25 24 23 22 21 20.
For fractional binary numbers, the column weights
are negative powers of two that decrease from left to right:

22 21 20. 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 …

PHYS 347 Electronics I Decimal Binary
Number Number
Binary Numbers 0 0000
1 0001
A binary counting sequence for numbers 2 0010
from zero to fifteen is shown. 3 0011
4 0100
Notice the pattern of zeros and ones
5 0101
in each column. 6 0110
Digital counters frequently have this 7 0111
8 1000
same pattern of digits: 9 1001
10 1010
Counter 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Decoder
11 1011
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
12 1100
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 13 1101
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 14 1110
15 1111
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Binary Conversions
The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be
determined by adding the column values of all of the bits
that are 1 and discarding all of the bits that are 0.

Convert the binary number 100101.01 to

decimal.
Start by writing the column weights; then add the
weights that correspond to each 1 in the number.
25 24 23 22 21 20. 2-1 2-2
32 16 8 4 2 1 . ½ ¼
1 0 0 1 0 1 . 0 1
32 +4 +1 +¼ = 37¼
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Binary Conversions

You can convert a decimal whole number to binary by

reversing the procedure. Write the decimal weight of each
column and place 1’s in the columns that sum to the
decimal number.
Convert the decimal number 49 to binary.
The column weights double in each position to the
right. Write down column weights until the last
number is larger than the one you want to convert.
26 25 24 23 22 21 20.
64 32 16 8 4 2 1.
0 1 1 0 0 0 1.
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Binary Conversions

You can convert a decimal fraction to binary by repeatedly

multiplying the fractional results of successive
multiplications by 2. The carries form the binary number.
Convert the decimal fraction 0.188 to binary by
repeatedly multiplying the fractional results by 2.

0.188 x 2 = 0.376 carry = 0 MSB

0.376 x 2 = 0.752 carry = 0
0.752 x 2 = 1.504 carry = 1
0.504 x 2 = 1.008 carry = 1
0.008 x 2 = 0.016 carry = 0 LSB
Answer = .00110 (for five significant digits)
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Binary Conversions
You can convert decimal to any other base by repeatedly
dividing by the base. For binary, repeatedly divide by 2:
Convert the decimal number 49 to binary by
repeatedly dividing by 2.

You can do this by “reverse division” and the

answer will read from left to right. Put quotients
to the left and remainders on top.

Answer: 1 1 0 0 0 1 remainder
0 1 3 6 12 24 49 2
Continue until the
Quotient Decimal base
last quotient is 0 number
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Binary Addition

The rules for binary addition are

0+0=0 Sum = 0, carry = 0
0+1=0 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1+0=0 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
When an input carry = 1 due to a previous result, the rules
are
1 + 0 + 0 = 01 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1 + 0 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
1 + 1 + 0 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
1 + 1 + 1 = 11 Sum = 1, carry = 1
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Binary Addition

Add the binary numbers 00111 and 10101 and

show the equivalent decimal addition.
0111
00111 7
10101 21
11100 = 28
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

Binary Subtraction

The rules for binary subtraction are

0-0=0
1-1=0
1-0=1
10 - 1 = 1 with a borrow of 1
Subtract the binary number 00111 from 10101 and
show the equivalent decimal subtraction.
111
10101
/// 21
00111 7
01110 = 14
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

1’s Complement

The 1’s complement of a binary number is just the inverse

of the digits. To form the 1’s complement, change all 0’s to
1’s and all 1’s to 0’s.
For example, the 1’s complement of 11001010 is
00110101
In digital circuits, the 1’s complement is formed by using
inverters:
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
2’s Complement
The 2’s complement of a binary number is found by
adding 1 to the LSB of the 1’s complement.
Recall that the 1’s complement of 11001010 is
00110101 (1’s complement)
To form the 2’s complement, add 1: +1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 00110110 (2’s complement)

1
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Input bits
Carry
Adder
in (add 1)
Output bits (sum)

0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Signed Binary Numbers
There are several ways to represent signed binary
numbers. In all cases, the MSB in a signed number is the
sign bit, that tells you if the number is positive or negative.
Computers use a modified 2’s complement for
signed numbers. Positive numbers are stored in true form
(with a 0 for the sign bit) and negative numbers are stored
in complement form (with a 1 for the sign bit).
For example, the positive number 58 is written
using 8-bits as 00111010 (true form).
Sign bit Magnitude bits
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Signed Binary Numbers
Negative numbers are written as the 2’s complement of
the corresponding positive number.
The negative number -58 is written as:
-58 = 11000110 (complement form)
Sign bit Magnitude bits
An easy way to read a signed number that uses this notation is to assign
the sign bit a column weight of -128 (for an 8-bit number). Then add the
column weights for the 1’s.
Assuming that the sign bit = -128, show that
11000110 = -58 as a 2’s complement signed number:
Column weights: -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1.
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
-128 +64 +4 +2 = -58
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
Using the signed number notation with negative numbers
in 2’s complement form simplifies addition and subtraction
of signed numbers.

Rules for addition: Add the two signed numbers. Discard

any final carries. The result is in signed form.
Examples:
00011110 = +30 00001110 = +14 11111111 = -1
00001111 = +15 11101111 = -17 11111000 = -8
00101101 = +45 11111101 = -3 111110111 = -9
Discard
carry
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers

Note that if the number of bits required for the answer

is exceeded, overflow will occur. This occurs only if both
numbers have the same sign. The overflow will be
indicated by an incorrect sign bit.
Two examples are:
01000000 = +128 10000001 = -127
01000001 = +129 10000001 = -127
10000001 = -126 Discard 100000010 = +2
carry
Wrong! The answer is
incorrect and the sign bit
has changed.
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
Rules for subtraction: 2’s complement the subtrahend and
add the numbers. Discard any final carries. The result is in
signed form.
Repeat the examples done previously, but subtract:
00011110 (+30) 00001110 (+14) 11111111 (-1)
- 00001111–(+15) - 11101111–(-17) - 11111000 –(-8)
2’s complement subtrahend and add:
00011110 = +30 00001110 = +14 11111111 = -1
11110001 = -15 00010001 = +17 00001000 = +8
100001111 = +15 00011111 = +31 100000111 = +7

Discard Discard
carry carry
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Hexadecimal Numbers Decimal Hexadecimal Binary
0 0 0000
Hexadecimal uses sixteen characters to 1 1 0001
represent numbers: the numbers 0 2 2 0010
through 9 and the alphabetic 3 3 0011
characters A through F. 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
Large binary number can easily 6 6 0110
be converted to hexadecimal by 7 7 0111
grouping bits 4 at a time and writing 8 8 1000
9 9 1001
the equivalent hexadecimal character.
10 A 1010
Express 1001 0110 0000 11102 11 B 1011
in hexadecimal: 12 C 1100
13 D 1101
Group the binary number by 14 E 1110
4-bits starting from the right. 15 F 1111
Thus, 960E
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Hexadecimal Numbers Decimal Hexadecimal Binary
0 0 0000
Hexadecimal is a weighted number 1 1 0001
system. The column weights are 2 2 0010
powers of 16, which increase from 3 3 0011
right to left. 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
Column weights { 163 162 161 160
4096 256 16 1
6 6 0110
. 7 7 0111
. 8 8 1000
Express 1A2F16 in decimal. 9 9 1001
10 A 1010
11 B 1011
Start by writing the column weights:
12 C 1100
4096 256 16 1
13 D 1101
1 A 2 F16
14 E 1110
1(4096) + 10(256) +2(16) +15(1) = 670310 15 F 1111
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Octal Numbers Decimal Octal Binary
0 0 0000
Octal uses eight characters the
1 1 0001
numbers 0 through 7 to represent 2 2 0010
numbers. There is no 8 or 9 character 3 3 0011
in octal. 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
Binary number can easily be
6 6 0110
converted to octal by grouping bits 3 7 7 0111
at a time and writing the equivalent 8 10 1000
octal character for each group. 9 11 1001
10 12 1010
Express 1 001 011 000 001 11 13 1011
1102 in octal: 12 14 1100
Group the binary number by 3- 13 15 1101
14 16 1110
bits starting from the right.
15 17 1111
Thus, 1130168
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Octal Numbers Decimal Octal Binary
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
Octal is also a weighted number system. 2 2 0010
The column weights are powers of 8, 3 3 0011
which increase from right to left. 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
Column weights { 8 3 82 81 8
512 64 8 1
. 0
8 10 1000
9 11 1001
Express 37028 in decimal. 10 12 1010
11 13 1011
Start by writing the column weights: 12 14 1100
512 64 8 1 13 15 1101
3 7 0 28 14 16 1110
3(512) + 7(64) +0(8) +2(1) = 198610 15 17 1111
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
BCD Decimal Binary BCD
0 0000 0000
Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a 1 0001 0001
weighted code that is commonly 2 0010 0010
used in digital systems when it is 3 0011 0011
4 0100 0100
necessary to show decimal
5 0101 0101
numbers such as in clock displays. 6 0110 0110
7 0111 0111
The table illustrates the 8 1000 1000
difference between straight 9 1001 1001
binary and BCD. BCD represents 10 1010 0001 0000
each decimal digit with a 4-bit 11 1011 0001 0001
code. Notice that the codes 1010 12 1100 0001 0010
13 1101 0001 0011
through 1111 are not used in 14 1110 0001 0100
BCD. 15 1111 0001 0101
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
BCD

You can think of BCD in terms of column weights in

groups of four bits. For an 8-bit BCD number, the column
weights are: 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1.

What are the column weights for the BCD

number 1000 0011 0101 1001?

8000 4000 2000 1000 800 400 200 100 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1

Note that you could add the column weights where there is
a 1 to obtain the decimal number. For this case:
8000 + 200 +100 + 40 + 10 + 8 +1 = 835910
 PHYS 347 Electronics I
Decimal Binary Gray code
Gray code 0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
Gray code is an unweighted code 2 0010 0011
that has a single bit change 3 0011 0010
between one code word and the 4 0100 0110
5 0101 0111
next in a sequence. Gray code is 6 0110 0101
used to avoid problems in systems 7 0111 0100
where an error can occur if more 8 1000 1100
than one bit changes at a time. 9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000
 PHYS 347 Electronics I

ASCII

ASCII is a code for alphanumeric characters and control

characters. In its original form, ASCII encoded 128
characters and symbols using 7-bits. The first 32 characters
are control characters, that are based on obsolete teletype
requirements, so these characters are generally assigned
to other functions in modern usage.
In 1981, IBM introduced extended ASCII, which is an 8-bit
code and increased the character set to 256. Other
extended sets (such as Unicode) have been introduced to
handle characters in languages other than English.