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INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

DATA MANAGEMENT

Statistics
● A systematic and scientific process of collection, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of gathered data.
● Collection, presentation, analysis of data.
● Step-by-step process.

Descriptive Statistics
● Describe
● Collection and presentation (first 2 processes).
● Description of your data/gathered information.

Inferential Statistics
● Inference or conclusion
● Analysis and interpretation of data (gumagawa ng conclusion gamit ‘to).
● Highest level of statistics.

DATA
● Came from population and sample.

Population
● Big group.
● Totality of the entity.
● Mahirap kunin ang lahat.
● Maliit lang pero makakakuha ng majority.

Sample
● Small group from your population.
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● It will give a good picture about your population.

2 Types of Data:

1. Qualitative
● Verbal information.
● Non-number type of information.
● Example: Gender, Causes, Color, nationality, hair color, skin color

2. Quantitative
● Information that expresses itself in numbers (numeric).
● Example: Age, IQ level, weight, height, scores, number of students

NOTE:
● Qualitative can be translated to Quantitative; and vice versa.

TYPE OF QUANTITATIVE:

A. Discrete
● Can be counted.
● Can be expressed by a whole number.
● Means of counting and exact.
● Counted as one unit.
● Whole number/s.
● Example: population size, score

B. Continuous
● Obtained through measurements (through the use of a measuring device).
● Estimated values.
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● Infinite numbers.
● May decimal value.
● Example: height, weight, distance, temperature scale, currency, grades.

SOURCES OF DATA

A. Primary Sources
● Originally from the main source.
● First-hand information.
● Example: autobiography, interview questions.

B. Secondary Sources
● 2nd-hand information.
● Galing sa ibang source.
● Example: biography, reading books.

LEVEL OF MEASUREMENTS

1. Nominal
● Data is used to identify, classify, or categorize.
● It can be qualitative or quantitative information.
● This number loses its numerical value.
● Mostly used for qualitative.
● For label purposes only.
● Nomen- means label or name.
● Walang value or ibig sabihin.
● Example: Gender, plate number, student number, phone number,
jersey number, class number.

2. Ordinal
● Data that shows ranking, order, or sequence.
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● It can be also used to categorize or classify.

● Order, sequence, category.
● Purpose of the nominal.
● Highest to the lowest.
● Pagkakasunod-sunod.
● Example: level of floor, subject proficiency, honor roll, building floor,
military ranks, employment position.

3. Ratio and Interval

● Data that can serve the purpose of nominal and ordinal.
● Both of these can measure the degree of difference between subjects.
● Highest form of measurements.
● Calculate the amount of the difference of the 2 subjects.
● Maraming maibibigay na meaning.
● Pwedeng magamit ang nominal and ordinal.
● Magkaiba lang sila sa zero value.

Interval
● Doesn’t have an absolute zero value.
● No ZERO.
● Example: time, grades, age, temperature, IQ level.
● Absolute value- time to possible numbers and units of that particular data.

Ratio
● Has the absolute zero value.
● Obtained through measurements.
● Applicable ang zero value.
● Example: score, distance, length, measurements, money, population size.

DATA PRESENTATION
● Summarizing our data.

1. Textual
● Power of words, sentences, paragraphs.
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● Elaborate fully the information.

● Lahat ng details pwedeng ibigay in any point of view.
● Not a convenient way of presenting.

2. Tabular (Frequency Distribution)

● Arrange the data systematically in the form of rows and columns.
● Contingency Table.

3. Graphical
● Visual form.
● Most convenient way of presenting information.
● All kinds and all ages ang nakakaintindi.
● Minsan hindi napapakita ‘yung exact information or values.
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HOW DO YOU SELECT THE APPROPRIATE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION FOR

YOUR DATA?
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ADDITIONAL/RECAP:

Independent Variable
★ This is the stimulus variable that can be used to predict the changes that
happen on the other variable.
★ Can stand alone.
★ Prediction of the dependent variable.
★ Stimulus.

Dependent Variable
★ Pin-predict ng independent.
★ Response.
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POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Population (N)
● It is defined as the totality of the subject that wishes to study or analyze.

Sample (n)
● It is a small group taken from a population.

How to determine the size of the sample?

● By 10% Rule— just pick the 10% of the total population.

N= Population
n= Sample
e= Margin of error
➢ Percentage of error.
➢ 1% to 10% only.
➢ In Slovin's Formula 5% or 0.05 of the population.
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SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling
★ It is the process of selecting the sample members from your population.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

1. Probability Sampling
★ A set of sampling methods where each member of the population is
given the chance in the selection process.
★ It requires randomness.
★ Lahat ng members ng population ay kasali.

2. Non-Probability Sampling
★ A set of sampling methods where only the special members of the
population will be part of the selection process.
★ It does not require randomness.
★ Not all members ng population ay kasali.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Pure Random Sampling

★ A method where in the sample members are selected by picking
randomly from the population.
★ It is also called SRS or Simple Random Sampling.
★ It is also called Lottery Sampling.
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2. Systematic Sampling
★ It is a process of sampling that selects a desired element (kth
element) from the population until the entire sample size is obtained.
★ Listed logically.
★ Nakaayos ng maayos.
★ Arrange from A to Z if alphabetical.
★ Numbers- increasing or decreasing.

3. Stratified Sampling
★ It is a process of sampling where the population is divided into
subgroups (strata) then drawing individuals from each subgroup
(stratum) to complete the sample group.
★ Non-biased.
★ There are common characteristics shared.
★ Population: Students
○ Ways: gender, course, age.
★ Proportionate dapat sa size ng stratum.
★ Big stratum, many representatives.
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★ Small stratum, fewer representatives.

★ Sample- individuals.
★ Strata
➢ Plural.
➢ Group.

★ Stratum
➢ Singular.
➢ Isa lang.
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4. Cluster Sampling (also called Area Sampling)

★ It is the sampling where a group is chosen as the sample members.
★ Entire group.
★ Example: depression level of COVID-19 victims.
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NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Convenience Sampling
★ Choosing a sample who is available during the time of sampling.
★ Also called Accidental Sampling.
★ Available or by chance or nagkataon lang.
★ Present ang time or may schedule.
★ Example: interview during premiere night.

2. Quota Sampling
★ Choosing a sample based on the assigned quota of the researcher and
taking into the consideration of his discretion or choice.
★ No 10% or Slovin’s formula.
★ Researchers ang nagdedecide at nasusunod.
★ Biased sampling.

3. Purposive Sampling
★ A sampling technique that chooses samples that are in-lined to the
purpose of the researcher.
★ Pumipili ng sample based sa qualified sa criteria.
★ Allowed sa formal research.
★ Example: those pregnant women who are living in Brgy. Macabling.
4. Snowball Sampling
★ A sampling technique that chose samples based on the referral of the
other sample member.
★ Asking for a referral from the previous samples.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

❖ Subjective.
❖ Biased.
❖ Chance.
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FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
★ It is an organized tabulation of the data represented in different categories.

QUALITATIVE DATA (Method 1)

★ Establish the category in a given set of information.
★ Tally the data against the created category.
★ Express the tally in frequency.
★ Compute the Relative Frequency (Rf) and the percentage (Rfp)
★ Mas maiksi at konti lg ang table.
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Frequency (Freq)
★ Expressed in a numerical form.
★ Sa last part, i-total ‘yung sample size.

Relative Frequency (Rf)

★ Ratio of observed frequency of a certain category.
★ Formula: f/n
★ Decimal palagi.
★ 2 decimal places.
★ Round off palagi.
★ 1.0 palagi ang total sa baba.

Relative Frequency Percentage (Rfp)

★ Express the Rf in percentage.
★ Formula: f/n x 100
★ Not always the whole number.
★ 100% lagi ang total.
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QUANTITATIVE DATA (Method 1)

METHOD 1:
1. Compute the Range.
2. Identify the interval or class width.
3. Set the starting point.

Preliminary Steps:

1. Range ( R )
★ The distance between the highest and lowest values.
★ Formula: R= HV-LV

2. Interval
★ The number of values in each class.

To find K:
★ K- a whole number that satisfied this condition.
★ It is a number of classes you wish to have.
★ Tentative number of classes.
★ 2^k > n— the k should be higher than your n (sample size or total data).
★ K- lowest possible value.

3. Starting Point
★ The Lowest Value or LV.
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Classes
★ Criteria or category.
★ Lower Limit or LL— left portion.
★ Upper Limit or UL— right portion.
★ Magsisimula dapat sa lower at dapat matapos lahat bago mag-proceed kay
UL.
★ To compute for LL, kunin si Lowest Value sa data tapos i-add si Interval to
get the 2nd class 3rd, 4th, etc. First class si lowest value.
★ Hindi hihinto sa pag-add ng interval hangga’t hindi lumalabas si Highest
Value.
★ Pwedeng lumagpas sa K ang # of classes at pwede rin naman magkulang
basta ma-reach si HV.
★ Upper Limit or UL— it is the value before the next lower limit or LL.

Xm
★ Class midpoint or class mark.
★ Middle value of our classes.
★ Formula: LL + UL / 2 (for first class usually)
★ Other formula (ito ay nagwo-work kapag may first class na): first class +
interval, so on & so forth.
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CB
★ Class boundary.
★ Time limits or exact.
★ Mas reliable si CB.
★ Exact Lower Limit or ELL— left portion.
★ Exact Upper Limit or EUL— right portion.

For whole number:

★ Formula: ELL= Lower Limit - 0.5
★ Formula: EUL= Upper Limit + 0.5

For Decimal:

1 decimal place:
★ Formula: ELL= Lower Limit -0.05
★ Formula: EUL= Upper Limit + 0.05

2 decimal places:
★ Formula: ELL= Lower Limit - 0.005
★ Formula: EUL= Upper Limit + 0.005

Cf< >
★ Cumulative Frequency- Less than (<) and greater than (>)
★ Accumulation or addition from lowest to highest (<) and highest to lowest
(>).
★ Cf<- copy the frequency of the first class then add sa 2nd class (so on & so
forth). Ang total ay dapat kaparehas sa n.
★ Cf>- start sa pinakamataas o ‘yung total ng cf<, then minus sa 1st class (so
on & so forth).

Relative Frequency (Rf)

★ Ratio of observed frequency of a certain category.
★ Formula: f/n
★ Decimal palagi.
★ 2 decimal places.
★ Round off palagi.
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★ 1.0 palagi ang total sa baba.

Relative Frequency Percentage (Rfp)

★ Express the Rf in percentage.
★ Formula: f/n x 100
★ Not always the whole number.
★ 100% lagi ang total.

CFP < >

★ Cumulative Frequency Percentage
★ Cfp <- less than- formula: cf< / n x 100
★ Cfp >- greater than- formula: cf> / n x 100
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QUANTITATIVE DATA METHOD 2

Interval:
★ Round off palagi.
★ Pwedeng coincidental lang ‘yung sagot sa Method 1; may chance na
magkaiba sa Method 2.
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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

QUALITATIVE DATA (Pie Chart & Bar Graph)

Angle Formula:
RFP * 360 degrees
RFP(in decimal- 4 decimal places)

Solution:
Male= (0.5333) (360)= 191.988 —> 191.99 degrees (round off & 2 decimal places)
Female= (0.4667) (360)= 168.012 degrees—> 168.01

Note: 360 dapat ang total ng Angle.

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Middle Portion- center

0 mark- x-axis
Quadrant- 90 degrees

Note:
★ X-axis or patayo— categories.
★ Y-axis or pahiga— scale of frequency.
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QUANTITATIVE DATA (Frequency Polygon, Histogram, Ogive Curve)

Note:
★ Graph of class mark (Xm) vs Frequency (Freq or F)
★ Lowest to highest.
★ Scale of 2– pero depende sa’yo if ano gagamitin.
★ X-axis- Xm; y-axis- frequency
★ Dot— ginagamit sa pag identify.
★ Line— pagdudugsungin ‘yung mga dots.
★ Sobrahan lg sa upper at lower part ng graph.
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Note:
★ CB vs F
★ No repetition of number sa CB kapag graph.
★ Extend lang ‘yung bar sa kung sinong magka-dugtong.

Note:
★ Cf < > vs CB
★ Y-axis- Cf < >; x-axis- CB
★ Cf < vs EUL (1st)
★ Cf > vs ELL (2nd)
★ Cf < — pataas
★ Cf >— pababa
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MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

UNGROUPED DATA
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GROUPED DATA
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WEIGHTED MEAN
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QUANTILES
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GROUPED DATA
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PERCENTILE RANK
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MEASURE OF DISPERSION OR VARIABILITY

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COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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SKEWNESS
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KURTOSIS
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