 The channel,

8 Major communication models

 The sender, and

There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3

 The receiver.
categories:

1. Linear models of communication — They only look at one-way Some linear models of communication also mention noise as one of the
communication. The most prominent linear models of factors that have a role in the communication process. Noise acts as the
communication are:
1. Aristotle’s communication model, added (background) element that usually distracts from the original message.
2. Lasswell’s communication model,
3. The Shannon-Weaver communication model, and
4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model. But, we’ll talk more about the role of noise in the communication process
2. Interactive models of communication — They analyze two-way later on. For now, let’s start with the basic elements of the linear
communication. These are the following:
1. The Osgood-Schramm communication model, and communication model.
2. The Westley and Maclean communication model.
3. Transactional models of communication — They illustrate two-way
communication where the message gets more complex as the As illustrated in the linear communication model diagram below, this
communication event progresses. These include:
communication model is pretty straightforward.
1. Barnlund’s transactional communication model, and
2. Dance’s Helical communication model.

Linear models of communication

The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in

marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers.

What is a linear model of communication?

Linear communication models suggest that communication takes place only

in one direction. 1. Aristotle’s model of communication

The main elements in these models are:

The oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s  Speaker,
model was designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive
 Speech,
communicator.

 Occasion,
What is Aristotle’s model of communication?

 Target audience, and

Aristotle’s model of communication primarily focuses on the sender (public
speaker, professor, etc.) who passes on their message to the receiver (the  Effect.

audience).

The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the
audience is passive. This makes Aristotle’s communication model a
foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures.

What are the main elements of Aristotle’s communication model?

Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve communication within this Aristotle’s

communication model diagram
model:

1. Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains Aristotle’s communication model example
credibility, authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their
choice.
2. Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different Picture this:
emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
3. Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to
Professor Hustvedt is giving a lecture on neurological disorders to her
be interesting — it needs to follow the rules of logic.
students.
As shown in Aristotle’s communication model diagram below, Aristotle also
She delivers her speech persuasively, in a manner that leaves her students
suggested that we look at 5 components of a communication situation to
mesmerized.
analyze the best way to communicate:
The professor is at the center of attention, whereas her audience — her If any of the elements change, the effect also changes.
students — are merely passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message
What are the main elements of Lasswell’s communication model?
influences them and makes them act accordingly.

Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its

So, in this situation, professor Hustvedt is the speaker, and her lecture on
elements:
disorders is the act of speech.
1. Who created the message?
The occasion in question is a university lecture, while the students are 2. What did they say?
3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
her target audience. 4. To whom did they say it?
5. What effect did it have on the receiver?
The effect of her speech is the students gaining knowledge on this subject
The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:
matter.

 Communicator,
One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention to
the feedback in communication because the audience is passive.  Message,

2. Lasswell’s model of communication  Medium,

The next linear model on our list is Lasswell’s Model of mass  Audience/Receiver, and

communication.
 Effect.

What is Lasswell’s model of communication?

If we take a look at Lasswell’s communication model diagram below, we can

Lasswell’s communication model views communication as the transmission get a better understanding of how these main components are organized.

of a message with the effect as the result.

The effect in this case is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver
of the message that is caused by the elements of communication.
 The medium he uses is television.

His audience consists of evening TV viewers in the US.

The effect he is achieving by doing this is raising brand awareness and

increasing sales revenue.

3. The Shannon-Weaver model of communication

L Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver

asswell’s communication model diagram model.

Lasswell’s communication model example Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who
developed their work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone
Let’s say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a
Laboratories. They aimed to discover which channels are most effective for
suitcase salesman, Mr. Sanders.
communicating.

He is promoting his brand of suitcases as the best. Aware that millions of

So, although they were doing research as part of their engineering endeavors,
viewers are watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a
they claimed that their theory is applicable to human communication as well.
remarkable impression.

And, they were right.

By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his product as the
best on the market, and consequently increasing sales revenue. What is the Shannon-Weaver model of communication?

So, in this instance, Mr. Sanders is the communicator. The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical
communication concept that proposes that communication is a linear, one-
The message he is conveying is the promotion of his brand of suitcases as
way process that can be broken down into 5 key concepts.
the best.
What are the main elements of the Shannon-Weaver communication “Anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception
model? that is not intended by the source.”
The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation, misspelling an
As the Shanon-Weaver communication model diagram below shows, the
email, or static on a radio broadcast.
main components of this model are:

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication

 Sender,

Berlo’s model of communication was first defined by David Berlo in his

 Encoder,
1960 book The Process of Communication.
 Channel,
This communication model is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed
 Decoder, and account of the key elements in each step.

 Receiver. What is Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication?

Simply put, Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is a linear model of

communication that suggests communication is the transfer of information
between 4 basic steps or key elements.

What are the main elements of Berlo’s Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication

model?

The Shannon-
Weaver communication model diagram As shown in Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model diagram below, these

Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the steps are the following:

communication process. In his book Introduction to Communication Studies, 1. Source,

2. Message,
John Fiske defines noise as:
3. Channel, and
4. Receiver.
 The main elements of these models, illustrated in the interactive
communication model diagram, include the following:

 Sender,

 Message,

 Receiver,

Berlo’s  Feedback, and

S-M-C-R communication model diagram

 Field of experience.

nteractive models of communication

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication

such as telephone conversations, letters, etc.

What is an interactive model of communication?

As more dynamic models, interactive communication models refer to two-

way communication with feedback.

However, feedback within interactive communication models is not Interactive communication model diagram
simultaneous, but rather slow and indirect. You probably noticed the new, previously not seen element — field of
experience.
What are the main elements of interactive communication models?
The field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and Furthermore, the Osgood-Schramm communication model shows that
personal history. information is of no use until it is put into words and conveyed to other
people.
All of these factors influence how the sender constructs a message, as well as
how the receiver interprets it. Every one of us brings a unique field of What are the main principles and steps in the communication process
experience into communication situations. according to this model?

5. The Osgood-Schramm model of communication The Osgood-Schramm communication model proposes 4 main principles of
communication:
In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications,
1. Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the
Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this communication process are changing their roles as encoders and
decoders.
model “meant a clear break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of 2. Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally
communication.” engaged as encoders and decoders.
3. The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be
properly interpreted to be understood.
What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication? 4. As shown in the Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram
below, this model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication:

The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which

 Encoding,
messages go in two directions between encoding and decoding.

 Decoding, and
As such, this model is useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal
communication, but less suitable for cases with little or no feedback.  Interpreting.

Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm communication model, there is no

difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally
encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is the person trying to
understand the message at that moment.
 This communication model is primarily used for explaining mass
communication.

What is the Westley and Maclean communication model?

The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the

communication process does not start with the source/sender, but rather
with environmental factors.
The
Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background,
culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.
The Osgood-Schramm communication model example

The very process of communication, according to this communication model,

Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly,
starts with environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or
they call you, and you start updating each other about what happened during
society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private
the time you have not seen each other.
space, etc.

In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and decoding
Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.
messages, and your communication is synchronous. You are both
interpreting each other’s messages. What are the main elements of the Westley and Maclean communication
model?

This model consists of 9 crucial components:

6. The Westley and Maclean model of communication
1. Environment (X),
The next interactive communication model on our list is the Westley and 2. Sensory experience (X¹),
3. Source/Sender (A),
Maclean model of communication. 4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²),
5. Receiver (B),
6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³),
7. Feedback (F),
 8. Gatekeepers (C), and
9. Opinion leaders. Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore,
allows us to pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence
The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram below shows how our acts of communication.
these components are organized in the communication process.

9 Key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean

communication model

As mentioned above, this model shows that the communication process does
not start from the sender of the message, but rather from the environment.

So, we will start with this element.

The Element #1: Environment (X)

Westley and Maclean communication model diagram
According to the Westley and Maclean Model, the communication process
The Westley and Maclean communication model example starts when a stimulus from the environment motivates a person to create and
send a message.
Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident.
Element #2: Sensory experience (X¹)
This is the type of stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell
them about what you had seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a When the sender of the message experiences something in their environment
bit late. that nudges them to send the message, then that sensory experience becomes
an element of communication.
So, the communication process in this example does not start with you, but
with the road accident you have witnessed. In the example above, the sensory experience would be witnessing a road
accident.
Element #3: Source/Sender (A) When speaking about interpersonal communication, a receiver is a person
who listens to the message.
Only now does the sender come into play.

In the example of a road accident, mentioned above, the receivers of the

In the above-mentioned example, you are the sender, as well as a participant
message are your friends and your boss.
in the interpersonal communication situation.
Element #6: The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)
However, a sender can also be a newscaster sending a message to millions of
viewers. In that case, we are talking about mass communication. The object of orientation of the receiver is the receiver’s beliefs or
experiences, which influence how the message is received.
Element #4: The object of the orientation of the source (X²)

For example, your friend (B) watching the news is worried about your safety
The next element of communication in this model is the object of the
(X³) after receiving the message.
orientation of the source.
Element #7: Feedback (F)
Namely, the object of the orientation of the source is the sender’s beliefs or
experiences. Feedback is crucial for this model because it makes this model circular,
rather than linear.
If we take the previously-mentioned road accident as an example, you (A)
are concerned (X²) that you are going to be late for work because of the As a matter of fact, feedback influences how messages are sent.
accident (X¹), and that is why you are calling your boss (B).
That means that a receiver and a gatekeeper are sending messages back to the
Element #5: Receiver (B) sender.

The receiver is the person who receives the message from the sender. After they have received the feedback, the sender modifies the message and
sends it back.
In mass communication, a receiver is a person who watches TV, reads a
newspaper, etc. Let’s go back to our example (about the road accident).
So, you have witnessed the accident and feel the urge to call your best Namely, opinion leaders have an immense influence as an environmental
friend. factor(X) on the sender of the message (A).

You: “There was a terrible accident downtown!” These are political leaders, celebrities, or social media influencers.

Your friend: “My goodness! Are you hurt?”

You: “No, no, I just witnessed it. I wasn’t involved! Don’t worry!”
Transactional communication models
In this example, after the feedback from your worried friend, you modify
Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models, which
your message and send it back to them.
first introduce a new term for senders and receivers — communicators.
Element #8: Gatekeepers (C)
What is a transactional communication model?
This element usually occurs in mass communication, rather than in
interpersonal communication. Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction,
meaning that it is a cooperative process in which communicators co-create
Gatekeepers are editors of the messages senders are trying to communicate
the process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and
to receivers.
effectiveness.

For example, these are newspaper editors who edit the message before it
In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic
reaches the readers.
process.

Element #9: Opinion leaders

Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange

Again, this element of communication refers to mass communication information during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-

situations. cultural bonds, and shape our opinions.

In other words, communication helps us establish our realities.

These models also introduced the roles of:

 Social,

 Relational, and

 Cultural contexts.

Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective

communication — noise. Transact
ional communication model diagram

What are the main elements of transactional communication models?

7. Barnlund’s transactional model of communication
If we take a look at the transactional communication model diagram below,
Barnlund’s transactional communication model explores interpersonal,
we can identify the key components of this communication model:
immediate-feedback communication.
 Encoding,
What is Barnlund’s transactional communication model?
 Decoding,
Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is
 Communicators, a circular process and a multi-layered feedback system between the
sender and the receiver, both of whom can affect the message being sent.
 The message,

The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important.
 The channel, and
Feedback from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both
 Noise. communicators provide feedback.

At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the
communication’s effect and effectiveness.
What are the main elements of Barnlund’s communication model?  Public cues (environmental cues),

Barnlund’s transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the  Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and

following main components of this communication model:

 Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and

 Encoding, nonverbal).

 Decoding, All these cues, as well as the environment and noise, are part of the message.
Each communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences,
 Communicators,
attitudes, and beliefs.

 The message (including the cues, environment, and noise), and

Barnlund’s transactional communication model example

 The channel.
Examples of Barnlund’s Model of communication include:

 Face-to-face interactions,

 Chat sessions,

 Telephone conversations,

 Meetings, etc.

8. Dance’s Helical model of communication

Barnlund’s communication model diagram
This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages. According to Dance’s Helical model of communication, with every cycle of
communication, we expand our circle.
So, Barnlund differentiates between:
Therefore, each communication encounter is different from the previous one infinitely as the communication partners contribute their thoughts and
because communication never repeats itself. experiences to the exchange.”
Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, Diana K. Ivy

What is Dance’s Helical communication model? According to this communication model, in the communication process, the
feedback we get from the other party involved influences our next statement
Dance’s Helical communication model views communication as a circular
and we become more knowledgeable with every new cycle.
process that gets more and more complex as communication progresses.
Dance’s Helical communication model example
That is why it is represented by a helical spiral in the Dance’s Helical
communication model diagram below. Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning
throughout their life.

Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early

on, using rudimentary methods of communication.

For instance, as babies, we cry to get our mothers’ attention. Later on, we
learn to speak in words, and then in full sentences.

During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our

communication.
D
ance’s Helical communication model diagram
Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to
In their book Communication: Principles for a Lifetime, Steven A. Beebe,
communicate more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve
Susan J. Beebe, and Diana K. Ivy state:
more effective communication.

“Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here,

communication never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands