Sanskritization: Meaning, Characteristics, Models and Effects

Meaning

The concept ‘Sanskritization’ was first introduced by Prof. M.N. Srinivas the
famous Indian sociologist. He explained the concept of sanskritization in his book
“Religion and society among the coorgs of South India” to describe the cultural
mobility in the traditional caste structure of Indian society. In his study of the
coorgs of Mysore, he came to know that the lower castes were trying to raise their
status in their caste hierarchy by adopting some cultural ideals of the Brahmins. As
a result they left some of their ideals which are considered to be impure by the
Brahmins. To explain this process of mobility, Srinivas used the term
‘Brahminization’. Later on he called it ‘Sanskritization’ in a broad sense.

Defining Sanskritization Srinivas writes, “Sanskritization is a process by which a

lower caste or tribe or any other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and
way of life in the direction of a higher or more often twice-born caste.”

Characteristics of Sanskritization:

1. Sanskritization is a process of imitation in Indian society, the social status of an

individual is fixed on the basis of caste hierarchy. There are many lower castes
who suffer from economic, religious or social disabilities. So in order to improve
the status, the lower castes people imitate the life style of the upper caste people.

2. Sanskritization is a process of cultural change towards twice-born castes.

Sanskritization is a process in which the lower castes adopt the cultural patterns of
the higher castes, to raise their status in the caste hierarchical order. In some
societies the lower caste people followed not only the customs of the Brahmins but
also the customs of the locally dominant castes like Kshatriyas and Vaisyas to raise
their status.

3. Sanskritization is helpful in the social mobility of lower caste:

In this process a caste is only trying to change the status and not the social
structure.

4. Sanskritization process also followed by the tribal:

Sanskritization process is not only confined to the caste people of Hindu society, it
is also found among the tribal society.
5. The concept of Sanskritization has also given rise to De-sanskritization. There
are some instances in modern times, some of the higher castes are imitating the
behaviour pattern of lower caste, and for example Brahmins have started taking
meat and liquor. This process is called De-sanskritization.

Models of Sanskritization:

Sanskritization may follow any of the following models such as:

1. Cultural model,

2. Varna Model,

3. Local Model.

1. Cultural Model:

Castes have been assigned high or low status according to cultural characteristics
of Hindus. The wearing of sacred thread, denying the use of meat and liquor,
observing endogamy, prohibition of widow remarriage, observing the restriction in
caste system, worship according to the modes and methods described in the
religious text books, giving respect to the religious and mythological stories etc.
have been given sanctity in traditional culture. They are considered to be the
measuring standards of sacredness and purity. Accepting these behaviour and code
of highness and purity as described in religious texts in a form of Sanskritization.

2. Varna Model:

In the Varna system the highest status is given to that of a Brahmin followed by
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. Antyaj or the lowest is the fifth Varna that is the
lowest and untouchable one in the Varna system. The lower castes coping the
ideals and life style of the superior castes. Where the Kshatriyas enjoy superiority,
the lower castes followed their life style and ideals. Simultaneously where the
vaishyas enjoy superiority, the lower castes followed their life style and ideals.
Only the Antyaj or lower caste copy the Sudras. That is to say emulating the life
style or ideals of a Varna on the basis of honour and superiority enjoyed by that
class is called Varna model or sanskritization.
3. Local Model:

In every country, some castes are considered to be more respectful than others on
account of their economic power. This caste may be called the “master caste” or
the “dominant caste”. So the lower caste copies the life style of the local dominant
caste in order to improve their status.

Effects of Sanskritization:

1. Sanskritization in social field:

The social aspect of sanskritization is much more important from the view point of
change. The low caste individuals are inclined towards sanskritization because in
that way they can elevate their social status and get higher status in caste hierarchy.

2. Sanskritization in economic field:

Economic betterment and sanskritization is another related issue. The lower caste
people have given up un-cleaned occupation to raise their economic status because
clean trades are a symbol of social light.

3. Sanskritization in religious field:

Sanskritization also can be observed in the religious field. Like Brahmins many of
the lower castes people put on sacred thread. They also go to their temple regularly
and perform Arti and Bhajan. They have left prohibited food and un-cleaned
occupation. Even they have specialised in performing ceremonies like Brahmins.

4. Sanskritization in living patterns:

The living patterns of lower castes have also Sanskritized. Like higher caste they
also get Pucca houses built for them. Now they sit along with the higher caste on
the cots without any fear or hesitation. They also keep their houses clean and put
on dresses like higher castes.
Westernisation: Origin and Characteristic of Westernisation

Quite like sanskritisation the concept of westernisation is also employed for

evaluating social change in rural India and elsewhere in the country. The concept
was also constructed by M.N. Srinivas to describe the process of social and cultural
mobility in the traditional social structure of India. It has also emerged, in Srinivas’
study of the Coorgs of south India. The author has defined westernisation as:

…the change brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150
years of British rule, the term subsuming changes occurring at different
levels…technology, institutions, ideology and values (Srinivas, 1962).

The emphasis given by Srinivas on westernisation basically included

humanitarianism and rationalism.

Commenting on the broader dimensions of westernisation, Yogendra Singh

(1994) writes:
Emphasis on humanitarianism and rationalism is a part of westernisation which led
to a series of institutional and social reforms in India. Establishment of scientific,
technological and educational institutions, rise of nationalism, new political culture
and leadership in the country, are all by-products of westernisation.

Srinivas argues that the acceleration in westernisation does not slow down the
process of sanskritisation. As a matter of fact, both the processes go hand in hand.
It is found that sometimes increase in westernisation also boosts the process of
sanskritisation. A cursory view of the impact of westernisation including
communication and transport facilities has modernised the sanskritic institutions,
such as pilgrimages and caste associations.
It is a common observation that in the last three or four decade’s new religious
celebrations have emerged. The deities which were oblivious have now become
target of popular celebrations. The caste associations have received better
organisation. At empirical plane it is found that with the increase in westernisation
sanskritic ties have also got solidarity.

Origin:
Srinivas has given details about the development of westernisation in India. He
traces it from the period of British Raj. Surely, the colonial rule brought with it
exploitation and suppression of the masses of people both at the rural and urban
levels. At the same time, it also brought certain radical changes in Indian society
and culture. The British rule initiated a period of new technology, institutions,
knowledge, beliefs and values.

The colonial rule, thus, integrated the different segments of Indian society. The
modern state actually got its beginning from this period. The land was surveyed,
revenue was settled, a new bureaucracy emerged, and army, police and law courts
were established. The British rule also developed communications, railways, post
and telegraph and also started schools and colleges.

“One obvious result was that books and journals, along with schools, made
possible the transmission of modern, as well as traditional knowledge to large
numbers of Indians—knowledge which could no longer be the privilege of a few
hereditary groups—while the newspapers made people in different parts of the far-
flung country realise that they had common bonds, and the events happening in the
world outside, influenced their lives for good or ill.”
Yet another force released by the British rule was the working of Christian
missionary. The Christian missionaries worked in the different parts of the country,
particularly in those which were backward and inhabited by tribals and
untouchables. This brought the weaker sections closer to westernization.

In contemporary India, when we talk about westernization, a tremendous change

has come in rural India. The impact of five year plans has brought the village
people in the wider network of communication and modernization. The democratic
institutions such as Panchayati Raj and massive spread of education have brought
the villagers to come closer to westernisation.

What is interesting in the concepts of sanskritisation and westernisation is that in

the former, is observed within the caste structure while in the latter, is observed
beyond the caste system.

Characteristics:

Srinivas has commented on westernisation from time to time. These comments

have come as a result of the academic responses given by other Indian and foreign

sociologists.

Some of the important characteristics of westernization included by Srinivas

are discussed below:

1. Humanitarianism:

Westernisation is loaded with certain value preferences. “A most important value,

which in turn subsumes several other values, is what may be broadly characterised

as humanitarianism, by which is meant an active concern for the welfare of all

human beings, irrespective of caste, economic position, religion, age and sex.”

Srinivas has argued that the term ‘humanitarianism’ is quite comprehensive. It is

inclusive of a large number of other values, the important being the welfare of all.

2. Equalitarianism:

Westernisation has another value of equalitarianism. It is a democratic value and

stands for minimising inequality, removal of poverty and liberty to all. The

humanitarianism, as a characteristic of westernisation, stands for a society which

could be called as a socialist society in the long run.

3. Secularisation:

Both the British rule and at a later stage the Constitution of India introduced a new

value of secularisation. Secular India is conceived as a nation charged by the idiom

of a rational and bureaucratic society. Accordingly, the state is required to have

respect for all the religions of the society. It also includes the value of scientific

ethics.

4. Initiation of social reforms:

The idea of westernisation which was propagated by the British rule struck hard on

social evils which eroded the Indian society. The introduction of British law put an

end to certain inequalities that were part of Hindu and Islamic jurisprudence. The

evil institutions of sati, untouchability and purdah got condemnation from the

spread of the notions of equalitarianism and secularisation.

5. Predominance of science and technology:

The British rule also introduced science and technology in Indian society. This

brought railways, steam engines and technology. As a result of this, the Indian

society moved towards industrialisation. Though, science and technology came as

a setback to village industries and local arts and artifacts, the industrial growth

increased. This also gave encouragement to urban development. Migration from

village to town and city also increased.

There was a take-off from tradition to modernity during this period.

Industrialisation and urbanisation also introduced new values in society. Many of

the traditional institutions like untouchability and caste received new

interpretation.

Clearly, the concept of westernisation introduced by M.N. Srinivas is meant to

measure the social change which came in India during the British period. In post-

independent India westernisation got accelerated. The Indian society came in

contact with other countries also.

The United States had a profound impact on our society. At a later stage Srinivas

was suggested to review the concept looking to the new impact of modernisation.

For instance, Daniel Lerner, after considering the suitability of ‘westernisation’ as

well as ‘modernisation’, has opted for the later.

Modernisation also includes urbanisation. If also enhances media exposure and

wider economic participation. “Modernisation also implies social mobility. A

mobile society has to encourage rationality for the calculus of choice which shapes

individual behaviour and conditions it rewards. People come to see the social fu-

ture as manipulable rather than ordained and their prospects in terms of

achievement rather than heritage.”

If we examine M.N. Srinivas’ concepts of sanskritisation and westernisation, we

will be able to find out that in the assessment of rural change westernisation is not

much significant. Both the concepts are loaded with sanskritic and western values.

The concepts also carry certain ideologies. Yogendra Singh argues that the use of

the term ‘westernization’ is pejorative for Indian elites. In place of westernization,

modernisation appears to be a better term. He observes:

…modernization in India cannot be adequately accounted for by a term like

westernization. Moreover, for many new elite in India as also in the new states of

Asia, the term westernization has a pejorative connotation because of its

association with former colonial domination of these countries by the West. It is,

therefore, more value-loaded than the term modernization, which to us appears as a

better substitute.