MODULE 2 SUMMARY BIOLOGY

WEEK 6 : ORGANISATION OF CELLS

How are cells arranged in multicellular organisms?
 Compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms by:
o Investigating structures at the level of the cell and organelle
o Relating structure of cells and cell specialisation to function
- Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation.
- Justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems and organisms.
Compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms by:
 Investigating structures at the level of cell and organelle
Unicellular Organism is only made of one cell.
 Single celled organism
 All life processes occur at the cellular level.
 Pressure to grow and divide as rapidly as possible.
 must carry out obtaining nutrients, exchanging gases, removing waste and
reproducing all via one cell.

Colonial Individual unicellular organisms living intact with each other with some cooperation
between cells.
 No cell speciation
 Advantages to individuals living in colonies but can live independently if
needed.

Facultative colony: independent organisms that aggregate together.

Multicellular Obligate: individuals vary in form and depend on each other to survive

Composed of many integrated and independent cells

 Cellular speciation  efficiency
 Cells have DNA.
 Cells communicate and cooperate to function as a single organism.

Unicellular ability to
Unicellular organisms  reproduce quickly due to their simplistic structure. 
cope with different
bacteria reproduce through binary fission.
environments
 Individually, it is exposed to the harsh external environment.
 Easily affected by environmental change

Colonial organisms can cope with changing environments decently well as the cells
can corporate and communicate with each other.
 May coordinate  efficient functioning.
 Always colonial organism to move towards light or food source to process
waste more efficiently.

Efficient and flexible to change as the cells are specialised and able to carry out their
roles.
 Internal environment is highly efficient due to specialisation.
 Processing of nutrients + wastes is highly effective  e.g. humans have lines
of defence of specialised cells to evade antigens.
Relating structure of cells and cell specialisation to function
Intro When cells become specialised to perform a particular function, they are said to
differentiate  develop suitable structural features that allow them to carry out their
specific functions.

All specialised cells originate from stem cells.

- Embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells (brain and bone marrow)

Cell specialisation The functions that a cell has

Cell differentiation The process that a stem cell goes through to become specialised.

Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
Cell specialisation in - Specialised cells that perform a function are organised into tissues.
multicellular organisms - Different types of tissues that are grouped together to perform a particular
function are called organs.
- Different organs are grouped together to form an organ system.
- Numerous organs make up a multicellular organism.
Cell organisation –
speciation and
functioning  animal
cells

Epithelial tissue
- Covers body surfaces.
- Protects organs.
- Form glands.
- Cells are densely/closely packed.
- Can occur in single sheets or layers.
- Does not contain blood vessels  connective tissue underneath provides
nutrients.
- Good barriers to injury and infection.
Connective tissue
- Extracellular matrix
- Matrix is composed of collagen  strength and elastin  flexibility.
- Provides support, protects against damage, ensures different parts of the body
are bound together.
- E.g.  adipose tissue, cartilage, collagen in skin
Nervous tissue
- Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves
- Highly specialised for communication
- Nerve cell – neurons
Muscle tissue
- Highly specialised for contraction
- Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle.
Plant systems.
1. The short system – above ground
2. The root system – below ground
3. The vascular system – transport (xylem, phloem)
Meristematic tissue
- Tips of roots and shorts
- Buds in woody plans
Dermal tissue
- Protects
- Outer layers
- Controls interactions with surroundings
- Secretes waxy layer – cuticle.
- Root hairs – increase surface area.
Vascular tissue
- Transport
- Xylem – water and minerals
- Phloem – sugar

Ground tissue
- All the internal cells apart from the vascular tissue
- Food storage, support and photosynthesis.

Justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems and organisms.
Organelle Specialised structures that perform specific functions
- Enable cells to carry out their various activities, such as energy production,
protein synthesis and waste management.

Cells Smallest living unit

- Perform all the necessary processes for life, including metabolism, growth and
reproduction.

Tissue Groups of similar cells working together to perform a specific function.

- This level or organisation allows cells with similar tasks to collaborate and
achieve greater efficiency. Examples of tissues include muscle tissue,
epithelial tissue, connective tissues, and nervous tissue.

Organs Composed of multiple tissue types working together to perform a specific function.
- The heart is an organ composed of muscle tissue, nervous tissue. Organs are
specialised to carry out more complex tasks that individual tissues cannot
achieve alone.

Organ system - A collection of organs that carry out specific functions within an organism.

Organism - A living thing that carries out all of life’s functions.

WEEK 7 : NUTRIENT AND GAS REQUIREMENTS

What is the difference in nutrient and gas requirements between autotrophs and heterotrophs?
 Investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a variety of materials, for example:
o Dissected plant materials
o Microscopic structures
  Using a range of imaging technologies to determine plant structure.
 Investigate the function of structures in a plant, including but not limited to:
o Tracing the development and movement of the products of photosynthesis.
 Investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants through the collection of primary and
secondary data and information for example:
o Microscopic structures: alveoli in mammals and leaf structure in plants
o Macroscopic structures: respiratory systems in a range of animals
Autotroph – structure - Vascular plants  most green plants
and function - Non-vascular – mosses and liverwort’s
- Plants have specialised cells.
- Plant organs  leaves, stem, roots, flowers and seeds.
- Xylem  transports water and water soluble nutrients and minerals
- Phloem  transports sugars

Root system - Anchor

- Absorbing water and inorganic nutrients
- Large SA  branching, root hairs + flattened epidermal cells
- Water – osmosis
- Mineral ions – diffusion/active transport
- No photosynthesis

Shoot system. Stem + leaves

Stem
- Structural support + transport
- Stem tissues
o Dermal – outer layer, waterproofing, protection, controls gas
exchange
o vascular – xylem and phloem
o ground – fills in around the vascular tissue.

Leaves
- photosynthesis and transpiration
- leaves  photosynthesis  thin, flat, large SA, epidermis is transparent.
- mesophyll cells  palisade and spongy.

Hot/dry environment - gases exchange in leaves – within epidermis – guard cells that control the
leaves difference exchange of gases and the loss of water, bean shaped, occurs in pairs,
surround a pore known as stoma (stomata  usually occur in the underside of
the leaf)
- transport – vascular tissue continuous. Main vein = midrib. Veins contain
xylem + phloem.
- respiration in plants – day + night, oxygen required comes from the oxygen
produced as a by-product from photosynthesis. Co2 released as a result of
respiration in the day is used a reactant in photosynthesis.

Gas exchange in plants - Leaves can be large + flat.

- Contain open air spaces  greater SA + allow gases to move freely.
- Stomata and lenticels

Stomata - Pores in the epidermis through which the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide
can move in and out of
- Mostly found on the under surface, some found on the upper epidermis.
 - 2 bean shaped cells called guard cells.
- Guard cells contain chloroplast.
- Plant cells need to balance exchange of gases without losing too much water –
stomata can open and close.
- Open  gases diffuse through them.
- Close  no gases are transported, and no water is lost.
- Opening/ closing determined on environmental factors  light – open in day,
close at night.
- Open  water is lost. Temperature increases, more vapour lost, water content
of the cell map drop – guard cellulose some of their water and stomata will
close.
- Water lowered, limits photosynthesis  build-up of carbon dioxide in the
lead, cause stomata to close restricting the entry of carbon dioxide.

Lenticels - pores through which gaseous exchange occurs in the woody part of plant.
- Trunks, branches, woody shrub, appears as small dots.
- Diffusion is slow.

Gas exchange in animals - All animals  movement of gases between internal and external
environments
- Diffusion across cell membranes

All gaseous exchange 1. Large SA  folding, branching, flattening  faster rate of diffusion.
structures have: 2. Most thin surface  easier diffusion of gases + less distance
3. Close to an efficient transport system  efficient transport to all parts of the
body
4. Great concentration of gas on one side versus the other  gradient is
maintained.

Respiration in fish - Gases = low solubility in water

- Concentration is low compared to air.
- Gills
- Can extract the max possible amount of oxygen from water.
- Water flowing over them to ensure max o2 uptake.
- Water goes through mouth of fish, flow over gills, leave through gill slits.

Alveoli – gas exchange - 300 million folding  increase SA

- Thin, flattened cells  efficient diffusion
- Surrounded by blood capillaries  very close contact with blood.
- Movement of gases = diffusion
- Inhaled air = 20% oxygen, 0.04% co2
- Exhaled air = 15% oxygen, 4% co2

Insects gas exchange - Spiracles

- Breathing pores
- No lungs/ blood capillaries
- Simple system
- Air tubes called tracheal tubes (branch into smaller tubes called tracheoles)
which carry air directly into the cells of the body.
- O2 diffuses directly into cells, co2 diffuses directly out.
- More spiracles are open when insect is active.
Imaging for plant 1. MRI – uses ratio waves + magnetic field to take a series of images of the plant
structure structures. Computer generates a 3D image of the structure  can be analysed
in greater detail.
2. PET – involve detection of radiation produced by a radioisotope  much
greater detail to be viewed + functional information about transport and
process.
3. Xray – like CT scan. Beams = 3D computer generated image. Any angle can
be observed, and the spatial arrangement of internal tissues can be studied.
4. Tracing the development and movement of the products of photosynthesis
 Melvin Calvin
o Radioactive tracer – carbon 14
o Show that sunlight acts on chlorophyll to begin the
manufacturing of organic compounds.
 Radioisotopes emit radiation  particles can be measured.
 Radioisotopes can then be used to determine.
o If O2 being released during photosynthesis came from the
water molecule and not the molecule of carbon dioxide
o The pathway of glucose produced in photosynthesis using
carbon-14.
o Real list radioactive imaging system  isotopes
o PlanTIS – PET scanner for plants.

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WEEK 8 : MAMMALIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, claims and conclusions that have
led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models about the structure and function of plants,
including but not limited to:
o Photosynthesis
o Transpiration-cohesion-tension theory (TCT theory)
 Trace the digestion of foods in the mammalian digestive system including.
o Physical digestion
o Chemical digestion
o Absorption of nutrients, minerals, and water
o Elimination of solid waste
 Compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs.
 Interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, claims and conclusions
that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models about the structure and function
of plants, including but not limited to:
o Photosynthesis

 Interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, claims and conclusions

that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models about the structure and function
of plants, including but not limited to:
o Transpiration-cohesion-tension theory
Transpiration-cohesion-  Evaporation of water from leaves (transpiration) causing a suction of water up
tension theory from the roots
 The transpiration streams.
 Diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf
 When water is lost from intracellular spaces by transpiration, it is replaced by
water from the surface of the mesophyll cells that surround the intracellular
spaces.
  Increase in surface tension of the water on the outside of the cells.
 Water is drawn from the xylem tissue.
 This increases the tension and daws more water up from the roots.

1. The cohesion of the water molecules to each other

2. Adhesive forces between the water molecules and the walls of the xylem
vessel
3. The wall offers little resistance to the flow of water.
4. A small amount of root pressure results for the continual influx of more water
and ions
Source-sink theory
 Glucose is produced by leaves  stored as starch.
 Converted to sucrose + distributed  translocation.
 Bi-directional

Driving force: High- and low-pressure regions in the phloem  high to low pressure

High pressure: region to where sucrose is formed = source

Low pressure: region where sucrose is required = sink.

Source
 energy is required to actively pump sugars into phloem.
 creates a concentrated solution into the phloem.
 water  drawn in my osmosis from xylem – creates a region of high pressure
at the source.
 Where glucose is produced

Sink
 energy actively required to remove the sugars from the phloem.
 dilute solution  water to leave the phloem tissue by osmosis + return to the
xylem tissue  low pressure region formed.
 difference in pressure – source + sink  movement of substances in the
phloem i.e.; sap flows from high to low pressure and a flow is continuous

Transport systems – xylem and phloem

Xylem - Transports water and dissolved mineral ions throughout the plant in ONE
DIRECTION
- It is made up of specialised tissue consisting of
o Parenchyma cells
o Fibres
o Xylem vessels
o Tracheids  long structures with end walls that taper to a point. Wat
molecules and dissolved ions pass one tracheid to another through
small holes called pits.

Flowering tissue
- Xylem vessels continuous tubes for transport of water. When cells
specialise to become xylem vessels, the walls break down so that cells stacked
on top of another become continuous tubes (reinforced with lignin)
Phloem

 Sieve tube cells = long thin phloem cells, large pores through the cell wall at
either end
 perforated cell walls are called sieve plates.
 Sieve tube cells share cytoplasm  channel through which sugars and other
plant products can flow.
 Companion cells are found alongside sieve tubes (function unknown) ……
possibly provide ATP and nutrients and help with loading and unloading of
sugars into the sieve tube cells

Sieve tube cells Companions

Long + Thin with large pores through Smaller cells  along the side of sieve
the cell wall at either end tube cells
No nuclei, mitochondria, or vacuoles Has nucleus, mitochondria, vacuoles
and other cell organelles
Arranged end to end into sieve tubes Control activity of sieve tube cells.
Share cytoplasm
  Trace the digestion of foods in the mammalian digestive system including.
o Physical digestion
Physical digestion - Physical breakdown of food particles
- Begins in mouth.
- Teeth break food into smaller pieces  cutting, tearing, chewing, grinding
- Churning motion of stomach continues this.
- Mechanical digestion  breaks down the food
 Trace the digestion of foods in the mammalian digestive system including.
o Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion - Uses digestive enzymes.
- Chemically break down large complex molecules into their smaller simpler
forms
- Simple substances obtained include – glucose from carbs, amino acids from
proteins, glycerol, and fatty acids from lipids.

Chemical pathway 1. Mouth

through the digestive 2. Oesophagus
system 3. Stomach
4. Small intestine
5. Absorption
6. Liver
7. Large intestine
8. Digestive products.

Mouth (mechanical + - MECHANICAL DIGESTION BEGINS  breakdown of food  teeth break

chem digestion) food into smaller pieces – greater SA for efficient action of enzymes.
 AMALYSE
- Released into the mouth  breaks down carbs into maltose (chem digestion)
- Food is chewed + mixed with saliva into a bolus.
- Swallowed into the oesophagus.

- Bolus  soft walled, muscle ringed tube into stomach

Oesophagus (chem - Passes the entrance to the trachea  epiglottis prevents entry of food here
digestion) - Peristalsis (muscular contractions)  peristalsis

Stomach - Entry + exit  sphincter muscles  movement of substances in + out of

stomach
- Relaxation + contraction of walls  mechanical digestion
- Bolus  breaks up + combines with gastric juices  chyme.
- Juices  water, HCL, pepsinogen, pepsin
- Acid  PH = 2-3, mucus lines the stomach
- Pepsinogen  back to pepsin  breakdown of protein to peptides
- Chyme – 6 hours

Small intestine (chem - Chyme from stomach  small intestine through the pyloric sphincter
digestion) - SI  highly folded for efficient SA – 7m long in adult, 3 regions – duodenum,
jejunum, ileum
- Chyme  stimulates the release of a hormone  pancreatic juices.
- Pancreatic juices  trypsin + lipase
- Liquids present in chyme.  bile released into the duodenum.
- Bile  produced by liver, stored in gall bladder. Use: breaks down/emulsifies
fats into smaller pieces, increase SA for lipase
- Food enters the jejunum  absorption takes place.

Absorption - Occurs in the jejunum.

- Amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, glycerol  move into the transport systems
in the small intestine.
- Moved by  diffusion, active transport through villi ( line the intestinal wall)
- Increase SA
- Villi walls  thin (one cell) + moist
- Rich blood supply in the capillaries – around lacteal
- Lacteal – lymph system
- Glucose + amino acids  capillaries absorption
- Fatty acids + glycerol  move into the lacteal.

Villi
 - Digested food once absorbed into the blood  liver.
- Food metabolism
- Sugars, glycogen, proteins levels in balance
- Detoxifies blood.
- Remaining undigested material moves into the large intestine  water, salts,
fibre.
- 2 main sections – colon and rectum

Colon – water and some salts are absorbed back into the bloodstream.
- Undigested material compacting into a more solid substance.

Remaining waste  moved into the rectum by peristalsis and egested through the
anus.
Liver

Large intestine

 Trace the digestion of foods in the mammalian digestive system including.

o Absorption of nutrients, minerals, and water
Digestive products - Built into useful substances.
- New biological material + energy
- Humans – structural use for examples: protein fibres in muscle tissue as an
energy source, fatty tissue
 Trace the digestion of foods in the mammalian digestive system including.
o Elimination of solid waste

Comparing nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotroph

Autotrophs

Heterotrophs

- Undergo both photosynthesis and respiration.

- Photosynthesis (to make glucose)
o Uses energy from sunlight.
o They need carbon dioxide and water.
- Energy is released  respiration.
o Make the glucose that is required for respiration.
o Also need o2.
- Convert this glucose into other organic compounds – lipids, proteins, carbs.

- Do not require co2, do not carry out photosynthesis.

- Ingest glucose and other compounds.
o Not able to make them.
- Also require intake of oxygen for cellular respiration.
WEEK 9-10: TRANSPORT
IQ3: How does the composition of the transport medium change as it moves around an organism?
Students:

 Investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures and components using
physical and digital models, including but not limited to:
o macroscopic structures in plants and animals
o microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and
plant vascular systems
 investigate the exchange of gases between the internal and external environments of plants and animals.
 compare the structures and function of transport systems in animals and plants, including but not limited
to:
o vascular systems in plants and animals
o open and closed transport systems in animal
 compare the changes in the composition of the transport medium as it moves around an organism.

 Investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures and components using
physical and digital models, including but not limited to:
o macroscopic structures in plants and animals
o microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and
 plant vascular systems
Open/closed circulatory Similarities
systems. - contain the heart as a driving mechanism, a fluid that transports systems and a
system of vessels.
- Nutrients required to transport to tissues.
- Waste not needed, transported away from tissues.

Differences

Transport fluid: open circularity systems

- Fluid = hemolymph
- Transport fluid flows through body cavities and bathes tissues directly.
- Vessels open at both ends so that fluid can empty into and drain out of the
body cavity.
- Tubular heart pumps fluid  pressure low suits smaller animals
- Crustaceans and molluscs: system distributes and collects gases, food and
wastes.
- Insects: oxygen  tracheal network

Transport fluid: Closed

- Fluid = blood
- Blood contained in vessels  bever flows through body cavities, some fluid
drains out of tissues.
- Muscular heart (2-4 chambers)  pumps at high pressure; suits larger, active
animals.
- Blood distributes + collects gases.

- Lymph: fluid that surrounds cells and diffuses out of capillaries as they pass
Lymphatic system.
through tissues (white blood cells and the end products of lipid digestion)
- Lymph vessels  absorb.
- Lymph  tissues to heart, valves move in one direction.
- Helped by muscles.
- Channels  drain into veins allowing fluid to re-join blood.
- Helps prevent a build-up of fluid in the tissues  maintain the volume of
blood + blood pressure.
- Defence role.

- Blood = fluid transport medium that flows through the heart + blood vessels pf
Circulatory system
the cardiovascular system in vertebrates, supplying cells with nutrients +
removing wastes
- Two main components  blood cells, plasma

- Fluid transport medium

Blood
- Flows through heart + blood vessels of the cardiovascular system
 o Arteries (away from heart)
o Veins (towards the heart)
o Capillaries (within every cell

- 4-6 million RBC per mL of blood

Red blood cells - RBD/ erythrocytes form in the bone marrow.
- Pigment = haemoglobin (transports oxygen)
- NO NUCLEUS  more haemoglobin
- Diameter = 7 micrometres
- Shape = biconcave, flattened towards the centre (increases SA: V to aid
diffusion)
- Pliable and elastic  to squeeze through capillaries.
- Life span of RBC: 4 months

- Immune system: defence of the body against foreign bodies

White blood cells - WBC/ leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow.
- 4000-11000 WBC per mL of human blood
- Several types of WBC with specific functions
- LARGER than RBC (about 50%)
- NUCLEUS  unusual shape
- Pass through capillaries  squeezing between the cells that makeup the wall
of the capillary.

- Platelets/ thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow.

Platelets - Crescent shaped, half the size of RBC.
- 400,000/mL of blood
- Clotting blood –> stick together when exposed to air or flow of blood is
disrupted.
- precents loss of blood from site of a wound
- platelets top break open and release the enzyme thromboplastin.
- sequence which causes the blood to clot
- deep vein thrombosis
- watery, yellow, fluid part of the blood
- carries:
Plasma o plasma proteins  enzymes
o nutrients  amino acids, glucose
o gases  oxygen
o excretory waste  urea
o ions  NACL
o hormones
o ions + vitamins

Artery - blood is under very high pressure.

- pumped out of the heart.
- thick walls  withstand pressure.
- elasticity  expand.
- contractions  squeeze blood forward.

Vein
- Return blood to the heart.
- Thin walls – lower pressure
- Few elastic fibres
- Internal diameter is much wider – ease of blood flow, 2 ways they prevent
 backflow of blood.
o When the muscles in the tissue that surround the vein contract, walls of
the veins are compressed, propelling the blood towards the heart.
o Veins have valves to prevent backflow.

Capillaries - Tiny vessels

- Bring blood into close contact with the tissue.
- Exchange of chemical substances between cells and blood stream
- One layer of cells
- Slow diffusion
- Thin walls  internal diameter only slightly larger than that of an RBC
- Single file  increases SA

Heart - Driving force in the circularity system

- Mammals  4 chambered hearts
- Pumps blood around the body
- Top chambers – atria
- Bottom chambers – ventricles
- Double pump
- One way direction of blood flow – valves

- Deoxygenated blood returns from the body to the RA of the heart via the 2
large veins – vena cava
- It then moves to the right ventricle.
- Pumped via the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
- CO2 diffuses from blood  alveoli, O2 diffuse from the alveoli into the
blood.
- Blood now oxygenated.
Blood flow through the - Returns to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary vein.
heart - Moves to the left ventricle where it is pumped via the aorta to all areas of the
body.

- Muscular wall (septum) separates the left + right hand side of the heart.
- Heart: cardiac muscle  heartbeat when it contracts
- Left hand side, thicker wall  ventricle pumps blood to all areas of the body.
- Pumping of oxygenated blood  all parts of the body, return of deoxygenated
blood  systemic circulation.
- pathway of blood form the heart to the lungs + back to the heart  pulmonary
Heart circulation

 compare the changes in the composition of the transport medium as it moves around an organism.
Function of the transport 1. blood passes through all organs and tissues (except lungs)  concentration of
system in animals  O2 decreases CO2 increases  cellular respiration.
deliver nutrients + gases 2. blood moves through the lungs  gains oxygen by diffusion from the alveoli,
to the cells + collect and removes carbon dioxide.
remove wastes 3. blood moves through all organs and tissues, nutrients such as glucose move
out of blood into the cells and wastes move in the opposite direction.
4. blood passed through the small intestine  increase in digestive end products
(glucose and amino acids)  travel in the blood stream from the digestive
tract directly to liver.
5. stomach  water diffuse into the blood along with other substances e.g.
alcohol. Fatty acids empty into the blood stream  lymphatic system. Blood
entering the heart has a high lipid content. This is then metabolised in the
liver.
6. in the liver
o decrease in digestive end products (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids)
as the liver is the centre of food metabolism.
o glucose  added or removed.
o urea added to blood (proteins are broken down and nitrogen is
removed)
o toxins and other substance such as alcohol are removed from the
blood.
o some vitamins + iron is removed.
7. Kidneys – amount of urea is decreased (kidneys filter). Blood  leaving the
kidneys had the lowest % of nitrogenous waste. Excess water + salts are
removed from the blood.
8. Large intestine  water salts and vitamins are absorbed into the blood.
9. Endocrine glands  hormones are added