Gul Zareen (Biochemistry)

NMDC Sargodha
I will climb this DNA
ladder to see where
life takes me.
 Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are polymers of specific nucleotides.
Nucleic acids present in all living cells in
combination with proteins to form
conjugated protein called nucleoprotein.
The proteins present usually are basic and they
are histones.
The nucleic acids are of two different types:
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 DNA
DNA is a double-stranded biopolymer
comprised of deoxyribonucleoside
monophosphates covalently linked
together by phosphodiester bonds.

DNA carries genetic information in the form of

its sequence of deoxyribonucleotides.
 DNA
With the exception of a few viruses that contain
single-stranded (ss) DNA, DNA exists as a
double stranded (ds) molecule, in which the two
strands wind around each other, forming a
double helix.

In the so-called DNA double helix, two

antiparallel polynucleotide strands wind around
each other they are stabilized by van der Waals
forces (hydrogen bonding & stacking
interactions).
 DNA

In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found

associated with various types of proteins
(known collectively as nucleoprotein)
present in the nucleus.

Whereas in prokaryotes, the protein–DNA

complex is present in a non-membrane-
bound region known as the nucleoid.
Salient features of the Double-helix
structure of DNA

It is made of two polynucleotide chains,

where the backbone is constituted by sugar-
phosphate, and the bases project inside.

The two chains have anti- parallel polarity. It

means, if one chain has the polarity 5’3’,
the other has 3’5’.
Salient features of the Double-helix
structure of DNA
 The bases in two strands are paired through
hydrogen bond (H-bonds) forming base pairs (bp).
Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with Thymine
from opposite strand and vice-versa. Similarly,
Guanine is bonded with Cytosine with three H-
bonds.
 Based on the observation of Erwin Chargaff that for
a double stranded DNA, the ratios between
Adenine and Thymine; and Guanine and Cytosine
are constant and equals one.
Salient features of the Double-helix
structure of DNA
The two strands are coiled in a right-handed
fashion (Clockwise).
The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm and there are
roughly 10 bp in each turn.
Consequently, the distance between a base
pair (bp) in a helix is approximately equal to
0.34 nm.
Structure of DNA
Different Forms of DNA
 B-DNA
The B form is a right-handed helix with ten
residues per 360° turn of the helix, and with
the planes of the bases perpendicular to the
helical axis.

Chromosomal DNA is thought to consist

primarily of B-DNA.
 A-DNA
The A form is produced by moderately
dehydrating the B form.

It is also a right-handed helix, but there are 11 base

pairs per turn, and the planes of the base pairs are
tilted 20° away from the perpendicular to the
helical axis.

The conformation found in DNA–RNA hybrids

or RNA–RNA double-stranded regions is
probably very close to the A form.
 Z-DNA
Z-DNA is a left-handed helix that contains about
12 base pairs per turn.

The deoxyribose –phosphate backbone “zigzags,”

hence, the name “Z”-DNA.

Stretches of Z-DNA can occur naturally in regions

of DNA that have a sequence of alternating purines
and pyrimidines, for example, poly GC.

Part of some active genes form Z-DNA, suggesting

that Z-DNA may play a role in regulating gene
transcription.
Forms of DNA
Anti-clock Clock wise
wise
 Functions of DNA
DNA is the store of genetic information. The
genetic information stored in the DNA serves
two functions.

1. It is the source of information for the

synthesis of all protein molecules of the cell
and

2. It provides the information inherited by

daughter cells or offspring.
 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
A polymer of purine and pyrimidine
ribonucleotides linked by phosphodiester
bonds.

Located in:
Ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Nucleus
 Differences between RNA and DNA
S.No. RNA DNA
1) Single stranded mainly except Double stranded (Except for
when self complementary certain viral DNA s which are
sequences are there it forms a single stranded)
double stranded structure (Hair
pin structure)
2) Ribose is the main sugar The sugar moiety is deoxy
ribose
3) Pyrimidine components differ. Thymine is always there but
Thymine is never found (Except uracil is never found
tRNA)
4) Being single stranded It does follow Chargaff's rule.
structure- It does not follow The total purine content in a
Chargaff’s rule double stranded DNA is
always equal to pyrimidine
content.
S.No. RNA DNA
5) RNA can be easily destroyed by DNA resists alkali action due to
alkalies to cyclic diesters of the absence of OH group at 2’
mono nucleotides. position
6) RNA is a relatively a labile DNA is a stable molecule. The
molecule, undergoes easy and spontaneous degradation is
spontaneous degradation very too slow. The genetic
information can be stored for
years together without any
change.
7) Mainly cytoplasmic, but also Mainly found in nucleus, extra
present in nucleus (primary nuclear DNA is found in
transcript and small nuclear mitochondria, and plasmids
RNA) etc
8) The base content varies from Millions of base pairs are there
100- 5000. The size is variable. depending upon the organism
S.No. RNA DNA
9) There are various types of RNA – DNA is always of one type and
mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, SnRNA, performs the function of
SiRNA, miRNA and hnRNA. These storage and transfer of genetic
RNAs perform different and information.
specific functions.
10) No variable physiological forms There are variable forms of
of RNA are found. The different DNA (A, B and Z)
types of RNA do not change their
forms
11) RNA is synthesized from DNA, it DNA can form DNA by
can not form DNA(except by the replication, it can also form
action of reverse transcriptase). RNA by transcription.
It can not duplicate (except in
certain viruses where it is a
genomic material )
12) Many copies of RNA are present Single copy of DNA is present
per cell per cell.
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Structure

Similar to that of DNA except:

1. It is single stranded polynucleotide chain.
2. Sugar is ribose
3. Uracil is instead of thymine
 Types of RNA
RNA are “working copies” of DNA
sequences formed by a process called “
transcription”.
There are 3 major types of RNA:
1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

2. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

80 % of total RNA in the cells are rRNA

Found in combination with several
proteins as component of the ribosome
In eukaryotes, there are 4 size types of
rRNA (28S, 18S, 5.8S, 5S)
In prokaryotes, there are 3 size species of
rRNA (23S, 15S, 5S)
Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Comprised only2-5% of total cellular RNA.

 Function: Carry genetic information from DNA

in the nucleus to ribosomes (in cytosol) where it is
used as template for protein biosynthesis.

Eukaryotic mRNA contains:

A poly-A tail on 3’ end
A cap (7-methylguanosine) at 5’ end
 Prokaryotic &
Eukaryotic rRNA

Structure of
mRNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 Transfer RNA (tRNA): tRNA represents 15% of
total RNA in the cell.
 Structure:
1. Amino acid attachment site or amino acid
acceptor: which terminates with the triplet
CCA.
2. Anticodon loop or anticodon triplet
3. D loop and T loop: contain unusual bases e.g.
dihydrouracil, ribothymidine or methyl guanine
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 Functions of tRNA:
1. Transport amino acids to ribosome for protein
synthesis. Each tRNA carry only one amino acid.

2. Recognize the specified codon on mRNA to

ensure the insertion of the correct amino acid in
the growing polypeptide chain.
 This function is due to anticodon triplet which
binds to codon on mRNA by base pairing.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) Structure
Other types of RNA
 Comprised only 1-2% of total cellular RNA.
 The other are:
i. Small nuclear RNA (SnRNA), a subset of the
small RNAs, are significantly involved in mRNA
processing and gene regulation
ii. Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA),
forms heteronuclear complexes with proteins
(hnRNPs).
o Multiple roles of hnRNPs in transcriptional and
posttranscriptional regulation enable them to be
effective gene expression regulators
Other types of RNA

iii. Micro RNA(mi RNA)

iv. Small interfering RNA(Si RNA), these two
classes of RNAs represent a subset of small RNAs;
both play important roles in gene regulation