1: DNA the code of life

Introduction
Activity 2: DNA
Revision of cellular structure replication

The structure of nucleic acids DNA profiling

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid Activity 3: DNA profiling

A brief history of the discovery of Protein synthesis

DNA
Protein synthesis occurs in two
The location of DNA stages

The structure of DNA Stage 1: Transcription

The role of DNA Stage 2: Translation

Activity 1: DNA The effect of mutation on protein

structure (DNA sequence)
RNA ribonucleic acid
Activity 4: Protein
The location of RNA synthesis
The structure of RNA Activity 5: Codons and
The role of RNA amino acids

Comparison between DNA and RNA

DNA replication
End of topic exercises
Errors that occur during DNA
replication

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Introduction
All living organisms contain both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid) we focus on their location, structure and function.
We explore the discovery of DNA, its role in the human body and how it
replicates.
Protein synthesis is vital for life we examine how proteins are formed by
both DNA and RNA.

Revision of cellular structure

It is important to know the location and functions of certain organelles, illustrated in
Figure 1 below.

cytoplasm

polysomes

ribosomes

nucleus

Figure 1: Structure of a cell

Cytoplasm is the base substance in which the organelles of the cell are
suspended. It is a watery substance and allows for metabolic reactions to take place.
Ribosomes are small, round organelles which are mainly found attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum or are free-floating in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes can also be
found inside other organelles such as the chloroplast and mitochondria but in smaller
numbers. They are the site of protein synthesis and consist of RNA and protein.

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The nucleus ities.

Figure 2: Parts of the nucleus

A nucleus has four main parts:

the double nuclear membrane it encloses the nucleus and contains small
pores to allow for the passage of substances in and out of the nucleus
the nucleoplasm this is a jelly-like fluid within the nucleus
the nucleolus a dark body suspended in the nucleoplasm which contains
free nucleotide bases and produces ribosomes
the chromatin network found in the nucleoplasm: contains the DNA which
forms the chromosomes containing the genetic code of a person / organism

The structure of nucleic acids

Key terminology
nucleic acid a type of organic compound
monomer a building block
nucleotide the monomer which forms DNA and RNA

There are two types of nucleic acids in the human body DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Together these form the basis of all life of earth.
They consist of monomers (building blocks) called nucleotides.

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The basic structure of a nucleotide is illustrated in Figure 3 below. Each nucleic acid
is composed of a phosphate (P), a sugar molecule (S) and a nitrogenous base (NB).

P phosphate group
S sugar molecule
NB nitrogenous base

Figure 3: A nucleotide

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid

Key terminology
deoxyribonucleic acid is made up of nucleotides
nitrogenous bases adenine, thymine, guanine and
DNA
cytosine
carries the genetic code for protein synthesis
nuclear DNA DNA found in the nucleus
DNA found outside of the nucleus: mitochondrial and
extra- nuclear DNA
chloroplastic DNA.
the shape of DNA consists of two strands joined together
double helix
and twisted spirally
hereditary genetic information passed on from parent to offspring

A brief history of the discovery of DNA

1952 Rosalind Franklin and her assistant Maurice Wilkins researched the
structure of DNA using X-ray diffraction images.
Watson and Crick did
images, they proposed a 3-D double helix model for DNA in 1953.
1962 Watson and Crick received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the
structure of DNA, and Wilkins received an award for his X-ray photography.
Franklin had died of cancer.

Rosalind Franklin background: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BIP0lYrdirI

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The location of DNA

DNA is found in two locations in a cell:

Mostly in the nucleus of a cell this is referred to as nuclear DNA
a small amount is found outside the nucleus it is referred to as extra-
nuclear DNA. There are two types of extra-nuclear DNA:
o chloroplastic DNA found in the chloroplasts of plant cells
o mitochondrial DNA found in the mitochondria (useful for tracing
ancestry)

The structure of DNA

Figure 4A: DNA double helix Figure 4B: DNA simplified structure

DNA has a double helix structure (Figure 4A), consisting of monomers called
nucleotides which link to form long chains, called polymers. The sugar in DNA is
deoxyribose sugar and is attached to a nitrogenous base. The phosphate and sugar
molecules are attached to one another by strong bonds alternately to form the long
chains (Figure 4B).
There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA:
adenine (A) cytosine (C)
thymine (T) guanine (G)

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Nitrogenous bases are complementary, and always join together in a specific order:
adenine always links to thymine (Figure 5A)
guanine always links with cytosine (Figure 5B)

adenine guanine

thymine cytosine

Figure 5A: adenine with thymine Figure 5B: guanine with cytosine

This pairing of bases means that two strands of DNA are joined together, forming a
long ladder-like structure. The nitrogenous bases are held together by weak
hydrogen bonds. The ladder-like structure becomes coiled and is known as a double
helix structure. The DNA strands wind around proteins which are known as
histones.

The role of DNA

DNA carries hereditary information in the form of genes. Genes are short sections of
DNA which code for a specific trait, and determine the physical characteristics (e.g.
blood grouping, a gene linked to breast cancer) and behaviour of an organism (e.g.
whether an organism can be tamed and domesticated).
Most of the DNA strands do not code for anything and are known as non-coding
DNA. Scientists are still researching the importance of the non-coding DNA.
The main functions of DNA include:
Controls the functioning of cells
Regulate the functioning of genes
Passes on hereditary characteristics

The structure of DNA: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C1CRrtkWwu0

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Activity 1: DNA
The diagram on the next page shows part of a DNA molecule.
1. Label parts 1, 2 and 3 (3)
2. Give the number of nucleotides
shown in the diagram (1)
3. Name two places in an animal
cell where this nucleic acid may
be found. (2)
4. What is the natural shape of
this molecule? (1)
5. Draw a nucleotide with the
nitrogenous base adenine. (4)
(11)

RNA ribonucleic acid

Key terminology
RNA consists of nucleotides. Nitrogenous bases found in
RNA
RNA are adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine
mRNA carries the code for protein synthesis from DNA to the
messenger RNA
ribosome
ribosomal RNA rRNA forms ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis
transfer RNA tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome to form the protein

There are three types of RNA (ribonucleic acid), all formed in the nucleus by DNA.
They perform different functions in different places in a cell. The types are:
messenger RNA (mRNA)
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)

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The location of RNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is formed in the nucleus but then enters the
cytoplasm where it attaches to ribosomes.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is found in the ribosomes in the cytoplasm of the
cell.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is found freely in the cytoplasm of the cell.

The structure of RNA

Like DNA, RNA also consists of monomers (nucleotides) which link to form longer
chains (polymers).
However, RNA is a single-stranded structure which is not coiled. The sugar in
RNA is ribose and is attached to a nitrogenous base. The phosphate and sugar
molecules are attached to one another alternately to form the chains.
The structure of RNA is illustrated in Figure 6 below.

Figure 6: RNA note the chain formed by the

phosphate and sugar molecules on the left,
and the nitrogenous bases on the right.

There are four types of nitrogenous bases in RNA:

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 adenine (A) cytosine (C)

uracil (U) not thymine as in DNA guanine (G)

The role of RNA

The three types of RNA are very important to the process of protein synthesis, with
each type playing a unique role.

Comparison between DNA and RNA

DNA and RNA are similar

contain sugar alternating with phosphate
contain the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine and cytosine
play a role in protein synthesis

DNA and RNA also have significant differences, tabulated in Table 1 below.

Table 1: The main differences between DNA and RNA.

DNA RNA
contains deoxyribose sugar contains ribose sugar
double helix and coiled single stranded
contains the nitrogenous base thymine contains the nitrogenous base uracil
found in the nucleus, ribosomes and
found in the nucleus only
cytoplasm of cells

A comparison DNA and RNA. It is very important to know the differences.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Elo-zX1k8M

DNA replication
DNA replication is the process through which DNA makes an identical copy of itself.
This occurs during interphase of the cell cycle in the nucleus. In Figures 7A to 7E, a
small portion of DNA is shown undergoing replication.

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1. The DNA double helix unwinds 2. The weak hydrogen bonds between the
(Figure 7A) nitrogenous bases are broken. The DNA
strands separate (they unzip)(Figure 7B)

Figure 7A Figure 7B

3. Each original DNA strand 4. Free nucleotides build a DNA strand onto
serves as a template on which its each of the original DNA strands, attaching
complement is built (Figure 7C) their complementary nitrogenous bases
(A to T and C to G) (Figure 7D)

Figure 7D
Figure 7C

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 5. This results in two identical DNA molecules. Each molecule consists of one
original strand and one new strand (Figure 7E).

Figure 7E

Figure 7A 7E: The process of DNA replication

DNA replication is important for cell division, particularly mitosis. It allows each
chromosome to be copied so that each new identical daughter cell produced
contains the same number and type of chromosomes.

Errors that occur during DNA replication

Errors that occur during DNA replication may sometimes lead to mutations (a
change in the nitrogenous base sequence)
If the incorrect nitrogen base attaches to the original strand and a nitrogen base

o the sequence or order of the bases c

o resulting in a change in the gene structure

DNA replication: Understand the process.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqe4thU-os8

Activity 2: DNA replication

Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

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 4
A 1
G

1. Name the process illustrated in the diagram above. (1)

2. State the significance of the process mentioned in question 1. (1)
3. Identify the parts labelled as 1, 2, 3 and 4. (4)
4. Describe how this process takes place. (6)
5. Give one location of extra-nuclear DNA. (1)
(13)

DNA profiling

A DNA profile is a pattern produced on X-ray film. This pattern consists of lines
which are of different lengths and thicknesses and in different positions, as shown in
Figure 8. All individuals, except identical twins, have a unique DNA profile.

Figure 8: DNA profiles for three different

individuals.

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DNA profiles are used to:
identify crime suspects in forensic investigations
prove paternity (father) and maternity (mother) (biological parents)
determine the probability or causes of genetic defects
establish the compatibility of tissue types for organ transplants
identify relatives

DNA profiling is generally accepted as being extremely reliable. The interpretation

and comparison of profiles should however be approached with caution, for the
following reasons:
Humans interpret the results which means mistakes could be made

The method of profiling may be different in different laboratories producing

inconsistencies
Only a small piece of DNA is used in profiling, so the profile might not be
100% unique to a particular individual
DNA profiling is expensive and therefore not readily accessible to those who
cannot afford it, particularly in criminal cases
DNA profiles may reveal information about a person which could be used
against them in a prejudicial way. For example: being HIV positive or having
genetic abnormalities may lead to insurance companies not covering a
person or prejudice in the court room

Activity 3: DNA profiling

DNA profiles from a crime scene.

Victim CSS Suspect 1 Suspect 2 Suspect 3 Suspect 4

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In a fight involving a number of people, one person was seriously injured. Police took
blood samples from the victim, the crime scene (CSS crime scene sample) and
four suspects. The DNA was then extracted from each sample. The results of these
tests are shown in the diagram above.
1. Which suspect probably injured the victim? (1)
2. Give a reason for your answer to the previous question. (1)
3. List one application of DNA profiling other than for solving crime. (1)
4. Give two reasons why DNA profiling may sometimes be challenged. (2)
(5)

Protein synthesis

Key terminology
amino acids monomers of proteins
base triplet three nitrogenous bases one after the other on DNA
1st stage of protein synthesis mRNA formed from DNA
transcription
carrying code for the protein to be made
2nd stage of protein synthesis amino acids combine to form
translation
a protein
three nitrogenous bases one after the other on mRNA
codon
these are complementary to the triplet on DNA
three nitrogenous bases one after the other on tRNA these
anti-codon
are complementary to the codon on mRNA

The process in which proteins are made is called protein synthesis. Proteins are
made by linking various amino acids that are present in the cytoplasm of cells. There
are 20 different amino acids, and they combine in a large variety of combinations.
The number of amino acids and the sequence of the amino acids determine the type
of protein that is formed.
Figure 9 illustrates a protein with different amino acids represented by the different
shapes and colour. The bond between the amino acids is known as a peptide bond.

peptide bond

Figure 9: Amino acids linked by peptide bonds

The genes found in DNA contain the code which determines which type of protein
that will be formed.

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 The smallest protein contains 50 amino acids linked together
Proteins generally contain 300 or more amino acids.

Three consecutive nitrogenous bases on the DNA strand are called the base triplet.
The base triplets determine which amino acid will be placed into the protein as well
as the sequence in which the amino acids will be joined.

Protein synthesis occurs in two stages

Stage 1: Transcription
Stage 2: Translation

Stage 1: Transcription

The first stage of protein synthesis, called transcription, occurs in the nucleus (see
Figure 10 below).

Stage 1

DNA

nucleus cytoplasm
mRNA transcription

mRNA

transport to cytoplasm for

next phase of protein
synthesis
translation

Figure 10: Transcription

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 1. A section of the DNA double helix unwinds. As a result,
the weak hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases of DNA break
the DNA unzips (in this particular section of the DNA)
2. One strand acts as a template
3. This DNA template is used to form a complementary strand of messenger
RNA (mRNA)
This is done using free RNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm
The mRNA now contains the code for the protein which will be formed
Three adjacent nitrogenous bases on the mRNA are known as codons.
These code for a particular amino acid.
4. mRNA moves out of the nucleus through a nuclear pore into the cytoplasm,
where it attaches onto a ribosome

Stage 2: Translation

The second stage of protein synthesis, called translation (Figure 11) , occurs in the
cytoplasm.

Stage 2
amino acid
protein forming tRNA with amino acid
cytoplasm

mRNA

Figure 11: Translation

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 5. Transfer RNA (tRNA) in the cytoplasm has three adjacent nitrogenous bases
known as the anti-codon
-codon
Each tRNA will carry a specific amino acid
According to the codons on the mRNA, the tRNA will bring the required
amino acid to the ribosome
6. The amino acids are linked by a peptide bond to form the required protein.

Figure 12 below shows the full process of protein synthesis

DNA

nucleus
mRNA transcription

mRNA

cytoplasm
transport to cytoplasm for
the next phase of protein tRNA
synthesis translation

mRNA

cell membrane

Figure 12: Protein synthesis

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Note: it is important to know the difference between base triplets (DNA), codons
(mRNA) and anti-codons (tRNA).

The effect of mutation on protein structure (DNA

sequence)

A mutation is a change in the nitrogenous base sequence of a DNA molecule

(or a gene)
since mRNA is copied from the DNA molecule during transcription.
This will result in a change in the codons.
As a result, different tRNA molecules carrying different amino acids will be
required.
The sequence of amino acids changes, resulting in the formation of a different
protein.
If the same amino acid is coded for, there will be no change in the protein
structure.

Protein synthesis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oefAI2x2CQM&t=43s

Activity 4: Protein synthesis

The diagram below represents a process that occurs during protein synthesis.

D
E

1. Identify the process above. (1)

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 2.
a) organelle A (1)
b) molecule B (1)
c) the bond at E (1)
3.
a) carries the amino acid (1)
b) is the monomer of a protein (1)
4. Name and describe the process occurring in the nucleus which results in the
formation of the mRNA molecule. (6)
(12)

Activity 5: Codons and amino acids

The sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule is coded for by DNA and RNA.
The table below shows some mRNA codons and the corresponding amino acids.

mRNA codons amino acid

AGC serine
GAU aspartate
CUA leucine
UAU tyrosine
UUC phenylalanine
AGU serine
GAC aspartate
UUU phenylalanine
CUC leucine
GAG glutamic acid

1. According to the table, how many codons code for phenylalanine? (1)
2. What is the anti-codon for glutamic acid? (1)
3. A section of mRNA has the following base sequence and is read from left to
right:
GAU CUC GAC AGC AUG ACC
Give
a) DNA base triplet for the last codon on this section of mRNA (1)
b) 1st amino acid coded for by this section of mRNA (1)
(4)

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DNA The code of life: End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A- D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D

1.1.1 A molecule of RNA is copied from DNA by the process of

A transcription.
B mitosis.
C mutation.
D translation.

1.1.2 In a DNA molecule

A guanine pairs with adenine.
B adenine pairs with thymine.
C cytosine pairs with adenine.
D Guanine pairs with thymine.

1.1.3 A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides on a molecule of

A rRNA.
B mRNA.
C tRNA.
D DNA.

1.1.4 DNA was analysed and found to contain 14% T (thymine). What
percentage of the molecule is cytosine?
A 14%
B 28%
C 36%
D 72%

1.1.5 A gene in a bacterium codes for a protein that has 120 amino acids.
How many mRNA nucleotides code for this protein?
A 30
B 40
C 360
D 480 (5 × 2 = 10)

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1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.

1.2.1 Proteins that form part of the chromosomes.

1.2.2 Which type of RNA travels from the nucleoplasm to the cytoplasm.
1.2.3 The nitrogenous base found in RNA but not in DNA.
1.2.4 A sugar that is a component of DNA.
1.2.5 A sudden change in the sequence / order of the nitrogenous bases
of a nucleic acid.

1.2.6 The name of the bond that forms between amino acids in a protein
molecule.

1.2.7 The type of nucleic acid that carries a specific amino acid.

1.2.8 A segment of DNA coding for a particular characteristic.

1.2.9 The bonds that form between nitrogenous bases in a DNA,
1.2.10 The organelle in the cytoplasm on which protein synthesis occurs.
(10 x 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
A: DNA
1.3.1 Contains ribose sugar
B: RNA
A: Mendel
1.3.2 Discovery of DNA
B: Darwin
A: nucleus
1.3.3 Location of DNA.
B: mitochondria
1.3.4 The process where one DNA A: replication
molecule produces two
B: reproduction
identical DNA molecules.
A: DNA
1.3.5 Pairing of nitrogenous bases
B: RNA

(5 x 2) = (10)

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1.4 The diagram below represents a portion of a nucleic acid.

1.4.1 Name the nucleic acid. (1)

1.4.2 Name two places in animal cells where this nucleic acid may be
found. (2)
1.4.3 Identify
a) portion 1 (1)
b) nitrogenous base 3 (1)
c) molecule 5 (1)
d) bond 2 (1)
1.4.4 What is the natural shape of this molecule? (2)
1.4.5 Name the process in which this molecules make a copy of itself? (1)
(10)

1.5 The diagram below represents DNA replication.

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 1.5.1 Identify the following:
a) molecules W and U (2)
b) parts of molecule W labelled X and Y (2)
c) bond Z (1)
d) nitrogenous base V (1)
1.5.2 Where in the cell does this process take place? (1)
1.5.3 Name the phase of the cell cycle where replication takes place. (1)
1.5.4 What is the purpose of DNA replication? (2)
(10)
Section A: [50]

Section B
Question 2

2.1 The following sequence represents a part of the nitrogenous base sequence
on a DNA molecule.

TAC TCT CCA

Triplet 1 Triplet 2 Triplet 3
2.1.1. Write down the base sequence of the anticodon of triplet 1 shown
above. (1)
2.1.2. The table below shows the amino acids that correspond with different
mRNA codons.
mRNA codon Amino Acid
AGA arginine
AUG methionine
GGU glycine
AUC isoleucine
a) Give the correct sequence of amino acids for DNA triplets
1 to 3. (2)
b) During DNA replication a mutation occurred on triplet 1 resulting
in C being replaced by G. Describe how this mutation will affect
the structure of the protein formed. (3)

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 2.1.3. Name and describe the process occurring in the nucleus which results
in the formation of an mRNA molecule. (6)
2.1.4. Draw a RNA nucleotide with a complementary base to adenine. (2)
(14)

2.2 The diagrams below represent the process of protein synthesis. Study them
and answer the questions that follow.

2.2.1 Identify the structures labelled 1,2 and 3. (3)

2.2.2 Name and describe the stage of protein synthesis taking place
at Z (5)
2.2.3 Using the table below, work out the names of the amino acids
labelled W and X. (4)

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 Base Triplet on mRNA coding
Amino acid coded for
for the amino acid
GAG glutamate
CAG histidine
AGG arginine
CUG leucine
UCC proline
GUG valine
(12)
[26]
Question 3
3.1 The diagram below represents two stages of protein synthesis.

3.1.1 Provide labels for:

a) molecule 1 (1)
b) organelle 6 (1)
3.1.2 Give only the number of the part which represents a:
a) DNA template strand (1)
b) monomer of proteins (1)
c) codon (1)
3.1.3 Describe translation as it occurs in organelle 6. (4)
3.1.4 Provide the:
a) DNA sequence that codes for glycine (2)

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 b) codon for proline (2)
3.1.5 State two differences between a DNA nucleotide and an RNA
nucleotide. (4)
(17)

3.2 The first 7 triplets of nitrogenous bases that form part of the gene coding for
one chain of the haemoglobin protein that makes up red blood corpuscles in
humans is shown below. Study the table and answer the questions that
follow.
DNA
CAC GTG GAC TGA GGA CTC CTC
Template
Base
triplet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
number

3.2.1 How many of the following are coded for in the DNA template
sequence above?
a) Nitrogenous bases (1)
b) Different types of tRNA molecules that are required to form the
polypeptide from this piece of DNA . (1)
3.2.2 Write down the mRNA sequence for the triplets numbered 4 and 6
in the above table. (2)
3.2.3 Using the table below, determine the amino acid sequence
coded for by triplet numbers 4 and 6. (2)

Anticodons on tRNA
coding for the amino Amino acid coded for
acid
CUC glutamate
GUC histidine
GGA proline
GAC leucine
UGA threonine
CAC valine

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3.2.4. If the T in the 6th base triplet changed to A in the DNA template
above, write down the new amino acid (using the table above) that
this 6th triplet now codes for. (1)
(7)
[24]

Section B: [50]

Total Marks: [100]

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