MATH 353: Applied Mathematics Unit 3: Forces in Equilibrium

MTH 231

MECHANICS

Course Overview

Introduction
This course provides an opportunity for students to learn how mathematics
can be used to model the effects of forces in equilibrium and the motion of
objects subject to unbalanced forces. The goal of this Mechanics course is to
expose students to problems in mechanics as applied to plausibly real-world
scenarios,

Course Description

This course consists of two modules.

MODULE 1: STATICS - Systems in Equilibrium.

1.1 Vectors.
1.2 Vector Applications: Forces acting at a point.
1.3 Equilibrium of three forces.
1.4 Friction.
1.5 Moments.
1.6 Work, Power and Energy.

MODULE 2: KINEMATICS - Motion in a Straight Line.

2.1 Velocity and Acceleration: Graphical methods.

2.2 Velocity and Acceleration: Formulae.

4
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Course Objectives
On the completion of this course, you will have developed the skills necessary
to solve problems involving forces in equilibrium and uniformly accelerated
motion.

Time Requirements
This module will take you 60 hours.

Recommended Readings
1. APPLIED MATHEMATICS I
L. Bostock, S.Chandler
Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.
2. MECHANICS I
J. Littlewood, J. Hebborn, F. Norton
Heinemann.
3. INTERMEDIATE MECHANICS
D. Humphrey, J. Topping.
Longmans.
4. ADVANCED LEVEL APPLIED MATHEMATICS
C.G. Lambe
The English Universities Press Ltd.

5
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

UNIT 1: Vectors

Introduction
In previous modules you would have been introduced to vectors. At this time
it is a good idea to revise the previous literature on vectors to which you have
been exposed (MTH 121). In this unit module we recap the basic rules of
vectors in preparation for the other units in this module.
Take special note of the suggested readings as these will broaden your
knowledge of the subject matter and open you mind to other perspectives.
Many other such literature can be found on the web. Explore!
Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

 represent a vector in arrow form
 calculate magnitude and direction from vector components
 calculate vector components from magnitude and direction
 use vector triangle to find the resultant of two vectors at right angles
 use vector triangle to find the resultant of two vectors acting
at any angle

Prerequisites
Your knowledge of the following topics will be helpful in
completing this module:
- use of the trigonometrical ratios
- column vectors in two dimensions used to model displacement
- the sine rule
- the cosine rule
Thorough knowledge of the previous module on vectors (MTH121).

6
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

1.1 Scalars and Vectors

All physical quantities with which you are familiar can be put under two
headings: scalars or vectors.

A scalar quantity has magnitude (or size) and has no direction.

Some examples of scalars are: volume, mass, density, temperature, time.

A volume of 30 cm3 has no direction. Similarly, a mass of 50 kg has no

direction.

You will notice that all these quantities (scalars) have magnitude but are
NOT related to any direction.

A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.

Some examples of vectors are: displacement, velocity, acceleration,

momentum, force.

5 km east is a displacement since it is a distance of 5 km (magnitude) in an

easterly direction

These quantities are vectors since they have a magnitude and are related to a
direction.

Remember that ALL physical quantities are either scalar or vector.

Vector Notation

The vector notation that you learned in MTH 121 is applicable to ALL
vectors. Recall that a vector can be represented in the following ways: p, p,

AB .

7
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Recall that:

(i) The magnitude f a vector is also called its modulus, and is the positive

number which is its length.

The modulus of a vector p is written as p or simply as p.

(ii) A unit vector is a vector whose length is unity.

(iii) Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and act in the

same direction.

(iv) The vector which has the same magnitude as p but acts in the opposite

direction is denoted by -p.

Representing Vectors

A vector can be represented by a straight line acting in a particular direction.

To show the direction we use an arrow head. Thus, AB is a vector that acts

from the point A to the point B. BA is a vector that acts from B to A. Both
vectors have the same magnitude but act in the opposite directions.

B B

A A

Figure 1. Vectors of Equal Magnitude but Opposite Directions.

8
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Components of a Vector

Any vector can be stated in terms of two components at right angles to each
other.

Consider the diagram below.

A C

Figure 2: Rectangular components of AB .

To get from A to B, which will give us the vector AB, we can move

horizontally to C and then vertically to B. We say that AC and CB are the

horizontal and vertical components of the vector AB respectively. .

Collectively, these are known as the rectangular components of AB , since

they are at right angles to each other.

If we know the magnitudes of AC and CB , we can write the vector in its

component form:

 x
AB   
 y

where x and y represent the magnitudes of AC and CB respectively.

9
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Now consider BA .
C B

Figure 3: Rectangular components of AB

To get from B to A, we move to C and then to A. As above the rectangular

components of AB are BC and CA , we can write the vector in its component

form thus:

 x
BA   
 y

1.2 Calculating the Magnitude and Direction of a Vector

3
Let the vector AB   
4

θ
A 3

Here we see that the horizontal component of AB is 3 units and its vertical
component is 4 units.

10
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Since the two components are at right angles to each other we can use

Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the magnitude of AB .

AB 2 = 32 + 42

AB = 25 = 5

Thus, the magnitude of AB is 5 units.

Remember that the modulus is the positive value, since it represents the length
of a line.

We now use the tan ratio to find the direction of AB . (It is conventional to
calculate the angle the vector makes with the horizontal.)

4
tan θ 
3
4
θ  tan1 = 53.1o .
3

Hence, AB has a magnitude of 5 and acts at an angle of 53.1o to the

horizontal.

11
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 1:  15 minutes

Find the modulus and direction of each of the following vectors:

6
1. AB   
8
8
2. PQ   
6
5
3. MN   
7 

12
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

If the magnitude and direction of a vector are given then its rectangular
components can be found.
Example:
A vector PQ has a magnitude of 15 units and acts at an angle of 30o to the
horizontal. Find its rectangular components.

15

30o
P R

From the diagram above we see that

PR
cos 30 
15

which gives PR  15cos 30

and PR  13.0 to 1 decimal place.

QR
Also sin 30 
15

QR  15sin 30

and QR  7.5 .

Hence the given vector has a horizontal component of 13 units and a vertical
component of 7.5 units.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

13
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 2:  15 minutes

Find the rectangular components of each of the following vectors:

1. Vector AB of magnitude 30 units acting at an angle of 45o.
2. Vector XY of magnitude 20 units acting at an angle 120o.

 Summary:

All physical quantities can be put under one of two headings:

scalars or vectors.

A scalar quantity has magnitude (or size) and has no direction.

A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.

The magnitude f a vector is also called its modulus, and is the positive

number which is its length.

A unit vector is a vector whose length is unity.

Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and act in the

same direction.

A vector can be represented by a straight line acting in a particular direction.

14
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Feedback 

 Answers to Exercise 1:

1. Modulus =10 units Angle = 53.1o

2. Modulus =10 units Angle = 36.9o

3. Modulus = 8.6 units Angle = 54.5o

 Answers to Exercise 2:

1. Horizontal component = 21.2 units.

Vertical component = 21.2 units.
Note that both components have the same magnitude.

2. Horizontal component = 10 units.

Vertical component = 17.3 units.

15
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Unit 2: Vectors Acting at a Point

The sum of two or more vectors is called the resultant.

In many cases both graphical methods, as well as methods involving
calculations, can be used to find the resultant of two or more vectors.
In the following we investigate the addition of vectors given various
situations.

Addition of Parallel Vectors

Parallel vectors act either in the same direction or in opposite directions.
The sum of vectors acting in the same direction has a resultant which has a
magnitude equivalent to the algebraic sum of the vectors and act in the
same direction as the vectors.
Consider walking east for a distance of 10 km, then another 10 km in the
same direction.
10 km E
10 km E

The sum (or resultant) of these two vectors will be (10 + 10) km E.
(10 + 10) being the algebraic sum of the two vectors.

Example:
Vectors A, B and C have magnitudes of 3 N, 4 N and 5 N acting due East.
(N is the notation for the unit newtons, the size of a force).
Find the resultant of the vectors.
The algebraic sum of 3, 4 and 5 is (3 + 4 + 5) = 12 N.
Therefore, the resultant is of magnitude 12 N acting due East.

16
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

If vectors act in opposite directions, then the resultant will also be the
algebraic sum but the direction will depend on the magnitudes of the forces.
Consider two students playing at tug-o-war.

Each person will be pulling in the opposite direction to the other. The
resulting motion will be dependent on the magnitudes of the forces exerted by
the students. The resultant will be in the direction of the larger force. Note
that this will also be the algebraic sum of the vectors.

Example:
Vectors of magnitudes 5 units and 6 units act due north. Vectors of
magnitudes 7 units and 8units act due south. Find the resultant of the four
vectors.
Taking north as positive, the algebraic sum will be
5+6–7–8=−4
Therefore, the resultant will have a magnitude of 4 units acting due south.
(If north is positive then south, which is opposite, will be negative.)

Resultant of Two Vectors at Right Angles

The resultant of two vectors at right angles to each other can be found by
using Pythagoras’ theorem.

Example:
Two vectors of magnitudes 10 units and 7 units respectively, act at right
angles to each other. Find the magnitude and direction of their resultant.

17
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

α
A 10 B

The resultant can be found either graphically or by calculation.

By representing AB and BC accurately on graph paper and completing the

triangle, the resultant, AC , can be determined by measuring the length of

AC and the angle CAB.

Note that it may be necessary to use a scale for your drawing.

By calculation:
From the figure above we see that

AB  BC  AC
using Pythagoras’ theorem:
AC 2  AB 2  BC 2

AC  149

=12.2 nits
u
And, if α is the angle the resultant makes with the horizontal,
7
then tan α 
10
7
and a  tan1
10
= 35.0o (to 1 d.p.)

18
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Addition of Non-Parallel Vectors

Two vectors that are not parallel can be added using the parallelogram
rule or the triangle rule.

The Parallelogram Rule

This rule is used when two vectors originate from the same point.
In this case also we can draw the given vectors accurately on graph paper
and complete the parallelogram. The diagonal will represent the resultant.

By calculation:

Let P and Q be two forces acting at an angle θ degrees to each other.

Draw OA to represent P and on the same scale draw OB to represent Q.
Complete the parallelogram OACB. The resultant R is represented by the diagonal OC.
Double arrowheads are used to show the resultant as shown on the diagram below.

B C

Q
R
θ
O α θ D
P A

AD
Now cos θ 
AC

→ AD  AC cos θ
Now AC = Q, then
AD  Q cos θ

19
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

DC
and sin θ 
AC

→ DC  AC sin θ
 Q sin θ

Therefore OD = P + Q cos θ

Now OC2 = R2 so, R2 = OD2 + DC2

= (P + Q cos θ)2 + (Q sin θ)2
= P2 + 2PQ + Q2 cos2 θ + Q2 sin2 θ
= P2 + Q2 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ) + 2PQ cos θ
= P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ
since sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1.
The resultant makes an angle α with OA such that

Q sin θ
tan α =
P  Q cos θ

[ If θ is obtuse the result is the same if we remember that

cos θ = - cos (180o – θ)].
This result is important: however, it is recommended that you work questions
from first principles and not to rely too much on formulas.

Example:
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces 5 and 8
newtons respectively, acting at an (a) angle of 60o
(b) angle of 120o.

20
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

(a)
A C

5
R
60o
O α 60o D
8 B
In the figure above, we see that
BD
cos 60 
5
→ BD  5cos 60
 2.5

DC
and sin 60 
5
→ DC  5 sin 60
 4.33 to 1 decimal place

Therefore OD = 10.5
and OC2 = 10.52 + 4.332 = 128.74
OC = 128.9989
= 11.4 N
CD
Also tan α =
OD

4.33
tan α =
10.5
 4.33 
α = tan-1  
 10.5 
= 22.4o

21
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

(b)
A C

5
R
θ
α
O 8 D B
From (a) DB = 2.5
and DC = 4.3
So OD = 8 − 2.5 = 5.5

Therefore R2 = 5.52 + 4.332 = 48.74

R = 7.0 N to 1 decimal place
and
CD
tan α =
OD
4.33
tan α =
5 .5
 4.33 
α = tan-1  
 5.5 
= 38.2o
By formula:
(a) R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ
= 52 + 82 + 2(5)(8) cos 60o
= 123.4
R = 11.4 N

(b) R2 = 52 + 82 + 2(5)(8) cos 120o

= 7N
------------------------------------------------------------------------

22
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 1:  45 minutes

1. A jogger moves 6 km east and 13 km north. Find the magnitude and

direction of the resultant displacement vector using the graphical method.

2. A dog searching for a bone walks 3.5 m south, then 8.2 m at an angle of
30o north of east, and finally 15 m west. Graphically determine the dog’s
resultant displacement.

3. Two rods OA and OB are riveted together at O. OA, which is horizontal,

has a pull of 60 N in it; and OB, which is at 60o to OA, has a pull of 80 N in
it.
Find the resultant pull on the rivet.

4. P and Q are two forces of magnitudes 7 N and 8 N respectively, acting

at an angle of 60o to each other. Find the magnitude of their resultant.

5. A and B are two forces of magnitudes 12 N and 5 N respectively. Their

resultant force has a magnitude of 11 N. Find the angle at which they act.

23
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Triangle Rule for Vector Addition

If two vectors both act in the same direction, that is, clockwise or
anticlockwise, then we can find their resultant by using the Triangle
Rule.

Let PQ and QR be two vectors acting as shown below. Note that both vectors

are acting in a clockwise direction.

Q
R

O x
Clockwise vectors
Draw the side PR.
y

Q
R

O x
Resultant vector

24
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

The closing side, PR, of the triangle will represent the resultant both in
magnitude and direction.

That is: PQ  QR  PR

The resultant can also be found using the sine and cosine rules.

Consider the vectors AB and BC shown below:

6N
60o
B 50o
9N
A

Complete the triangle ABC. Then CA will represent the resultant vector.

6N
60o
B 50o
9N
A

Angle ABC = 180o – (60o + 50o) = 70o

Using the cosine rule to find the magnitude of CA, we have:
ˆC
CA2  AB2  BC2  2AB.BC cos AB

25
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

ˆC
CA  AB 2  BC2  2 AB.BC cos AB

Substituting

CA  92  62  2  9  6 cos 70
= 8.95 correct to 2 decimal places.

Thus, the magnitude of CA = 8.95 N

Using the sine rule:
ˆ C sin CB
sin BA ˆA

BC CA
ˆ
ˆ C  sin 1  BC sin CBA 
BA  CA 
 

ˆ C  sin 1  6 sin 70 

Substituting: BA  9.5 
 
ˆ C  36.4 correct to 1 d.p.
BA
Hence the resultant has a magnitude of 8.95 N and acts at an angle of 36.4o

to AB .

Sometimes the vectors are be given in the component form and you are
asked to find the resultant, as the following example shows.
Example:
2  1 
Let AB    and BC    .
3   2
y

B
C

26
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

O x

Then AB  BC  AC
 2   1   2 1  3
that is   +   =     
 3    2   3  2  1 
3
AB =  
1 
Using Pythagoras’ theorem

Magnitude of AB , AC  32  12

= 10
= 3.16 to 3 s. f..
3
And tan θ 
1
θ  tan 1 3 = 71.6o . to 3 s. f..

Hence the resultant has a magnitude of 3.16 units and acts at an angle of
71.6o to the horizontal.

 Exercise2:  45 minutes

1. Vector P is 3 units in length and points along the positive x-axis. Vector
B is 4 units in length and points along the negative y-axis. Use the
triangle of vectors to find:
(i) A + B
(ii) A – B.

2. A force vector P of magnitude 6 N acts at the origin in a direction 30o

above the x-axis. A second force vector Q of magnitude 5 N acts at the
origin in the direction of the positive y-axis. Find graphically the
magnitude and resultant of the resultant vector P + Q.

27
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Summary:

The sum of two or more vectors is called the RESULTANT.

The resultant can be found by using graphical methods as well as methods
involving calculations.
The sum of vectors acting in the same direction has a resultant which has a
magnitude equivalent to the algebraic sum of the vectors and act in the
same direction as the vectors.
The resultant of two vectors at right angles to each other can be found by
using Pythagoras’ theorem.
The Parallelogram Rule is rule is used when two vectors originate from the
same point. In this case also we can draw the given vectors accurately on
graph paper and complete the parallelogram. The diagonal will represent the
resultant.
If two vectors both act clockwise or counterclockwise, then we can find their
resultant by using the Triangle Rule.
The resultant can also be found by the resolution of the forces into their
rectangular components.

28
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Feedback 

 Answers to Exercise 1:
1. 14.3 km: 65.2o N of E
2. 7.92 m: 4.3o N of W.
3. 121.7 N at 34.7o
4. 13 N.
5. 113.6o

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. (i) 5; -53o
(ii) 5; 53o
2. 9.54 N at an angle 57o above the x-axis.

29
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics Unit 3: Forces in Equilibrium

UNIT 3: Forces in Equilibrium

Introduction
In this unit you are introduced to the relation between forces acting upon a
body, the forces being such that, under their action, the body remains at rest.
A body at rest is in a state of equilibrium. This branch of the subject is
known as Statics.

Several methods can be used in solving problems involving systems of forces

in equilibrium. We will explore some of them.
You are advised to study carefully the examples given and to attempt all
exercises before looking at the solutions.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit you will be able to:

- solve problems involving the equilibrium of three forces

by resolving in two direction at right angles
- choose an appropriate procedure when solving
problems involving the equilibrium of forces.

27
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Prerequisites

The following are necessary for you to be successful in this unit:

- a thorough knowledge of vectors and their manipulation.
- a working knowledge of elementary trigonometry.

3.1 In the previous units you learned that a vector is a physical quantity
that has both magnitude and direction. A force is one such quantity.
Its unit of measurement is the newton. When written out it is spelt with
a lower case ‘n’ as above. However, it is abbreviated as ‘N’. Thus we write
3 newtons or 3 N. Your body has a weight that is equivalent to its mass
times the acceleration due to gravity, that is F = MA. The acceleration
due to gravity varies over the earth as the earth is not a perfect sphere.
(The distance of the surface of the earth to its centre will determine this
value.)
For the purpose of this course we will take g, the acceleration due to
gravity, as 10 ms-2.
If a body is at rest we say it is in equilibrium, that is: it is not moving.
When a number of forces act on a body and the body remains at rest, we
say that the system is in a state of rest or is in equilibrium.
It is often possible to solve problems about forces in equilibrium by actually
drawing their vector diagram.

28
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

3.2 Consider a body at rest on a table.

R

Since the body is not moving, the sum of the forces in any direction must be
zero. That is, there are no unbalanced forces. What are the forces acting on
the body? The obvious one is the weight of the body acting down on the
table. However, since the sum of the forces in any direction must be zero
then there has to be a force acting upwards that is equal in magnitude to the
weight of the body and acting upwards. This force is called the normal
reaction to the plane, R.
Thus, if W is the weight of the body, then

W=R

Now consider two forces T and P acting on a body causing it to be in

equilibrium.
R
T P

As before W=R

29
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

additionally T=P
since T and P act in opposite directions.

The matter becomes a little more complex if one of the forces is acting at an
angle.
Let us suppose that P is acting at an angle θ to the horizontal.

R P
T
θ

W
Then part of P will cause the body to move upwards while the other part will
be equal in magnitude to T (since the body is in equilibrium).
In other words P will have, in this case, a vertical component and a
horizontal component.

Let us take a closer look at P.

B
P

θ
A C

BC
From trigonometry, sin θ 
AB
And BC  AB sin θ

→ BC  P sin θ

AC
Also cos θ 
AB

30
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics


→ AC  P cos θ
 
Hence, the force P has a horizontal component AC  P cos θ

and a vertical component BC  P sin θ .

Now let us look again at the problem

R P
T
θ

W
Vertically we have:
W = R + P sinθ
Horizontally:
T = P cos θ

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.3 Resolved Parts
It should be noticed that the force P above was replaced by the forces P sinθ
and P cos θ.

The two forces, whose sum is the equivalent of P , are said to be the resolved

parts of P .
Thus P sin θ and P cos θ are the resolved parts of the vector P. They are at
right angles to each other.
A force can be resolved in any two directions: however it is convenient and
useful to resolve a force in directions which are at right angles to each other.
The resolved are then said to be the rectangular components of the given
force.

So P sinθ and P cos θ are the rectangular components of P .

31
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Definition:
The resolved part of a given force in a given direction is the
component which, with a component in a direction at right
angles to it, is equivalent to the given force.

Example:
A force F of 20 N acts at an angle of 60o to the horizontal. Resolve this force
into its horizontal components.

Solution: C
F

A 60o B

AB and BC represent the horizontal and vertical components of F

respectively.
AB
cos 60 
20
AB = 20 cos 60o
= 10 N.

BC
sin 60 
20
BC = 20 sin 60o
= 17.3 (to 3 s.f.)

Hence, the horizontal component of F is 10 N and the vertical component is

17.3 N.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

32
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Example:
A box of weight 50 kg is suspended from two ropes of lengths 6 m and 8 m
from two points 10 m apart on a horizontal beam. Find the tension in each
string.
P 10 m Q
α θ
6 m T2 T1 8m
α θ
R

500 N
From the figure we see that
PQ2 = PR2 + RQ2
Therefore angle PRQ = 90o.
8 6
Also cos θ  , sin θ 
10 10
6 8
cos α  , sin α 
10 10
Resolving vertically:
T1 sin θ + T2 sin α = 500
6 8
T1 × + T2 × = 500
10 10
→ 6 T1 + 8 T2 = 5 000 -----------------(i)
Resolving horizontally:
T1 cos θ = T2 cos α
8 6
T1 × = T2 ×
10 10
6
→ T1 = T2 -------------------(ii)
8

Substituting for T1 in (i)

33
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

6
6× T2 + 8 T2 = 5 000
8
→ 100 T2 = 40 000
T2 = 400
6
And T1 = ×4 00= 300
8

Hence the tension in the ropes are 300 N and 400 N respectively.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Exercise 1: Resolution of Forces  10 minutes

1. Find the rectangular components of the following forces:

(a) 100 N acting at an angle of 45o to the horizontal.
(b) 60 N acting at 120o to the horizontal.
(c) 50 N acting at 20o to the vertical.

34
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

The resolution of forces plays an integral part in the solution of problems

involving forces in equilibrium.
The following theorem is important.

Theorem
The sum of the resolved parts of two forces in a given direction is equal to
the resolved part of their resultant in the same direction.

R
Q
P
X
O M N T

The resolved part of P in the direction OX is ON; that of Q in the same

direction is OM; that of R is OT.
It is easily shown that OT = OM + ON since OM = NT.

3.4 Conditions Of Equilibrium

If the resolved part of a given force R in one direction is X, and in a direction
at right angles to is Y, then
R2 = X2 + Y2 ( Remember Pythagoras?)

If the force R is the resultant of several forces acting at a point, those

forces will be in equilibrium when R is zero.
Therefore, X2 + Y2 = 0
This is only possible if X and Y each equal zero.

35
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Hence, if a number of forces acting upon a body are in equilibrium,

then the algebraic sum of their resolved parts in two directions at
right angles to each other are each equal to zero.

3.5 More than Two Forces

Arising out of the parallelogram law is the Law of the Triangle of Forces.

Triange Law
If three forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction
by the sides of a triangle taken the same way round (i.e. they are all either
clockwise or anticlockwise) then the forces are in equilibrium.

Of wider application is the converse of this law:

If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, then a triangle can be
drawn whose sides are respectively parallel to the forces, and those sides
represent the forces both in magnitude and direction.

Consider the following system of forces in equilibrium.

P Q

T1 T2

W
Force Diagram

36
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

A load W is supported by two strings OP and OQ. T1 and T2 represent the

tension in the strings.
To find the tension in the strings we draw the triangle whose sides are
parallel to the given forces:

R C

T1 T2

W Q B W

T2 T1

P A
Vector Diagrams

Since it is a vector diagram, the forces are proportional to the length of the
sides.
W T T
That is:  2  1 .
CA BC AB

Observe that the vector diagram can be drawn in the above two ways.
All the forces must be going in the same direction in any one diagram. In the
first diagram the vectors are anticlockwise: in the second the vectors are
clockwise. Remember that the condition of equilibrium is that the forces act
in the same direction.
It does not matter whether they act in a clockwise direction or in an
anticlockwise direction.

37
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Example:

A weight of 560 N is supported by two ropes 5 m and 12 m long fixed to two

points in the same horizontal line 13 m apart. Find the tension in the ropes.
Let the tensions be T1 and T2. Then we have the following diagrams:
P Q

5m 12m
T1 T2

W = 560 N
Force Diagram

T1

W
B
T2

A
Vector Diagram

Using the diagram above, we have:

W T T
 1  2
CA BC AB

38
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

T1 W
From which we will get 
BC CA
W  BC
T1 
And CA

560 12
Substituting T1 
13
= 516.9 N

T2 W
And, 
AB CA
W  AB
T2 
CA
560 5
Subtituting T2 
13
= 215.4 N

Therefore, the tensions in the ropes are 517 N and 215 N (to 3 s. f.).

39
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 2: Triangle of Forces  15 minutes

1. A weight of 30 N is supported by two strings AB and BC of lengths 0.8 m

and 0.6 m respectively. If BC is horizontal and of length 1 m, calculate
the tension in AC.
2.

T1 T2
6 cm 8 cm

50 N

In the diagram above a load of 50 N is suspended by 2 strings of lengths 6 cm

and 8 cm respectively to a horizontal beam. Find the tensions in each string.
Hint: Find the length of the third side of the triangle formed by the forces.

40
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Lami’s Theorem
The Parallelogram Law also gives rise to Lami’s Theorem.

If three forces are in equilibrium, then each is proportional to

the sine of the angle between the other two.

B C

O A

In the above figure OC is the resultant of forces represented by OA and OB.

So, if OD is made equal and opposite to OC, the three forces OA, OB and OD
will be in equilibrium.

In triangle OAC, we have (using the sine rule):

AC CO OA
 
ˆ A sin OA
sin CO ˆ C sin OC
ˆA

But ˆ A = sin DO
sin CO ˆA OB = AC
ˆ C = sin BO
sin BO ˆD
ˆA
ˆ C = sin BO
sin OA
[ Remember : sin 𝚹 = sin(180°- 𝚹)]
OB OD OA
Hence  
ˆ A sin BO
sin DO ˆ A sin BO
ˆD

41
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Example:

A weight of 560 N is supported by two ropes 5 m and 12 m long fixed to two

points in the same horizontal line 13 m apart. Use Lami’s Theorem to find
the tension in the ropes.
Let the tensions be T1 and T2. Then we have the following force diagram.
P 13 m Q

5m 12m
T1 T2

W = 560 N
Force Diagram

From Lami’s theorem:

W T1 T2
 
ˆQ
sin PO ˆQ
sin WO ˆP
sin WO

POˆ Q = 90 , since sides of lengths 5,12 and 13 gives us a right triangle
(Pythagorean triples).
sin PQˆO  5
13

ˆ O  sin 1 5
→ PQ  22.6
13
Therefore, ˆ Q = 90o + 22.6o = 112.6o
WO

Now ˆ Q  180  90  22.6  67.4

OP

42
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

And ˆ P = 90o + 67.4o = 157.4o

WO

560 T1 T2
Substituting  
sin 90 sin 112.6 sin 157.4

560 T1

sin 90 sin 112.6

560 sin 112.6

T1  = 517 N to 3 s.f.
sin 90

560 T2

sin 90 sin 157.4

560 sin157.4
T2  = 215 N to 3 s.f.
sin 90

Hence, the tension in the ropes are 517 N and 215 N respectively.

You will notice that the answers are the same as before.

Example:

A weight of 300 N is supported by two ropes 10 m and 15 m long fixed to two

points in the same horizontal line. The two strings form an angle of 120o.
Use Lami’s Theorem to find the tension in the ropes.
Let the tensions be T1 and T2. Then we have the following force diagram:
P Q

43
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

10 m 15 m
T1 T2
120o
O

W = 300 N
Force Diagram
Using the cosine rule we have:
PQ2 = 102 + 152 ─ 2 ×10 ×15 cos120o
→ PQ = 13.2 ( to 3 s. f.)
Using the sine rule:
ˆO
sin 120 sin PQ

13.2 10

→ ˆ O  41.0
PQ
Therefore angle QOW = 90o + 41o = 131o
and angle POW = 360o – ( 120o +131o) = 109o.
From Lami’s theorem:
W T1 T2
 
ˆQ
sin PO ˆQ
sin WO ˆP
sin WO

300 T1 T2
Substituting:  
sin 120 sin 131o
sin 109

300 T1

sin120 sin131o

300 sin 131

T1  = 261 N to 3 s.f.
sin 120

44
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

300 T2

sin 120 sin 109

300 sin109
T2  = 328 N to 3 s.f.
sin120

Hence, the tension in the ropes are 261 N and 328 N respectively.

 Exercise 3: Lami’s Theorem  15 minutes

1. A weight W is suspended by two ropes which make 30o and 60o with the
horizontal. If the tension in the first rope is 20 N, find the tension in the
other and the value of W.

2. A load of 1000 kg is suspended by two chains making angles of 35o and 25o
with the horizontal. Find the tension in the chains.

45
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

The Polygon of Forces

An extension of the Triangle of Forces is the Polygon of Forces.
If any number of forces acting upon a body be represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order,
the forces shall be in equilibrium.

B
C

D
A

F E

In the figure above :-

the resultant of AB and BC is AC
resultant of AC and CD is AD
resultant of AD and DE is AE
resultant of AE and EF is AF
Hence the resultant of all the forces is the resultant of AF and FA, which
therefore vanishes.

In the following exercises you should use all three methods at your disposal
so as to become proficient in their use.
Now you have three methods with which to solve problems of this type:
- resolution in rectangular components
- triangle of forces
- Lami’s Theorem

46
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 4: Miscellaneous Problems  45 minutes

1. A bird is resting on a phone wire between two poles that are 30 m apart.
The bird is exactly midway between the two poles. Because of the weight of
the bird, the wire sags by 50 cm. The tension in the wire is 70 N. What is the
mass of the bird?

2. Find the horizontal and vertical components of a 100-m displacement of a

parrot which flies at an angle of depression of 30o from the top of a tall tree.

3. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of four forces 4, 3, 2, and
1 N acting at angles of 20o, 40o, 60o , 80o with the horizontal.
Hint: Resolve.

4. A ship is towed by means of two ropes making 30o and 60o with the
direction of motion. If the force opposing motion is 6 kN, find the tension in
the ropes.

5.
P 2m Q

300 N
A light cord PQR supports a mass of 30 kg at its mid-point. If PQ is
horizontal and equal to 2 metres and the string cannot stand a tension of
more than 390 N, what is the shortest length of string that can be used?
47
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Summary:

When a number of forces act on a body and the body remains at rest, we
say that the system is in a state of rest or is in equilibrium.
The resolved part of a given force in a given direction is the component
which, with a component in a direction at right angles to it, is equivalent to
the given force.
The sum of the resolved parts of two forces in a given direction is equal to
the resolved part of their resultant in the same direction.
If the force R is the resultant of several forces acting at a point, those forces
will be in equilibrium when R is zero.
If a number of forces acting upon a body are in equilibrium, the algebraic sum
of their resolved parts in two directions at right angles to each other are each
zero.
Triangle Law
If three forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides of a triangle taken the same way round (i.e. they are all either
clockwise or anticlockwise) then the forces are in equilibrium.

If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, then a triangle can be

drawn whose sides are respectively parallel to the forces, and those sides
represent the forces both in magnitude and direction.
Lami’s Theorem
If three forces are in equilibrium then each is proportional to the sine of the
angle between the other two.
The Polygon of Forces
If any number of forces acting upon a body be represented in magnitude and
direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order, the forces shall be in
equilibrium.

48
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Feedback 
 Answers to Exercise 1: Resolution of Forces

1. H= 70.7 N; V = 70.7 N
2. H = 30 N; V = 52.0 N
3. H = 47.0 N; V = 17.1 N

 Answers to Exercise 2: Triangle of Forces

1. T1 = 18 N, T2 = 24 N
2. T1 = 30 N, T2 = 40 N

 Answers to Exercise 3: Lami’s Theorem

1. 34.6 N, 40 N
2. 1046.5, 945.9 N

 Exercise 4: Miscellaneous Problems  45 minutes

1. 466 grams
2. 86.6 m; -50.0 m
3. R= 9.40 N , α = 39.75o
4. 3 and 5.20 kN
5. 2.17 m

49
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

UNIT 4: FRICTION

Introduction
If an object is rolled on the floor it soon stops. Rubbing your hands together
produces heat. It is easier to walk on a concrete than on a polished floor.
Why? In this unit we look at the reasons behind these happenings and look at
some of the mathematical aspects of these phenomena. Again, you are
advised to study the examples carefully before you attempt the exercises.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

(i) define friction,

(ii) understand how frictional forces can be modelled,
(iii) solve problems involving friction.

Prerequisites

A thorough knowledge the previous units.

50
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

4.1 Friction
Consider an object of mass 2 kg resting on a surface.

Now suppose we try to move the object along the surface by constantly
increasing the force.

F1

What is observed is that there is some resistance to the movement of the

object and until the force we apply reaches a certain value there is no
movement.

Now let us place the object on a sheet of glass.

F2

Again, we apply a force. A resistive force is still observed, but in this case a
smaller force is needed to cause the object to move.

What causes this resistance?

51
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

This resistance exists because the surfaces in contact with each other are not
perfectly smooth. If viewed under a microscope it will appear as shown below:

You can imagine two such surfaces in contact moving in opposite directions.
The unevenness will cause a resistive force between the surfaces. Heat will
also be produced as in the case of rubbing your hands together.
When we apply grease, oil or other lubricants we actually attempt to make
the surfaces smooth so as to reduce the resistive force and hence reduce wear.
It must be noted that no surface is perfectly smooth, therefore there will
always be resistive forces between two surfaces.
From the above we deduce that:

(i) there is a force that opposes motion, and

(ii) its value is dependent on the nature of the surfaces in
contact with each other.

This force that opposes the motion is called friction. Experimentally it was
observed that until the force reaches a certain value there was no motion.
This led to the understanding that as the force tending to produce motion
increases, so does the force tending to oppose this motion.
Hence, friction is a self adjusting force and no more friction is called into play
than is sufficient to prevent motion. In the end the applied force may become
great enough to overcome the maximum value that the friction can attain,
and then motion follows.

52
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

4.2 Limiting Friction

The force of friction between two surfaces, one of which is just on the point of
sliding over the other, is called the limiting friction: this is the maximum
value of the force of friction between two surfaces. This maximum value is
dependent on the nature of the surfaces in contact.
So, the limiting friction between glass and wood will different from the
limiting friction between wood and iron.

4.3 Coefficient of Friction

Now, experimentally it was shown that the maximum force of friction

between two surfaces bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between
the surfaces. This ratio is called the Coefficient of Friction and is generally
denoted by the Greek letter μ (pronounced ‘mu’).
F
Thus: μ
R
→ F = μR.

To find the Coefficient of Friction

Let a body be on a rough inclined plane and be just on the point of sliding
down due to its weight.

R μR

θ
θ W

53
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

If R is the normal reaction, then the force of friction opposing the motion
when the body is on the point of sliding down is μR.
Therefore, we have three forces acting on the body: W- weight of the body,
R- the normal reaction, and μR- the frictional force.
Resolving along the plane:

μR

W sin θ

W sin θ = μR ........(i)

Resolving perpendicular to the plane:

W cos θ

W cos θ = R .......(ii)

Dividing (i) by (ii)

W sin θ μR

W cos θ R
which gives us
tan θ  μ

54
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

That is:
the tangent of the angle of inclination of the plane is
equal to the coefficient of friction.
This result can also be determined using the triangle of forces or Lami’s
theorem.

Experimentally a body is placed on a plane. The plane is tilted until the body
begins to move. The angle of the plane, θ, is then measured and from above
tan θ  μ .

4.4 Angle of Friction

The resultant of the normal reaction and the force of friction is called the
total reaction. The angle that the resultant makes with the normal when
the friction is limiting is called the angle of friction.

P
R
μR
λ
O
W
θ

In the figure above the total reaction, P, is equal and opposite to the weight,
W.

Therefore: angle POR = angle θ

55
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

When the body is on the point of slipping

tan θ  μ

Therefore:
tan POR = μ

The angle of friction is usually indicated by the Greek letter λ (pronounced

‘lambda’).
Hence:

tan λ = μ
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Note that most times it is useful to draw diagrams of the situations given.
These diagrams will help in finding required solutions.

Examples:

1. A body of weight 50 N rests on a horizontal plane. The coefficient of friction

between the body and the plane is 0.3. A horizontal force of magnitude T N is
applied to the body causing it to be on the point of sliding.
Calculate the value of T.
Solution
R

F T

50 N
Force Diagram.

56
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Resolving horizontally:
T = F .....................(i)

Resolving vertically:
R = 50 .......................(ii)
The friction is limiting since the body is about to slide.

Therefore F = μR

But from (i) above F=T

So F = 0.3 × 50
And T = 15 N
The magnitude of the applied force is 15 N.
.................................................................................................................................

2. A force of 80 N acting up the plane is just sufficient to prevent a body

sliding down an inclined plane whose height is 3 m and length of base is 4 m.
If the mass of the body is 20 kg, find the value of the coefficient of friction.
3.

5 3

θ
4
3
From the figure above sin θ 
5
4
and cos θ 
5

57
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

P
R μR
80 N
λ
O
W= 200 N
θ

Note that since the body is in limiting friction μR will act up the plane.
Resolving along the plane:
μR + 80 = 200 sin θ ..........................(i)

Resolving perpendicular to the plane:

200 cos θ = R ............................(ii)

Substituting for sin θ and cos θ

3
μR + 80 = 200 ×
5
→ μR = 40
4
And 200 × =R
5
→ R = 160
Hence 160μ = 40
1
μ=
4
1
The coefficient of friction =
4.

.................................................................................................................................

58
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 1: Coefficient of Friction  25 minutes

1. A box of mass 30 kg rests in equilibrium on a rough horizontal plane. A

rope is attached to the box. The rope has a tension of 180 N and makes an
angle of 30o with the horizontal. Find the magnitude of the frictional force
acting on the box.

2. A body of weight 24 N rests on a horizontal plane and is just moved by a

force of 6 N acting at an angle of 60o to the plane. What is the coefficient of
friction?

59
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

4.5 Equilibrium on a Rough Inclined Plane

1. Sliding due to gravity

P
R
λ μR

O
W
θ

As we have seen above, if the body is on the point of slipping down the plane
under the influence of its own weight,
θ = λ
Total Reaction P = W

2. Body pulled down the plane

Let the body be on the point of slipping down the plane due to its weight W,
and a force T pulling down the plane.
P
R
λ μR

O
T W
θ

Resolving parallel to the plane:

60
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

T + W sin θ = μR ..........(i)

Resolving perpendicular to the plane

W cos θ = R ..........(ii)

Substituting for R in (i)

T + W sin θ = μW cos θ

Making T the subject:

T = μW cos θ − W sin θ

= W(μ cos θ − sin θ)

Since tan λ = μ
 sin λ cos θ 
T W  sin θ 
 cos λ 

 sin λ cos θ  sin θ cos λ 

= W 
 cos λ 

W sin( λ  θ )
=
cos λ

[ Remember sin λ cos θ  sin θ cos λ = sin( λ  θ ) ]

For equilibrium, λ must be greater than θ.

61
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

3. Body pulled up the plane

There are two cases to consider:

(a) Let the body be on the point of slipping up the plane due to a force T
pulling up the plane.

R
T
P λ
O
μR W
θ

In this case friction will act down the plane (friction opposes motion).
Resolving parallel to the plane:
T = W sin θ + μR ..........(i)
Resolving perpendicular to the plane:

W cos θ = R ..........(ii)
Substituting for R in (i)
T = W sin θ + μW cos θ
Since tan λ = μ
 sin λ 
T  W  sin θ  cos θ 
 cos λ 
 sin θ cos λ  cos θ sin λ 
= W 
 cos λ 
W sin( θ  λ )
= .
cos λ

[ Remember: sin θ cos λ  cos θ sin λ = sin( θ  λ ) ]

62
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

(b) If the body is on the point of slipping down the plane due to its weight,
inspite of the force T pulling up the plane, the friction will act up the plane.

R
T
P λ
O
μR W
θ

Resolving parallel to the plane:

T + μR = W sin θ
→ T = W sin θ − μR ..........(i)

Resolving perpendicular to the plane:

W cos θ = R ..........(ii)
Substituting for R in (i)
T = W sin θ − μW cos θ
Since tan λ = μ
 sin λ 
T  W  sin θ  cos θ 
 cos λ 

 sin θ cos λ  cos θ sin λ 

= W 
 cos λ 
W sin( θ  λ )
=
cos λ
[ Remember: sin θ cos λ  cos θ sin λ = sin( θ  λ ) ]

In this case θ is greater than λ.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

63
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Examples:
1. A horizontal force P causes a body of weight 20 N to be at the point of
slipping on a rough plane inclined at 20o to the horizontal. The coefficient of
friction between the body and the plane is 0.2.
Find the force P when the body is on the point of slipping
(i) up the plane (ii) down the plane.

(i) Up the plane

R
P
O
μR 20 N
20o

Resolving perpendicular to the plane:

R = 20 cos 20o + P sin 20o ..........(i)
Resolving parallel to the plane:
20 sin 20o + μR = P cos 20o ..........(ii)
But μ = 0.2
Therefore μR = 0.2 R
Substituting in (ii)
6.84 + 0.2 R = 0.94 P
From (i)
R = 18.8 + 0.34 P
Substituting for R:
6.84 + 0.2(18.8 + 0.34 P) = 0.94 P
→ P(0.94 ─ 0.07) = 6.84 + 3.76
→ P = 12.2
P = 12.2 N when the object is about to move up the plane.

64
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

(ii) Down the plane

R μR
P
O
20 N
20o

Resolving perpendicular to the plane:

R = 20 cos 20o + P sin 20o ..........(i)

Resolving parallel to the plane:

P cos 20o + μR = 20 sin 20o ..........(ii)
But μ = 0.2
Therefore μR = 0.2 R
Substituting in (ii)
0.94 P + 0.2 R = 6.84
From (i)
R = 18.8 + 0.34 P
Substituting for R:
0.94 P + 0.2(18.8 + 0.34 P) = 6.84
→ P(0.94 + 0.07) = 6.84 − 3.76
→ P = 3.05

P = 3.05 N when the object is about to move down the plane.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

65
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

2. A book of mass 2 kg rests in limiting equilibrium on a rough plane inclined

at an angle θo to the horizontal. The coefficient of friction between the book
and plane is 0.2. Find to the nearest degree the value of θ.

R μR

O
20 N
θo

We are given that μ = 0.2

Resolving parallel to the plane:
20 sin θ = 0.2 R ..........(i)

Resolving perpendicular to the plane

20 cos θ = R ..........(ii)

Dividing (i) by (ii)

20 sin θ 0.2R

20 cos θ R
tan θ = 0.2
→ θ = tan-1(0.2)

θ = 11.3o
The angle of inclination of the plane to the horizontal is 11o, to the nearest
degree.
.................................................................................................................................

66
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 2: Limiting Equilibrium  25 minutes

1. A toy truck of mass 0.5 kg rests in limiting equilibrium on a rough plane

inclined at 20o to the horizontal.

Find the:
(i) frictional force exerted by the plane on the truck
(ii) coefficient of friction between the truck and the plane.

2. A horizontal force H causes a body of weight 200 N to be at the point of

slipping on a rough plane inclined at 45o to the horizontal. The coefficient
of friction between the body and the plane is 0.2.

Find the force H when the body is on the point of slipping

(a) up the plane
(b) down the plane.

67
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Miscellaneous Problems

1. A block of mass 3 kg rests on a rough, horizontal table. When a force of

magnitude 10 N acts on the block at an angle of 60o to the horizontal in an
upward direction, the block is on the point of slipping. Calculate, to 2
significant figures, the value of the coefficient of friction between the block
and the table.

2. A block of weight 20 N rests on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 30o

to the horizontal. If the coefficient of friction is 0.25, find what horizontal
force will be required:
(i) just to prevent it from slipping down,
(i) to make it just begin to slide up.

3. A body of weight 200 N is resting on a rough horizontal plane. If the

coefficient of friction between the body and the plane is 0.5, find the least
force which, acting:
(i) horizontally
(ii) at an angle of 30o with the horizontal,
would move the body.

4. A plane is inclined to the horizontal at an angle of 30o and on it is a

mass of 40 kg. If the plane is rough, the coefficient of friction being 0.25,
find the least force which will just drag the mass up the plane.

68
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Summary:

Friction is a force that opposes motion.

Its value is dependent on the nature of the surfaces in contact with each other.
The force of friction between two surfaces, one of which is just on the point of
sliding over the other, is called the limiting friction.

The maximum force of friction between two surfaces bears a constant ratio to
the normal reaction between the surfaces.
i.e.
F
μ
R

The tangent of the angle of inclination of the plane is equal to the coefficient of
friction.
i.e.
tan θ  μ

The resultant of the normal reaction and the force of friction is called the
total reaction.

The angle that the resultant makes with the normal when the friction is
limiting is called the angle of friction.
i.e.
tan λ = μ

69
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Feedback 

Answers to Exercise 1: Coefficient of Friction

1. Frictional force = 156 N

2. μ = 0.16

 Answers to Exercise 2: Limiting Equilibrium

1.(i) 1.71 N
(ii) 0.36
2. (a) up the plane 300 N
(b) down the plane. 200 N

 Answers to Miscellaneous Problems

1. 0.24
2. (i) Just to prevent it from slipping down 5.72 N
(ii) To make it just begin to slide up. 19.34 N
3(i) horizontally 100 N
(ii) at an angle of 30o with the horizontal, 89.6 N
4. 287 N.

70
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

UNIT 5: MOMENTS

Introduction
In this unit we will look at the turning effects of forces about a point for
system of forces in equilibrium. Also, we will look at their applications to
situations in the real world.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

 define the moment of a force
 draw diagrams given specific data
 use diagrams to solve exercises on moments

Pre-requisites

A thorough knowledge of
 MTH 111: Geometry and Trigonometry
 MTH 221: Algebra

71
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

§ What is a Moment?
A moment is the turning effect of a force around a fixed point, the
pivot.
The pivot is the point around which the object can rotate or turn.
Examples include a door opening around a fixed hinge, seesaws, scissors or a
spanner turning around a nut.
On a seesaw the pivot (or fulcrum) is the point in the middle.

It makes calculations easier to try to measure the perpendicular distance

between the line of action of the force and the pivot.

For example, if you apply a force to a spanner it rotates. The pivot is at the
bolt.

72
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

When you push open a door, you apply a force to the edge of the door furthest
from the hinges.

This force has a turning effect on the door - a moment which causes the door
to rotate around the hinges - the pivot - and the door opens.

In order for a moment to develop, the force must act upon the body in such a
manner that the body would begin to twist.

The moment of force acting on an object, often called torque, is the product
of the force and the distance to the object (i.e., the reference point).

The size of a moment depends on two things:

 the size of the force that is applied

 the distance the force acts from the pivot

It is very important to remember that the distance from the pivot is

measured at a right angle, or perpendicular, to the line of action of the force.

73
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Imagine a seesaw with one child each side.

If both children sat as far from the centre as each other, but one child weighs
more, the seesaw will lower on their side.

If both children weigh the same, but one child comes closer to the centre as
the other stays in place, the seesaw will lower on the side of the further of the
two.

Hence, we see that the larger the force, and the greater the distance, the
larger will be the moment.

Moment is defined using the following formula:

Moment(Nm) = Force(N) X Perpendicular Distance(m)

You must note that in equilibrium moments total to zero. If there is no

movement in a system then the system is in static equilibrium. In other
words, for a body or particle in equilibrium the total moments either way
must be equal.

74
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

The Principle of Moments states that “when a body is in equilibrium, the

sum of the clockwise moment about any point equals the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about the same point.”

i.e. Total Clockwise Moment = Total Anticlockwise Moment

Example:

This principle can be explained by considering two people on a seesaw.

Moments Acting On A Seesaw

Both people exert a downward force on the seesaw due to their weights.

Person A’s weight is trying to turn the seesaw anticlockwise whilst

person B’s weight is trying to turn the seesaw clockwise.

Person A’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

= 1000 N x 1 m
= 1000 Nm
Person B’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum
= 500 N x 2 m
= 1000 Nm

75
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Persons A’s Moment = Persons B’s Moment

Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
Therefore, the seesaw is in equilibrium.

Example:

A force of 20 N is applied to a spanner, attached to a bolt at a point O. The

force is applied at an angle of 60° to the spanner head as shown. Find the
turning effect of the force upon the bolt.

The 20 N force here can be resolved into two components:

Fx , the horizontal component and Fy , the vertical component.

As we can see that goes through O, so its moment will be zero.

Therefore, we only work out Fy.

Therefore the moment of Fy about O:

Moment = Force X Perpendicular Distance
Moment = 20 sin (60) X 0.2
Moment = 3.46 Nm
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

76
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Before we move on to our next example remember that the weight of

anything uniform always acts at its centre.

Weight

For a uniform beam, the centre of mass is always at the exact centre of the
beam. The example below shows how to take this into consideration when
solving questions on moments.

Example:

A 6m long uniform beam AB of weight 40 N is supported at A by a vertical

reaction R. AB is held horizontal by a vertical wire attached 1m from the
other end. A particle of weight of 30 N is placed 2m from the support R. Find
the tension T in the wire and the force R.

Solution:
We start off by taking moments around the point of action of one of the
unknown forces. Hence, we first take moments about A.

77
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

We know that:

Total Clockwise Moment = Total Anticlockwise Moment

(30 X 2) + (40 X 3) = T X 5
T = 36 N
Now resolving vertically:

T + R = 30 + 40
As T = 36 N
R = 34 N
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Summary:
 A moment is the turning effect a force has around a point.
 In order for a moment to develop, the force must act upon the
body in such a manner that the body would begin to twist.
 Moment = Force X Perpendicular Distance
 For a body or particle in equilibrium the total moments either
way must be equal.
 Remember that the weight of anything always acts at its centre
of mass. E.g for a uniform beam, the centre of mass is always at
the exact centre of the beam.
 Principle of moments stated that “when a body is in equilibrium,
the sum of the clockwise moment about any point equals the
sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.”

78
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Exercise 5: Moments

1. Jeb and Bernice are sitting on a seesaw, pivoted at its centre. Given
that Jeb has a mass of 50 kg and is sitting 1.25 m from the centre, and
Bernice has a mass of 75 kg, how far away from the centre should
Bernice sit to keep the seesaw in equilibrium?

Assume the seesaw is uniformly weighted.

2. An angular force of 96 N acts on a beam at an angle of 30° to the

horizontal at a distance of 4 m away from the pivot. On the other side
of the pivot, a vertical force acts 1 m away from the pivot. The system
is in equilibrium. What is the magnitude of the vertical force?

3. The meter ruler is supported at the center. If the ruler is balanced,

determine the value of y in the diagram.

4. Find the value of F1 in the system shown below to have the beam
balanced.

79
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Answers to Exercises 5: Moments

1. 83.3 centimetres
2. Vertical force = 192 N
3. y =1.8 metres
4. F1 = 60 N

80
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

UNIT 6 : WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Introduction
In this unit you are introduced to the concepts of work, energy and power as
defined in mechanics. As you will see they differ from the everyday meanings.
It is a wide area of study. However, we will confine ourselves to the basic
definition and some simple applications.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit you will be able to:
 define the Work and identify its units
 predict whether a force is doing positive, negative or zero work
 define Kinetic Energy, identify the standard unit of kinetic energy and
identify the variables which effect (and do not effect) the kinetic energy of
an object.
 define Potential Energy, identify the standard unit of potential energy
and identify the variables which effect (and do not effect) the potential
energy of an object.
 define Power and identify its units.
 use appropriate formulas to calculate Work, Energy and power in various
situations.

Prerequisites

A working knowledge of Algebra is required for this unit.

81
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

§1.1 Work

Work in the direction of motion

In physics, work is the energy transferred to or from an object by the
application of force along a displacement.

In other words, it is the measure of energy transfer that occurs when an

object is moved over a distance by an external force at least part of which is
applied in the direction of the displacement.

No work done

No work, therefore, is done unless the object is moved in some way and there
is a component of the force along the path over which the object is moved.

Holding a heavy object stationary does not transfer energy to it, because
there is no displacement.

82
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Holding the end of a rope on which a heavy object is being swung around at
constant speed in a circle does not transfer energy to the object, because the
force is toward the centre of the circle at a right angle to the displacement.

No work is done in either case.

In its simplest form, for a constant force in the direction of motion, the work
equals the product of the force and the distance traveled.

W=F×d

A force is said to do positive work if when applied it has a component in the

direction of the displacement of the point of application.

Work done on a body is equal to the increase in the energy of the body, for
work transfers energy to the body.

A force does negative work if it has a component opposite to the direction of

the displacement at the point of application of the force.

If, however, the applied force is opposite to the motion of the object, the work
is considered to be negative, implying that energy is taken from the object.

The SI unit of work is Joule (J).

For example, if a force of 10 newtons (F = 10 N) acts along a point that

travels 2 metres (d = 2 m),

then W = Fd

= (10 N) (2 m)

= 20 J

It should be noted that 1 J = 1 N × 1m = 1 kg m2/s2 or 1 kg m2s-2.

83
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Both force and displacement are vectors. The work done is given by the dot
product of the two vectors.

If the applied force is not in the direction of motion then we can use the Dot
product to calculate work done.

We can calculate the Dot Product of two vectors this way:

a · b = |a| × |b| × cos(θ)

So when the force F is constant and the angle θ between the force and the
displacement d is also constant, then the work done is given by:

W = Fd cosθ

Work is a scalar quantity, so it has only magnitude and no direction. Work

transfers energy from one place to another, or one form to another.

Example:
An object is horizontally dragged across the surface by a 100 N force acting
parallel to the surface. Find out the amount of work done by the force in
moving the object through a distance of 8 m.

Solution:

Given:

F = 100 N, d = 8 m

Since F and d are in the same direction, θ = 0, [θ is the angle of the force to
the direction of movement], therefore

W = FdCos θ

W = 100 x 8 x Cos 0

W = 800 J [Since Cos 0 = 1]

84
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Work in the Vertical plane

When a ball is held above the ground and then dropped, the work done by the
gravitational force on the ball as it falls is positive, and is equal to the weight
of the ball (a force) multiplied by the distance to the ground (a displacement).

This is approximately the work done lifting the ball object from ground level
to over a person's head against the force of gravity.

The work is doubled either by lifting the ball twice the same distance or by
lifting the same ball twice the distance.

If the ball is thrown upwards, the work done by the gravitational force is
negative, and is equal to the weight multiplied by the displacement in the
upwards direction.

We will look at some examples in the next section.

85
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

§1.2 Energy
Since work is the measure of energy transfer, then measuring the change of
energy will also give the work done.

What is energy?

Energy is the ability to perform work. Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, and it can only be transformed from one form to another. The unit
of Energy is the same as of Work, i.e. Joules.

Energy is found in many things, and thus there are different types of energy.

All forms of energy are either kinetic or potential.

The energy in motion is known as Kinetic Energy, whereas Potential

Energy is the energy stored in an object and is measured by the amount of
work done.

Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy (K.E.) of a body is the energy a body has as a result of its
motion. The Kinetic energy of a body is given by

K.E. = ½ mv2
where m is the mass and v is the velocity of the body.

A body which isn't moving will have zero kinetic energy.

Example:

Calculate the kinetic energy of a 200 kg object that is moving at a speed of 15

m/s.
Solution:

The kinetic energy of the body can be calculated using the following equation:

K.E. = ½ mv2
1
= (200𝑘𝑔)(15 𝑚𝑠 −1 )2
2

= 45000 J or 45 kJ .

86
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E.) is the energy a body has because of its
height above the ground.

G.P.E. = mgh
where h is the height of the body above the ground.

There are also other types of potential energy (such as elastic potential
energy). Basically, the total potential energy measures the energy of the body
due to its position.

Example:

An object with a mass of 5 kg is lifted vertically through a distance of 10 m at

a constant speed. What is the gravitational potential energy gained by the
object?

(Take the acceleration due to gravity to be 10 m s−2)

The gravitational potential energy GPE = mgh

= 5 kg × 10 m s−2 × 10 m

= 500 J

Example:

Calculate the potential energy of a 68 kg person at the top of flight of stairs

that is 3.2 meters above the ground.

Assume acceleration due to gravity if 10m/s2.

P.E. = mgh

= (68 kg)(9.8 ms-2)(3.2 m)

= 2132.48 kg m2s−2 ≈ 2132 J.

87
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Connection Between Energy and Work Done

If energy is not conserved, then it is used to do work.

In other words, the work done is equal to the change in energy.

For example, the work done against gravity is equal to the change in the
potential energy of the body and the work done against all resistive forces is
equal to the change in the total energy.

The object stored in an object due to its position and height is known as
potential energy and is given by

P. E. = mgh

Remember work done is equal to the change in Potential Energy.

Related to work is Power.

§1.3 Power

Power is the rate at which work is done, in other words the work done per
second. Power is calculated using the formula
W
P =
t

where W is the work done in joules, and t is the time in seconds

The SI unit of power is watt(W).

Example:

A garage hoist lifts a truck up 2 meters above the ground in 15 seconds. Find
the power delivered to the truck. [Given: 1000 kg as the mass of the truck]

First we need to calculate the work done, which requires the force necessary
to lift the truck against gravity:

F = mg = 1000 x 10 = 10 000N.

W = Fd = 10 000N x 2m = 20 000 Nm = 20 000 J.

88
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

The power is
W
P =
t

20000𝐽
= 15𝑠

= 1308 J/s

= 1308 W.

89
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Exercise 6: Work, Energy and Power

1. Cloyd is out with his friends. The car ran out of gas. They apply a

total force of 1080 N to push the car 218 m to the nearest gas

station. Determine the work done on the car.

2. Wayne has just arrived at the airport and is dragging his suitcase to

the luggage check-in desk. He pulls on the strap with a force of 190 N

at an angle of 35° to the horizontal to displace it 45 m to the desk.

Determine the work done by Wayne on the suitcase.

3. Sunil is a deadlifter. Deadlifting involves raising a

loaded barbell from the floor to a position above the head with

outstretched arms. Determine the work done by Sunil in deadlifting

300 kg to a height of 0.90 m above the ground.

4. During the Powerhouse lab, Earl runs up the stairs, elevating his

102 kg body a vertical distance of 2.29 meters in a time of 1.32 seconds

at a constant speed.

a. Determine the work done by Earl in climbing the stair case.

b. Determine the power generated by Earl.

5. A bicycle has a kinetic energy of 124 J. What kinetic energy would the

bicycle have if it had …

a. … twice the mass and was moving at the same speed?

b. … the same mass and was moving with twice the speed?
c. … one-half the mass and was moving with twice the speed?

90
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

d. … the same mass and was moving with one-half the speed?
e. … three times the mass and was moving with one-half the speed?

Summary

What is Work, Energy and Power?

Work

Definition The work done by a force is defined to be the

product of component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the
magnitude of this displacement.

Formula Work can be calculated by multiplying Force

and Distance in the direction of force as follows
W=F×d

Unit The SI unit of work is the Joule (J)

Energy

Definition Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.

Formula The energy stored in an object due to its

position and height is known as potential
energy and is given by the formula:
P.E. = mgh

Unit The SI unit of energy is Joules (J).

Power

Definition Power is defined as the rate at which work is

done.

Formula The formula for power is

P = W/t

Unit The SI unit of power is Watt (W).

91
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Answers to Exercises 6: Work, Power and Energy

1. 2.35 x 105 J
2. 7.0 x 103 J
3. 2.6 x 103 J
4. a. 2.30 x 103 J
b. 1.73 x 103 W
5. a. 248 J
b. 496 J
c. 248 J
d. 31.0 J
e. 93.0 J

92
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Module 2: Kinematics

Overview:
In the previous module we looked at some aspects of Statics: Forces in
Equilibrium and Friction
In this module we investigate kinematics. This involves the study of the
motion of a particle and the path it follows. Kinematics deals with the
description of the motion and not what forces cause the motion. We will look
primarily at motion in a straight line, that is, motion subjected to constant
acceleration. This one-dimensional view will allow us to model objects as
particles, as we are only concerned with the movement through space.
Ideally a particle is a mathematical point with no size. We will look at many
familiar situations with a mathematical perspective.

Module Objectives

By the end of this module you will be able to:-

use various methods to solve problems involving uniformly accelerated
motion.

Module Orientation

This module has 2 units:

Unit 1: Velocity and Acceleration: Graphical Methods.

Unit 2: Velocity and Acceleration: Formulae.

93
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

UNIT 1: Velocity and Acceleration: Graphical Methods

Introduction
In this unit we investigate motion in a straight line, that is, one-dimensional
motion. Particularly we will look at graphical representations and solutions
of problems in kinematics. You will recognise many of the situations
described. Study carefully the examples given before attempting the
exercises.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit you will be able to:

 plot and interpret displacement-time graphs for uniform velocity

 plot and interpret displacement-time graphs for uniform acceleration
 use velocity-time graph to determine displacement
 identify acceleration as the gradient of a of velocity-time graph.

Prerequisites
A thorough knowledge of plotting graphs is necessary for the
successful completion of this unit.

94
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

1.1 Definitions
1. The Metric System

You will be familiar with the Metric or the International System

(S.I. system) of units.
In the S.I. system, the basic unit for measuring distance is the metre (m),
for mass, kilogram (kg) and for time, second(s). For larger quantities we use
kilometre, kilogram and hour.
Sometimes this is referred to as the mks system. Can you say why?
There are many multiples and sub-multiples of these basic units.
You should make yourself aware of them.
Note that abbreviations do not have plural forms.
This we say 2 metres or 2 m,
or 5 seconds or 5 s.
There is no period unless it is at the end of a sentence. For example: Mary
ran the 100m race in 8 s.

Notation

Conventionally, the following symbols are used to represent the quantities of

uniform motion in a straight line..
displacement x
initial velocity u
final velocity v
acceleration a
time t

95
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

2. Speed and Velocity

Speed
George walks to school every day. He takes 20 minutes to walk to his school
which is 3 kilometres away. George may have had to cross a hill or may have
made several turns on the way. (He is a playful youngster.) He may also
have stopped to tie his shoe lace or throw a stone at a bird.
In such a case, we can only find his average speed for the journey. This
average speed is the total distance travelled divided by the total time taken
to travel this distance.
total distance
That is: average speed 
total time

To be consistent with the S.I. system, our answer should be metres per
second or kilometre per hour. We therefore do one of two things:
- convert minutes to hours and find the answer in kilometres per
hour
- convert kilometres to metres and minutes to seconds and find
the answer in metres per second .

If we change minutes to hour we get

20 1
 h
60 3

Therefore the average speed of George is

3km
average speed =
1
h
3
Converting 3km to metres:
3 km = 3 x 1000 m = 3000 m
Converting 20 minutes to seconds:

96
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

20 mins = 20 x 60 s = 1200 s

So the average speed of George is

3000m
average speed =
1200s
= 2.5 ms-1
Note that the unit for speed is kilometre per hour, abbreviated
km/h (index form kmh-1) or
metre per second, m/s (index form ms-1).

Velocity
Mary travelled 15 km east in 30 minutes.
Note that 15 km east is a vector quantity and represents a displacement.
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
So Mary’s velocity
15km

0 .5 h
 30 kmh 1
15000m
or  8.33ms1
30  60s

3. Acceleration
Velocity may not always be constant. If a ball is dropped from a height, its
velocity rapidly increases. In fact before it is dropped the velocity of the ball
is zero. That is, its initial velocity is zero. What causes the velocity to change?
The pull of gravity causes the velocity to increase at the rate of 9.8 metre per
second every second. This means that after the first second the velocity will
be 9.8 ms-1: after 2 seconds the velocity will be 2 x 9.8 ms-1, after 3 s it will be
3 x 9.8 ms-1, and so on. This rate of change of velocity with respect to time is
called acceleration.

97
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

The unit of acceleration is metres per second per second, ms-2

or kilometre per hour per hour, kmh-1.
Acceleration and velocity may be negative. This indicates the slowing down
of a body.
Negative acceleration is often referred to as retardation.

Problems involving displacement, velocity, acceleration and time can be

solved in two ways:
 graphical methods
 use of formulae.

In the remainder of this unit we look at the graphical methods used to solve
problems involving the motion of a body in a straight line (rectilinear
motion). Remember that displacement, velocity and acceleration are vector
quantities and therefore refer to motion in a specified direction.

2. Distance-Time Graphs

Plotting distance against time we obtain a graph which is referred to as a

space-time graph, distance-time graph or (x, t) graph. x represents the
distance and is on the vertical or y-axis and t, the time, on the horizontal or
the x-axis.

Two cases can arise:

(i) a body moving with constant/uniform velocity and
(ii)a body moving with variable velocity.

For the purpose of this course we will look only at the former: that is, the
movement of a body with constant/uniform velocity.

98
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Body moving with Constant Velocity

Consider the following table which represents the movement of a body.
x (metres) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
t(seconds) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

x metres
25

20

15

10

t seconds
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

You will notice that the graph is a straight line. Whenever the velocity is
constant, a straight line will always be obtained from the data.
Finding the gradient means dividing the change in displacement by the time
taken for his to happen.

displacement
That is: gradient 
time

Velocity is defined as the gradient of the (x, t) graph.

Remember that for a straight line the gradient is the same between any two
points. In other words, the gradient is constant.
Hence, the velocity is constant. You should confirm that the velocity in this
case, is 4 ms-1.

99
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Examples

1. Roger rides his bicycle along a straight road for 30 minutes at 10 ms-1
and then gets off and pushes his bike for 10 minutes at 1.5 ms-1. Draw a
displacement-time graph and find his average velocity for the whole
journey.

x metres

O 1800 2400 t seconds

The velocity is defined as the gradient of the (x, t) graph.
x1
Therefore 10 
1800
where x1 is the distance covered while cycling.

→ x1  10 1800
= 18 000 m.
x2
Also 1.5 
600
where x1 is the distance covered while pushing the cycle.

→ x2  1.5  600
= 900 m.
total distance
Now average velocity
average speed 
total time
18000 900
average velocity =
That is, 2400

100
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

= 7.875 ms-1.
Therefore, the average velocity for the whole journey is 7.875 ms-1.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. The displacement-time graph for a certain particle moving along the
x-axis is shown below.

x metres

PointSeries1 4

t seconds
2 4 6 8

-2

-4

Find the average velocity in the time intervals

(a) 0 to 2 s,
(b) 0 to 4 s,
(c) 2 s to 4 s,
(d) 4 s to 7 s,
(e) 0 to 8 s.

Solution
displacement
(a) average velocity 
time
10
average velocity   5 ms-1.
2

101
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

5
(b) average velocity   1.25 ms-1
4
-5
(c) average velocity   2.5 ms-1
2
-10
(d) average velocity   3.3 ms-1
3
0
(e) average velocity   0 ms-1
8
............................................................................................................................................

 Exercise 2.1: Graphical Methods

Displacement−Time Graphs  25 minutes
1. Myrtle’s school is on the other side of a hill at the bottom. She takes
15 minutes to reach the top of the hill, a distance of 1.8 km.
At the top she rests for 5 minutes and then walks to the school at a
constant speed in 10 minutes. Draw a displacement-time graph and
find her average speed for the whole journey.
2. The table below shows the displacement (x) of an object from a point O
at given periods of time (t).
t seconds 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x metres 0 2 4 6 6 2 -2

The object has constant speeds over the following intervals:

- 0 to 3 s, 3 s to 4 s, 4 s to 6 s.
Sketch a displacement-time graph and find the average
velocity of the object over the following intervals of time:
(a) 0 to 3s
(b) 1s to 5 s
(c) 2 s to 6 s.

102
 MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

3. Velocity-Time Graphs
Plotting velocity against time we obtain a velocity-time graph which is
generally referred to as a (v, t) graph.
Here, again, we will consider the case where the velocity increases steadily or
uniformly. This uniform velocity gives rise to a uniform acceleration.

A Body Moving with Uniform Acceleration

Consider the table below which shows the velocity of a body against the time.

v(ms-1) 4 7 10 13 16 19 22
t(s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

v metres per second

20

16

12
PointSeries1

t seconds
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

What can we derive from such a graph?

First we notice that the graph is a straight line.
Any part of the line will represent the rate of change of the velocity.
Therefore, the acceleration is defined as the gradient of the (v, t) graph
and, in this case, is constant.

103
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Secondly, the area under the (v, t) graph represents the distance
travelled.

Note that some problems can be solved by just sketching the graph. In other
words, you need not make an accurate drawing.
.................................................................................................................................

Examples
1. A train accelerating from rest travelled a distance of 1 km in 2.5 minutes.
It then moves at constant speed for 5 minutes and finally is brought to
rest by a constant retarding force acting for 45 seconds.
Find the:
(i) constant speed
(ii) total distance travelled.
Solution
First we draw the graph. (converting minutes to seconds)
v ms-1

v A B

O E D C
150 450 495 t seconds

(i) The area under the (v, t) graph represents the distance travelled.
Let v be the constant speed.
Hence,
1
1000  150  v
2

104
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

since 1 km = 1000 m and 2.5 minutes = 150 s.

75v  1000
1000
v
75
40
v ms-1
3
(ii) The total distance travelled is given by the area under the graph.
Let x be the distance travelled.
Since the OABCDE is a trapezium, we have
1
x 300  495 40
2 3
→ x = 5 300 m or 5.3 km.

40
The constant speed of the train is ms-1 and the total distance travelled
3
by the train is 5.3 km.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. A train is slowing down to rest with uniform retardation while the
speed is reduced from 45 km h-1 to 30 km h-1. The train travels 2.5 km.
(i) Sketch the velocity-time graph of the train.
Hence, find
(ii) the time taken to reduce the speed from 45 km h-1 to 30 km h-1.
(iii) the uniform retardation in metres per second.
(iv) the time taken to bring the train to rest from 30 km h-1
(v) the distance, in metres, travelled while the speed
is reduced from 30 km h-1 to zero.
Solution
(i) Changing km h-1 to ms 1

105
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

45 1000 25
45 km h-1 =  ms 1
60  60 2
30 1000 25 1
30 km h-1 =  ms
60  60 3

velocity ms 1
25
2

25
3

time seconds
(ii) Area under graph gives the distance travelled.
Therefore
1 25 25 1  25 25 
( − )𝑡 = 2500   t  2500
2 2 3 2 2 3 
1 75−50 25
( )𝑡 = 2500 (12)𝑡 = 2500
2 6
2500×12
𝑡= 25

𝑡 = 1200𝑠 = 20 mins

(iii) Retardation is given by the slope of the graph

25 25

Slope = 2 3
240
5 ms1
=
288
(iv) Slope = acceleration

106
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

25
3  5 where T is the time required
T 288
25 5
T 
3 288
= 480 seconds or8 minutes

(v) Distance = area under curve

1 25
=  480 
2 3
= 2000 m or 2 km
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Exercise 2.2: Graphical Methods

Velocity- Time Graphs.  15 minutes

1. A car is uniformly accelerated from a velocity of 20 ms-1 to a velocity of

80 ms-1 in a time of 20 s. Draw a velocity-time graph and use it to find the
acceleration and distance covered by the car in the time of 20 s.
v ms-1
80

20

O
20 t seconds

2. The figure below how a motor cycle performs with relation to time.

107
 MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

v metres per second

50

40

PointSeries1 30

20

10

t seconds
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

(a) Calculate from the graph the:

(i) total distance travelled.
(ii) distance travelled at constant speed.

(b) What is the average velocity of the car between t = 0 and t = 50 s?

3. A body travelling at 16 ms-1 comes to rest after undergoing a uniform

negative acceleration for 40 m.

Draw the velocity-time graph and use your graph to find the:
(i) acceleration of the body
(ii) time before it comes to rest.

4. A bus starting from rest, accelerates uniformly, thereby reaching a

speed of 90 kmh-1 in 40 s. This speed is maintained for 3 minutes, after
which the brakes are applied, bringing the car to rest with uniform
retardation. The total distance run is 6 km.
Draw the velocity time graph and from this graph find the:

108
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

(i) acceleration in ms-2

(ii) distance run while accelerating
(iii) the distance run while retarding
(iv) time taken for the whole journey.

5. The relation between the velocity and time for a car starting from rest,
is given by the table below;

Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(min)
Velocity 0 20 30 35 35 24 0
(kmh-1)

Assuming the acceleration is uniform in the ten-minute intervals, draw the

velocity-time graph and estimate the:
(i) acceleration after 25 minutes
(ii) distance travelled by the car
(iii) time taken for the first 13 kilometres.
(Hint: Since the acceleration is uniform in the ten-minute intervals, the
graph will be made up six straight lines joining consecutive points.)

109
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Summary of Unit 2.1:

total distance
averagespeed 
total time

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.

This rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration.
Negative acceleration is often referred to as retardation.
Plotting distance against time we obtain a graph which is referred to as a
space-time or (x, t) graph.
The velocity is defined as the gradient of the (x, t) graph.
Plotting velocity against time we obtain a velocity-time graph which is
generally referred to as a (v, t) graph.
The acceleration is defined as the gradient of the (v, t) graph.
The area under the (v, t) graph represents the distance travelled.

110
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Feedback 

 Answers to Exercise 2.1: Graphical Methods

Displacement−Time Graphs
1. xm
3600

1800

0 15 20 30 mins
Displacement-Time Graph
Average speed = 2 ms-1.
2.
v metres per second

30

20

10

t min
Series 1
10 20 30 40 50 60

(a) 2 ms-1
(b) 0 ms-1
(c) − 0.5 ms-1

111
 MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 2.2: Answers to Graphical Methods

Velocity- Time Graphs.

1. Acceleration = 3 ms-2

Distance covered = 1 km

2. (a) (i) Total distance travelled = 1875 m

(ii) Distance travelled at constant speed = 1457 m
(b) The average velocity of the car between t = 0 and t = 50 s = 37.5 ms-1

3.
v ms-1
16

0 t seconds
Velocity-time Graph

(i) −3.2 ms-1

(ii) 5 s

112
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

4.
v ms-1

25

0 40 220 t seconds
Velocity-time Graph
90 kmh-1 = 25 ms-1
(i) Acceleration in = 0.625 ms-2
(ii) Distance run while accelerating = 0.5 km
(iii) The distance run while retarding = 1 km
(iv) Time taken for the whole journey = 5 min

5.
v metres per second

30

20

10

t min
Series 1
10 20 30 40 50 60

25
(i) ms 2 (ii) 24 km (iii) 33 min
13

113
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

UNIT 2: Velocity and Acceleration: Formulae

Introduction
Many problems on rectilinear motion can be solved either graphically or by
the use of formulae. In the previous unit we looked at graphical solutions of
problems involving motion in a straight line..
In this unit we will be looking at the use of formulae in solving problems on
rectilinear motion.
However, many times time is saved if we combine these methods. As you
work through the exercises you will be able to decide for yourselves which
method is more efficient, or whether a combination of the methods will be
appropriate to use.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit you will be able to:

 derive the four basic formulae of rectilinear motion
 solve problems on rectilinear motion by the use of these
formulae
 determine the best method to be used to solve problems on
rectilinear motion

Prerequisites
 Basic algebra
 Mensuration: areas of plane shapes

114
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

The Four Basic Formulae

Notation
By Convention, the following symbols are used to represent quantities in
rectilinear motion:
displacement x
initial velocity u
final velocity v
acceleration a
time t

velocity (ms-1)

0 t time (seconds)
Velocity- Time Graph

Consider the graph above.

From Unit 1 we learned that the area under the (v-t) graph will give us the
distance travelled.
Now the shape under of the graph above is a trapezium.
1
So x u  v t …………………(i)
2
Also, the gradient represents the acceleration.

115
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Therefore,
v u
a
t
Rearranging we have.
v  u  at
and v  u  at …………………(ii)

Substituting for v in (i)

1
x u  u  at  t
2
1
 2u  at  t
2
1 1
  2ut  at 2
2 2
which simplifies to:
1
x  ut  at 2 …………………(iii)
2
from (i) u  v  at
Substituting for u in (ii)
1
x v  at  v  t
2
1
 2v  at   t
2
1 1
  2vt  at 2
2 2
1
x  vt  at 2 ………………………(iiia)
2
v u
From (ii) t
a

Substituting in (i)

116
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

x
1
u  v  v  u 
2  a 
Rearranging 2ax  u  vv  u

 uv  u2  v2  uv
 v2  u2
From which we get
v2  u2  2ax …………………(iv)

The above derived formulae are used in investigating motion subject to

uniform acceleration.

To arrive at the solution of a problem it is necessary to use standard

procedures in setting down problems. This will minimize the difficulties and
make the solution easy to follow.

Points to Note when Setting Down Problems

(a) Draw a diagram if it will help you in finding a solution.

(b) State the quantities given with their respective units.
This will avoid inconsistency with units, for example mixing kmh-1
with ms-1.
(b) Never use a formula without first quoting it.
(c) When using a formula at least the define the symbol denoting the
quantity you are trying to find.
(d) Always finish your solution with a statement giving the result.
………………………………………………………………………………………………

117
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Examples:
1. A particle is moving in a straight line with constant acceleration.
Initially it is at rest and after 6 seconds its velocity is 15 m s-1 .
Find:
(i) the acceleration of the particle
(ii) the distance covered in the 6 seconds.

(i) u = 0 ms-1
t=6s
v = 15 ms-1
a=?
Using v  u  at
where a is the acceleration of the particle.
→ 15 = 0 + 6a
a = 2.5 m s-1
(ii)
u = 0 ms-1
t=6 s
a = 2.5 ms-2
x=?
1
Using x  ut  at 2
2
where x is the distance covered in 6 s.
1
→ x  0   2.5  36
2
x  45m

Hence, the acceleration of the particle is 2.5 ms-2, and the distance covered in
6 s is 45 m. .
………………………………………………………………………………………………

118
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

2.
A car is travelling along a straight road at 20 ms-1 when the driver sees a cow
blocking the road 30 m ahead. The driver applies the brakes and produces a
retardation of 5 ms-2. With what speed does the car hit the cow?
Solution
u = 20 ms-1
a = 5 ms-2
x = 30 m
v=?
Using v2  u2  2ax ,

where v is the speed of the car when it hits the cow.

We have v 2  202  2  5  30
v 2  400  300

v  100
= 10 ms-1.
Note that the retardation is 5 ms-2; therefore the acceleration is - 5 ms-2.
The car hits the cow with a speed of 10 ms-1.
.................................................................................................................................
3. A horse is timed to take 15 s over 200 m and 10 s over the next 200 m.
Assuming constant acceleration, what is the speed of the horse at the end of
the observed motion?
Solution
For the first part of the observation, we have
u = u ms-1
a = a ms-2
x = 200 m
t = 15 s
1
Using x  ut  at 2
2

119
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

1
→ 200  15u   a 152
2
Multiplying by 2 and simplifying
400  30u  225a ……………………(i)
For the whole observation
u = u ms-1
a = a ms-2
x = 400 m
t = 25 s
1
Again using x  ut  at 2 gives
2
1
400  25u   a  252
2
→ 800  50u  625a
400  30u  225a ……………………(i)
800  50u  625a ……………………(ii)
(i) x 5 2000  150u  1250a .................................(iii)
(ii) x 3 2400  150u  1875a ..............................(iv)
(iv) – (iii)
400  625a
400 16
a 
625 25
1
Using x  vt  at 2
2
where v is the velocity at the end of the observation, we have
1 16
400  25v    252
2 25
25v  400  200
600
v  24
25
Hence, the velocity of the horse at the end of the observation is 24 ms-1.
.......................................................................................................................................…

120
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 2.1:
Velocity and Acceleration: Formulae.  25 minutes

1. A car slows from 26 ms-1 to zero in 18 s. What distance does it travel?

2. Mary covered the 100-metre sprint in 10.3 s. Sandra came in

second at a time of 10.8 s. Assuming Mary and Sandra travelled at their
average speeds for the entire distance, determine how far apart the two
runners were when they winner crossed the finish line.

3. A train slowing down with constant retardation takes 30 s to travel

from a point A to a point 1320 m beyond. It comes to rest 10 s after
passing the latter. Find the:
(a) speed of the train at A;
(b) distance travelled before it comes to rest;
(c) retardation in ms-2.

4. A train moves away from rest at a station with an acceleration of

1 ms-2. As the train starts to move a man who is 4 m behind the station
runs with a constant speed after the train. If he just manages to catch
the train find his speed.

5. A particle starts from a point O with an initial velocity of 2 ms-1

and travels along a straight line with a constant acceleration of
2 ms-2. Two seconds later a second particle starts from rest at O
and travels along the same line with an acceleration of 6 ms-2 .
Find how far from O the second particle overtakes the first.

121
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Feedback 

 Answers to Exercise 2.1:

Velocity and Acceleration: Formulae.

1. 234 m.
2. 4.63 m.
3. (a) 70.4 ms-1
(b) 1408 m
(c) 1.76 ms-2
4. 2.83 ms-1 to 3 s.f.
5. 48 m.

Acceleration Due to Gravity

When a body falls and moves freely under the force of gravity, the
acceleration has been found to be uniform and is approximately 9.81ms-2.
This acceleration is represented by g and for the purpose of this course will be
taken as 10 ms-2.
If a body falls from rest, that is free fall, the initial velocity will be zero.

The formulae derived above can be modified for motion under gravity.
Thus:
v  u  gt

1 2
x  vt  gt
2
1 2
x  ut  gt
2

122
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

v2  u2  2 gx
For all the equations there is a sign convention that is followed:
the force of gravity g causes an acceleration to an object moving downwards
and is therefore taken as positive;
if an object is projected upwards then g is a retarding force and is negative.
If an object is projected upwards then the velocity and distance will be
positive and g negative. As it falls again velocity is negative and g is positive.
Distance becomes negative only when the object falls below the point from
which it was projected.
When a body is projected downwards, x, v and g can all be taken as positive.

Examples
A ball is thrown vertically upward from a point 2 m above ground level, with
a speed of 10 m s-1.
Find:
(i) the height above this point reached by the ball
(ii) the speed with which it hits the ground.

(Take g  10ms 2 )

x=0
2 m

(i) Taking the upward direction as positive, the velocity of the ball is zero
when it reaches its greatest height above its initial position.

123
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Given: u = 10 m s-1
v = 0 m s-1
g = -10 m s-2

Required: x
Using v 2  u 2  2 gx

where x is the distance required.

Substituting the quantities given
0 = 100 – 20x
100
→ x 5.
20

Therefore the stone reaches a height of 5 metres above its initial position.

(ii) When the stone hits the ground it is 2 metres below its initial position.
Hence x will be negative.

Given: u = 10 m s-1
x=-2m
g = -10 m s-2

Required: v

Using v 2  u 2  2 gx

where v is the velocity on hitting the ground.

v2 = 100 + 40
v = 140
= 11.8 m s-1.
The velocity of the stone will be 11.8 m s-1 on hitting the ground.
124
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Alternatively:

5 metres

2 metres

For the downward movement:

u = 0 m s-1
g = 10 m s-2
x=7m
v=?
Using v 2  u 2  2 gx

where v is the velocity on hitting the ground.

We have
v 2  0 2  2 10  7
= 140

v = 140
= 11.8 m s-1. as before.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In working problems you should take note of the following:

Always
(i) draw a diagram if it will help you in finding a solution;
(ii) state the quantities given with their respective units;
(iii) state what is required;
(iv) quote the formula you will use;

125
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

(v) be consistent with your units;

(vi) end your solution with a statement of the result.

You will find that there may be various methods in solving a particular
problem. You should choose the one that you are comfortable with.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example:
A block falls from a building and is observed to take 0.4 seconds in falling
from the fourth floor to the bottom of the building, a distance of 8 metres.

Calculate the height of the building above the fourth floor.

(Take g  10ms 2 )

Fourth floor

8m

Bottom

You will notice that the distance above the fourth floor cannot be found
directly as there is not enough information given.
However, we can choose to find the velocity at the fourth floor and use this to
find the required height.

Given: u=?
g = 10 m s-2
x=8m

126
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

t = 0.4 s
1 2
Using x  ut  gt
2
where u is the velocity of the block as it reaches the fourth floor.
Substituting
1
8  u  0.4  10  0.4 2
2
1
0.4u  8  10  0.4 2
2
0.4u  8  0.8
7.2
u
0.4
u  18 ms 1
Now consider the fall from the top of the building to the fourth floor.

u = 0 m s-1
g = 10 m s-2
v = 18 ms 1
x=?
Using v 2  u 2  2 gx

where x is the height of the building above the fourth floor,

we have 182  0 2  2 10  x
182  20x
324
x
20
x = 16.2 m
Therefore the height of the building above the fourth floor is 16.2 m.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

127
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Exercise 2.2: Motion Under Gravity.  25 minutes

Take g =10 ms-2.

1. A ball is dropped from the top of a tree 8.45 m high. Find the speed with
which it hits the ground.

2. A falling stone takes 0.3 seconds to fall past a window which is 2 metres
high. From how far above the window was the stone dropped?
Hint: Find u, the velocity at the top of the window, then find the
required distance.

3. A marble falls off a shelf which is 2.6 metres above the floor. Find
the time it takes to reach the floor.
Hint: Find v, then t.

4. A body projected vertically upwards is at the same heights after moving

for 3 seconds and for 8 seconds. Find its initial velocity and its
maximum height.

128
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Summary of Unit Two

 Notation
displacement x
initial velocity u
final velocity v
acceleration a
time t

 The following formulae are used to solve problems of rectilinear motion:

1
x u  v t
2
v  u  at
1
x  vt  at 2
2
1
x  ut  at 2
2
v2  u2  2ax
 When a body falls and moves freely under the force of gravity, the
acceleration has been found to be uniform and is approximately
9.81ms-2.
 The above formulae can be modified for motion under gravity.
Thus:
v  u  gt

1 2
x  vt  gt
2
1 2
x  ut  gt
2
v2  u2  2 gx

129
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Remember :
If an object is projected upwards then the velocity and distance will be
positive and g negative. As it falls again velocity is negative and g is
positive.
Distance becomes negative only when the object falls below the point
from which it was projected.
When a body is projected downwards, x, v and g can all be taken as
positive.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

130
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Feedback 

 Answers to Exercise 2.1:

Velocity and Acceleration: Formulae

1. 234 m.
2. 4.63 m.
3. (a) 70.4 ms-1
(b) 1408 m
(c) 1.76 ms-2
4. 2.83 ms-1 to 3 s.f.

 Answers to Exercise 2.2: Motion Under Gravity

Take g =10 ms-2.

1. The speed at the ground = 13 ms-1.
2. 1.33 m approx.
3. Time to reach the floor = 0.72 s. (to 2 d.p.)
4. Initial velocity = 55 ms-1.
Maximum height = 151 m. (approx.)

131
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

 Module 2: Miscellaneous Exercises

Take g =10 ms-2.

1. A motorist drives north for 35 minutes at 85 km-1 and then stops for
15 minutes. He then continues north, travelling 130 km in 2 hours.
(i) What is his total displacement?
(ii) What is his average velocity?

2. A body is travelling at 16 ms-1 and comes to rest after undergoing a

uniform negative acceleration for 40 metres. Sketch a velocity-time
graph and from it determine the:
(i) acceleration of the body?
(ii) time it take to come to rest?

3. A horse travels the first half of a 100-metre track with a constant speed
of 5 ms-1. In the second half of the track it experiences a limp and slows
down at 0.2 ms-2. How long does it take the horse to travel the
100-metre distance?

4. An object starts from rest from the top of an inclined plane and slides
down with constant acceleration. The inclined plane is 2.0 metres long,
and it takes 3.0 s for the body to reach the bottom.
Find:
(i) the acceleration of the body
(ii) its speed at the bottom of the incline
(iii) the time taken for the body to reach the middle of the incline
(iv) its speed at the midpoint.

132
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

5. A stone is thrown directly downward with an initial velocity of 8 ms-1

from a height of 30 m.
When does the ball strike the ground?

6. A resident student throws a pen upward to her dorm partner in a window

4.0 metres above. The pen is caught 1.5 seconds later by the partner’s
outstretched hand.

(i) With what initial velocity was the pen thrown?

(ii) What was the velocity of the pen just before they were caught?

7. A ball falls from rest from the top of a building. A second ball is thrown
downward from the same height 2.0 s later with an initial speed of 30 ms-1.
If both balls hit the ground at the same time, how high is the building?

133
MATH 353: Applied Mathematics

Module 2: Answers to Miscellaneous Exercises

1. (i) 180 km
(ii) 63.4 km-1

2. (i) -3.2 ms-1

(ii) 5 s
3. 23.8 s
4. (i) 0.444 ms-2
(ii) 1.32 ms-1
( iii) 2.13 s
(iv) 0.943 ms-1
5. 1.78 s
6. (i) 10.2 ms-1
(ii) 4.83 ms-1 downwards.
7. 80 m

134