1.

RINGS

1.1 INTRO

Definition: An abelian group is a pair (A,+), where A is a set and +: A×A → A is a + map (a, b) → a + b s.t:
(1) (Associativity) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
(2) (Commutativity) a + b = b + a.
(3) (Existence of zero) ∃ 0 ∈ A such that 0 + a = a + 0 = a ∀a ∈ A.
(4) (Existence of negative) For any a ∈ A there exists an element b ∈ A such that a + b = 0. b=-a

Definition: A ring is a triple (A,+,·), where A is a set and +: A×A → A, ·: A×A → A · are binary operations (we write (a, b)
→ a · b = ab) such that the following are satisfied:
(1) (A, +) is an abelian group.
(2) (Associativity of multiplication) (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
(3) (Existence of identity element or unity) ∃1 ∈ A such that 1a = a1 = a for all a ∈ A. (4) (Distributivity) a(b + c) = ab +
ac, (b + c)a = ba + ca for all a, b, c ∈ A.

Definition: A ring A is called

(1) a commutative ring if for any a, b ∈ A: ab = ba.
(2) a division ring if for any nonzero a ∈ A there exists b ∈ A such that ab = ba = 1 (the element b is denoted by a−1
and is called the inverse of a).
(3) a field if it is a commutative ring and a division ring.

Lemma: Let A be a ring. Then the zero element, the negative of any element and the identity are unique.

1.2 IDEALS

Definition: A subset I ⊆ A is called an ideal of A if

(1) I is a subgroup of (A, +), meaning that: a,b∈I ⇒ a+b∈I (closure under +), 0 ∈ I and a ∈ I ⇒ −a ∈ I.
(2) a ∈ A, b ∈ I =⇒ ab ∈ I, ba ∈ I

Improper ideals of A are {0} and A itself. The only ideals of a field K are improper.

Lemma: All ideals of Z are of the form (n)=nZ for some n∈Z (principal). Zn is only a field if n is prime.

On the other hand, ideals of Zn (= Z/nZ) are of the form (d) where d divides n.

Lemma: Let A be a ring and (It)t∈T be a collection of ideals of A. Then t∈T It is an ideal of A.

Definition: Let F ⊆ A be a subset. We define the ideal generated by F to be (F) = {a1f1b1+···+aKfKbk|k≥0, fi∈F, ai,bi ∈A}. It
is the smallest ideal of A that contains F and it is equal to the intersection of all ideals that contain F . If A is commutative,
then (F) = {a1f1+···+aKfK|k≥0, fi∈F, ai, ∈A}. If F = {f1,...,fn}, then we denote (F) also by (f1,...,fn). In particular, for F = {f}, we
obtain the principal ideal (f) ⊆ A defined earlier.

To determine the number of invertible elements in a ring Zn we use the Euler-phi function φ(n) = {1≤a<n I (a,n)=1} where
if n is primer then φ(n) = n-1. If n is not primer then n=pq for p,q prime and φ(n) is multiplicative so φ(pq)= φ(p) φ(q)

MENTIRA All ideals are subrings, but not all subrings are ideals: Z is a subring of R but it is not ideal as π∈R, 1∈I but π·1
is not in Z
If gcd(a,b)= d then (a,b) = (d)

1.3 QUOTIENT RING

Let A be a ring and I ⊆ A be an ideal. We construct the quotient ring A/I as follows. Consider the binary relation ∼ on A
(this is a subset of A × A) defined by the rule a∼b ⇐⇒ a−b∈I. This is an equivalence relation:
(1) Reflexivity: a∼a. Indeed,a−a=0∈I.
(2) Symmetry: a∼b =⇒ b∼a. Indeed,ifa−b∈I thenb−a=−(a−b)∈I.
 (3) Transitivity: a∼b,b∼c =⇒ a∼c. Indeed,if a−b∈I and b−c∈I,then (a − b) + (b − c) = a − c ∈ I.
The equivalence class [a] ⊆ A of an element a ∈ A is defined by [a] = {b ∈ A | b ∼ a } = {a + b | b ∈ I } = a + I . The set of
all equivalence classes is denoted by A/I. If a ∼ b, we say that a and b are congruent modulo I and we write a ≡ b mod I.
The equivalence class of a is also called the congruence class of a modulo I.

Theorem: The set A/I equipped with addition and multiplication operations [a]+[b] = [a+b], [a]·[b] = [ab] is a ring,
called the quotient ring. Its zero and identity elements are 0A/I = [0] and 1A/I = [1].
Lemma: An integer p≥2 is prime if and only if p|ab implies p|a or p|b.

BEZOUT’S THEOREM: Let a, b ∈ Z, gcd(a,b) = d∈N. Then there exist x,y ∈Z such that ax +by = d =gcd(a,b)

1.4 RING HOMOMORPHISMS

Definition: Let A be a ring. A subset B ⊆ A is called a subring of A if

(1) B is a subgroup of (A, +), meaning that a,b∈B ⇒ a+b∈B (closure under +), a∈B ⇒ −a∈B (negatives), 0A ∈ B.
(2) a,b∈B ⇒ ab∈B.
(3) 1A ∈ B.
Note that B is also a ring with addition and multiplication inherited from A. Its zero element is 0B = 0A and its identity
element is 1B = 1A.

There is a canonical map Z → Z/nZ that is a ring homomorphism. But if n is prime then Zn is a field and all elements
are invertible and there is no map Zn→Z. To find R.H we must have f(1) = a with a2=a

Definition 1.24. A map φ: A → B between two rings is called a ring homomorphism if

(1) φ(a + b) = φ(a) + φ(b).
(2) φ(ab) = φ(a)φ(b).
(3) φ(1A) = 1B.
A homomorphism φ is called an isomorphism if it is bijective.

EXAMPLES: If B ⊆ A is a subring, then:

- The inclusion map i: B → A, i(b) = b ∀b ∈ B, is a ring homomorphism, called the canonical embedding.
- For any x0 ∈ [a, b], we have the ring homomorphism φ: C[a,b] → R, f → f(x0) ∈ R, called the evaluation map at x0.
- Let A be a ring and I ⊆A an ideal. Then the map π: A → A/I, a → [a], is a ring homomorphism, called the projection.

Lemma: If φ: A → B is a ring homomorphism then φ(0) = 0 and φ(−a) = −φ(a).

Definition: Let φ: A → B be a ring homomorphism. We define:

(1) kernel of φ is Kerφ={a∈A|φ(a)=0}⊆A. By lemma Kerφ⊆A is an ideal of A. If kernel = 0 then φ is injective.
(2) Image of φ is Imφ={φ(a)|a∈A}⊆B. By lemma Imφ⊆B is a subring of B.

Homomorphism Theorem: For any ring homomorphism φ: A → B, there exists a unique ring homomorphism φ :̄ A/ Ker
φ → B that makes the following diagram commute ( φ = φ ̄ ◦ π ). The map φ ̄ is injective and induces an isomorphism
φ ̄ : A/ Ker φ → Im φ.

1.5 ALGEBRAS

Definition: An algebra B over a commutative ring A is a ring that contains A as a subring such that ab = ba ∀a ∈A, b∈B.

The center of a ring B is Z(B) = {a ∈ B | ab = ba ∀b ∈ B }. If B is an algebra over A, then A ⊆ Z(B).

- Algebra of matrices
- Algebra of quaternions
- Algebra of polynomials
- Group algebras
2. INTEGRAM DOMAINS

2.1. INTRO

Definition: Let A be a commutative ring,

- A is called an integral domain if ab = 0 implies that a=0 or b=0 for all a,b ∈ A (no zero-divisors)
- An element a ∈ A is called a zero-divisor if there exists nonzero b such that ab=0. Else, a is a non-zero-divisor.
- An element a ∈ A is invertible if there exists b∈ A such that ab=1. The set of all units is AX and is a group.
- Two elements a,b ∈ A are associates (a~b) if a=ub for some u∈ AX

Examples: Z, any field K, K[x] for a field K

Cancellation property (lemma): If A is an integral domain and ab=ac then a =c

Lemma: Let A be an integral domain, two elements a,b∈ A are associates iff (a)=(b)

2.2. UNIQUE FACTORIZATION DOMAINS

Definition: Let A be an integral domain,

- An element p∈ A is called irreducible if p is not a unit nor zero and if p=ab implies a∈ AX or b∈ AX
- An element p∈ A is prime if p is not a unit nor zero and if p|ab implies p|a or p|b

Remark: An irreducible element in k[x] is called an irreducible polynomial. Equivalently, a non-constant polynomial f∈
K[x] is called irreducible if it cannot be written f=gh where g,h are non-constant polynomials.

An element z∈Z[i] is irreducible if its degree (norm) is prime or prime square for prime p=3(mod4)

Lemma: Prime implies irreducible always. Irreducible implies prime only iff A is a UFD.

Definition: An integral domain A is called a unique factorization domain, UFD, if:

- Every a∈ A\{0} can be written as a product of unit and irreducible elements, that is a= uq1…qn where u∈ AX
- The above factorization is unique up to units and a permutation of factors. That is, for any other factorization
b=vp1…pK then K=l and there exists a permutation ß and elements ui∈ AX such that pi=uiqßi for all i.
An integral domain satisfying only the first axiom is a Factorization domain (FD, not UFD)

Examples: Z, any field K, for a field K any K[x]

2.3. PRINCIPAL IDEAL DOMAINS, PID

Definition: Let A be a commutative ring,

- An ideal I of A is called principal if it can be generated by one element, that is ∃ a∈ A such that I = (a) = Aa
- A is called a PID if every ideal of A is principal.

Examples: Z, any polynomial ring K[x] over a field K

Lemma: PID implies every irreducible element is prime, which implies UFD.

Theorem: Every PID is a UFD

2.4. GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR AND LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE

Definition: The greatest common divisor of two elements a, b is an element d∈ A (denoted d=gcd(a,b)) such that:
- d|a, d|b
- c|a, c|b implies c|d
Elements a,b are coprime if gcd(a,b) = 1. Also a,b coprime iff there exist x, y∈ A such that implies 1= ax + by.
Remark: A gcd of two elements does not always exist, but it always exists in UFD. If d is the gcd(a,b) then any associate
of d (any element in the form ud with u∈ AX) is also a gcd(a,b). Conversely if c, d are two gcd of a and b, then c|d and
d|c and these two elements are associates.
Definition: The least common multiple of two elements a,b is an element m∈ A (denoted m=lcm(a,b)) such that:
- a|m, b|m
- a|c, b|c implies m|c

Lemma: Let A be a PID then: d= gcd(a,b) iff (a,b) = (d), m =lcm(a,b) iff (a) ∩ (b) = (m)

2.5. EUCLIDEAN DOMAINS

Definition: An integral domain A is called an Euclidean domain if there exists a function ƒ: A\{0} -> N (called Euclidean
function or degree function) such that for any a, b∈ A\{0}, there exist elements q,r ∈ A (quotient and remainder) so that
a=qb + r and either r=0 or ƒ(r) < ƒ(b).

Example: X is a Euclidean domain with ƒ(n) = |n|. For any field K, K[X] is a Eucledian domain with ƒ(f)=deg(f).

Theorem: Let A be a commutative ring, and f,g ∈ A[x] be polynomials with monic g, then there exist unique polynomials
q,r ∈ A[x] such that f= gq +r and deg(r) < deg(g)

Corollary: An element a ∈ A[x] is a root of a polynomial f, that is f(a)=0, iff (x-a) divides f

Lemma: The ring Z[i]={a+bi|a,b ∈ Z} of Gaussian integers is a Euclidean domain.

Remark: If A is an integral domain, then a polynomial f ∈ A[x] has at most deg f roots. Indeed, if a ∈ A is a root of f, then
we can write f = (x−a)q with degq = degf −1. Any root of f different from a is a root of q. By induction on degree, q has
at most degq = degf −1 roots. Therefore f has at most deg f roots. If A is not an integral domain, then f ∈ A[x] can have
more than deg f roots. For example, the polynomial x2 − 1 in Z8[x] has four roots.
If K is an infinite field and f,g ∈ K[x] are polynomials such that f(a) = g(a) for all a ∈ K, then f − g has infinitely many roots,
hence f − g = 0.

Theorem: A ED is a PID and hence a UFD too. This theorem implies in particular that K[x] has gcd and lcm.

EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM

2.6. FIELD OF FRACTIONS

Theorem 2.40. Let A be an integral domain. Then the ring F(A) is a field, called the field of fractions of A. The canonical
map i: A → F(A), a→ a/1, is an injective ring homomorphism. For any injective ring homomorphism f : A → K to a field
K, there exists a unique ring homomorphism f : F(A) → K that makes the diagram commute (f = fi).

Example 2.41. Consider the algebra of polynomials K[x] over a field K. The field of fractions F(K[x]) is denoted by K(x) and
is called the field of rational functions over K. Its elements are fractions f (x) , where f, g are polynomials over K and g ≠
0.

Definition 2.42. Given a polynomial f ∈ A[x], we define its content to be d(f) = gcd(f0,...,fn). We say that f is primitive if
d(f) = 1 (up to a unit). Note that we can always write f = d(f) · f∗, where f∗ ∈ A[x] is primitive.

Lemma 2.43 (Gauss’s lemma). Let A be a UFD and f, g ∈ A[x]. Then

(1) If f,g are primitive then fg is primitive.
(2) d(fg) = d(f)d(g) (up to a unit).

Remark 2.44. Given a polynomial f ∈ F(A)[x], we can write it in the form f = a/b f∗, where a,b ∈ A and f∗ ∈ A[x] is primitive.
It follows from the next result that if f is irreducible in F(A)[x], then f∗ is irreducible in A[x].

Lemma 2.45. Let A be a UFD and f ∈ A[x] be a primitive non-constant polynomial. Then f is irreducible in A[x] if and only
if f is irreducible in F(A)[x].
Lemma 2.46. Let f,g,h ∈ F(A)[x] be monic and f = gh. If f ∈ A[x], then g,h ∈ A[x].

Theorem 2.47. If A is a UFD, then A[x] is a UFD. The irreducible elements of A[x] are
(1) Irreducible elements of A.
(2) Primitive polynomials in A[x] that are irreducible in F(A)[x].

Eisenstein’s criterion: Let f ∈ Z[x] be a polynomial of degree n>0 and let p be a prime number such that
(1) p | f0,...,fn−1,
(2) p ∤ fn,
(3) p2 ∤ f0.
Then f is irreducible in Q[x].
3. FIELDS

3.1. BASIC DEFINITIONS

Lemma: Let K be a field and p ∈ K[x] be irreducible. Then K[x]/(p) is a field.

Definition: Let L be a field. A subring K ⊆ L is called a subfield if K is a field (equipped with the induced ring structure).
The field L is called a field extension of K. We write L/K in this case.

Lemma: Let (Ki)i∈I be a collection of subfields of a field L. Then ⋂"∈$ 𝐾! is a subfield of L.

Definition: We define the characteristic charK of a field K to be the minimal integer p≥2 such that p·1K=0 if such p exists
and zero otherwise.

Theorem: The characteristic of a field K is either zero or a prime number. The prime subfield of K is
(1) Q if char K = 0.
(2) Fp= Z/pZ if p = charK is prime.

Definition: Given a field K and a subset S ⊆ K, we define the subfield generated by S to be the intersection of all
subfields of K that contain S. It is the minimal subfield that contains S. The subfield of K generated by ∅ (or by {0,1}) is
called the prime subfield of K. It is the minimal subfield contained in K. Given a field K and n∈Z, a∈K, we define n·a=
a+···+a ∈ K if n ≥ 0 and n · a = −((−n) · a) if n < 0.

Definition: Let L/K be a field extension and a1,...,an ∈ L. We define K[a1,...,an] ⊆ L to be the subring of L generated by K
and a1,...,an:
! !
01 𝑏!! …!" 𝑎&! … 𝑎'" | 𝑏!! …!" ∈ 𝐾 ∀𝑖& … 𝑖' ≥ 09
We define K(a1,...,an) ⊆ L to be the subfield of L generated by K and a1,...,an. It is the field of fractions of K[a1, . . . , an].
An extension L/K is called simple if there exists an element a ∈ L such that L = K(a).

Definition: Let L/K be a field extension.

(1) We can consider L as a vector space over K: it is an abelian group and the scalar multiplication K × L → L can be
defined using multiplication in L. We define the degree of the field extension L/K to be [L:K]=dimK L∈N∪{∞}.
(2) A field extension L/K is called finite if [L : K] < ∞.

Remark: Let K be a finite field and let p = charK. We know that Fp ⊆ K. Let n = [K : Fp] and (e1,...,en) be a basis of K over
Fp. Then every element in K can be uniquely written in the form b1e1 +···+bnen for some b1, . . . , bn ∈ Fp. Therefore the
number of elements of K equals pn. This implies that the number of elements of a finite field is always a power of a
prime number. We will see later that for every n ≥ 1 there exists a unique (up to an isomorphism) field having pn
elements. It is denoted by Fp^n .

Definition: Let L/K be a field extension. An element a ∈ L is called algebraic over K if f(a) = 0 for some nonzero
polynomial f ∈ K[x]. Otherwise a is called transcendental.

Theorem: Let L/K be a field extension and a ∈ L be algebraic over K. Then

(1) Among all monic polynomials in K[x] that have a root a, there exists a unique polynomial p having minimal degree.
It is called the minimal polynomial of a over K.
(2) The minimal polynomial p ∈ K[x] of a is irreducible. If a is a root of f ∈ K[x], then p | f.
(3) There is an isomorphism of fields K[x]/(p) → K[a] = K(a), f → f(a).
(4) We have [K(a):K] = degp. If d = degp, then (1,a,...,ad−1) is a basis of K(a) over K.

Lemma: Let L/K be a finite field extension. Then any element a ∈ L is algebraic over K.

Lemma: Let L/K be a field extension and a ∈ L be transcendental. Then K(a) ≃ K(x).

Theorem: Consider finite field extensions K ⊆ L ⊆ M. Then [M :K]=[M :L]·[L:K].