Psychological Assessment

Statistics
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Gravetter & Wallnau (2013)
Scales of Measurement 4. Ratio – has true zero point (if the score is zero, it
o Measurement – the act of assigning numbers or means none/null)
symbols to characteristics of things according to ▪ Easiest to manipulate
rules Describing Data
o Descriptive Statistics – methods used to provide o Distribution – defined as a set of test scores
concise description of a collection of quantitative arrayed for recording or study
information o Raw Scores – straightforward, unmodified
o Inferential Statistics – method used to make accounting of performance that is usually
inferences from observations of a small group of numerical
people known as sample to a larger group of o Frequency Distribution – all scores are listed
individuals known as population alongside the number of times each score
o Magnitude – the property of “moreness” occurred
o Equal Intervals – the difference between two o Independent Variable – being manipulated in the
points at any place on the scale has the same study
meaning as the difference between two other o Quasi-Independent Variable – nonmanipulated
points that differ by the same number of scale variable to designate groups
units ▪ Factor – for ANOVA
o Absolute 0 – when nothing of the property being o Post-Hoc Tests – used in ANOVA to determine
measured exists which mean differences are significantly
o Scale – a set of numbers who properties model different
empirical properties of the objects to which the o Tukey’s HSD test – allows the compute a single
numbers are assigned value that determines the minimum difference
▪ Continuous Scale – takes on any value within between treatment means that is necessary for
the range and the possible value within that significance
range is infinite Measures of Central Tendency
▪ Discrete Scale – can be counted; has distinct, o Measures of Central Tendency – statistics that
countable values indicates the average or midmost score
o Error – refers to the collective influence of all the between the extreme scores in a distribution
factors on a test score or measurement beyond ▪ Goal: Identify the most typical or
those specifically measured by the test or representative of entire group
measurement o Mean – the average of all the raw scores
▪ Measurement with continuous scale always ▪ Equal to the sum of the observations divided
involve with error by the number of observations
o Four Levels of the scales of Measurement: ▪ Interval and ratio data (when normal
1. Nominal – involve classification or distribution)
categorization based on one or more ▪ Point of least squares
distinguishing characteristics ▪ Balance point for the distribution
▪ Label and categorize observations but do not o Median – the middle score of the distribution
make any quantitative distinctions between ▪ Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
observations ▪ Useful in cases where relatively few scores
▪ mode fall at the high end of the distribution or
2. Ordinal – rank ordering on some characteristics relatively few scores fall at the low end of the
is also permissible distribution
▪ median ▪ In other words, for extreme scores, use
3. Interval – contains equal intervals, has no median
absolute zero point (even negative values have ▪ Identical for sample and population
interpretation to it) ▪ Also used when there has an unknown or
▪ Zero value does not mean it represents none undetermined score
 Psychological Assessment
Statistics
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Gravetter & Wallnau (2013)
▪ Used in “open-ended” categories (e.g., 5 or
more, more than 8, at least 10)
▪ For ordinal data
o Mode – most frequently occurring score in the
distribution
▪ Bimodal Distribution – if there are two scores
that occur with highest frequency
▪ Not commonly used
▪ Useful in analyses of qualitative or verbal
nature
▪ For nominal scales, discrete variables
▪ Value of the mode gives an indication of the
shape of the distribution as well as a measure
of central tendency
Measures of Variability o Symmetrical Distribution – right side of the
o Variability – an indication how scores in a graph is mirror image of the left side
distribution are scattered or dispersed ▪ Has only one mode and it is in the center of the
o Measures of Variability – statistics that describe distribution
the amount of variation in a distribution ▪ Mean = median = mode
o Range – equal to the difference between highest o Skewness – nature and extent to which
and the lowest score symmetry is absent
▪ Provides a quick but gross description of the o Positive Skewed – few scores fall the high end of
spread of scores the distribution
▪ When its value is based on extreme scores of ▪ The exam is difficult
the distribution, the resulting description of ▪ More items that was easier would have been
variation may be understated or overstated desirable in order to better discriminate at
o Quartile – dividing points between the four the lower end of the distribution of test scores
quarters in the distribution
▪ Specific point
▪ Quarter – refers to an interval
▪ Interquartile Range – measure of variability
equal to the difference between Q3 and Q1
▪ Semi-interquartile Range – equal to the
interquartile range divided by 2
o Standard Deviation – equal to the square root of
the average squared deviations about the mean
▪ Equal to the square root of the variance
▪ Variance – equal to the arithmetic mean of the ▪ Mean > Median > Mode
squares of the differences between the o Negative Skewed – when relatively few of the
scores in a distribution and their mean scores fall at the low end of the distribution
▪ Distance from the mean ▪ The exam is easy
Normal Curve ▪ More items of a higher level of difficulty would
o Also known as Gaussian Curve make it possible to better discriminate
o Bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically defined between scores at the upper end of the
curve that is highest at its center distribution
o Asymptotically = approaches but never touches
the axis
o Tail – 2 – 3 standard deviations above and below
the mean
 Psychological Assessment
Statistics
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Gravetter & Wallnau (2013)
▪ Raw score that fell in the mean has T of 50
▪ Raw score 5 standard deviations about the
mean would be equal to a T of 100
▪ No negative values
▪ Used when the population or variance is
unknown
o Stanine – a method of scaling test scores on a
nine-point standard scale with a mean of five (5)
and a standard deviation of two (2)
o Linear Transformation – one that retains a direct
▪ Mean < Median < Mode numerical relationship to the original raw score
o Skewed is associated with abnormal, perhaps o Nonlinear Transformation – required when the
because the skewed distribution deviates from data under consideration are not normally
the symmetrical or so-called normal distributed
distribution o Normalizing the distribution involves stretching
o Kurtosis – steepness if a distribution in its center the skewed curve into the shape of a normal
▪ Platykurtic – relatively flat curve and creating a corresponding scale of
▪ Leptokurtic – relatively peaked standard scores, a scale that is technically
▪ Mesokurtic – somewhere in the middle referred to as Normalized Standard Score Scale
o Generally preferrable to fine-tune the test
according to difficulty or other relevant
variables so that the resulting distribution will
approximate the normal curve
o STEN – standard to ten; divides a scale into 10
units

▪ High Kurtosis = high peak and fatter tails

▪ Lower Kurtosis = rounded peak and thinner
tails
Standard Scores
o Standard Score – raw score that has been
converted from one scale to another scale
Hypothesis Testing
o Z-Scores – results from the conversion of a raw
o Statistical method that uses a sample data to
score into a number indicating how many SD
evaluate a hypothesis about a population
units the raw score is below or above the mean
o Alternative Hypothesis – states there is a
of the distribution
change, difference, or relationships
▪ Identify and describe the exact location of
o Null Hypothesis – no change, no difference, or no
each score in a distribution
relationship
▪ Standardize an entire distribution
o Alpha Level or Level of Significance – used to
▪ Zero plus or minus one scale
define concept of “very unlikely” in a hypothesis
▪ Have negative values
test
▪ Requires that we know the value of the
o Critical Region – composed of extreme values
variance to compute the standard error
that are very unlikely to be obtained if the null
o T-Scores – a scale with a mean set at 50 and a
hypothesis is true
standard deviation set at 10
o If sample data fall in the critical region, the null
▪ Fifty plus or minus 10 scale
hypothesis is rejected
▪ 5 standard deviation below the mean would
be equal to a t-score of 0
 Psychological Assessment
Statistics
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Gravetter & Wallnau (2013)
o The alpha level for a hypothesis test is the ▪ Coefficient of Determination – an indication of
probability that the test will lead to a Type I error how much variance is shared by the X- and Y-
o Directional Hypothesis Test or One-Tailed Test – variables
statistical hypotheses specify either an increase o Spearman Rho/Rank-Order Correlation
or a decrease in the population mean Coefficient/Rank-Difference Correlation
o T-Test – used to test hypotheses about an Coefficient – frequently used if the sample size is
unknown population mean and variance small and when both sets of measurement are in
▪ Can be used in “before and after” type of ordinal
research ▪ Developed by Charles Spearman
▪ Sample must consist of independent Pearson R
observationsꟷthat is, if there is not Interval/ratio + interval/ratio
consistent, predictable relationship between Two continuous variables
the first observation and the second Spearman Rho
▪ The population that is sampled must be Ordinal + Ordinal
normal Point-Biserial Coefficient
▪ If not normal distribution, use a large sample Dichotomous
Two nominal + continuous variable (interval/ratio)
Kendall’s Coefficient
3 or more rank/ordinals (ratings)
Ordinal + ordinal + ordinal
Correlation and Inference
Phi or Fourfold Coefficient
o Correlation Coefficient – number that provides
Nominal + nominal
us with an index of the strength of the
All Dichotomous variables
relationship between two things
Rank Biserial Correlation
o Correlation – an expression of the degree and
direction of correspondence between two things Nominal + Ordinal (Rating)
▪ + & - = direction Tetrachoric Correlation R
▪ Number anywhere to -1 to 1 = magnitude Continuous + Continuous but both are measured
▪ Positive – same direction, either both going as Nominal (e.g., Passed or Not Passed, rather
up or both going down than grades itself)
▪ Negative – Inverse Direction, either DV is up o Outlier – extremely atypical point located at a
and IV goes down or IV goes up and DV goes relatively long distance from the rest of the
down coordinate points in a scatterplot
▪ 0 = no correlation o Regression Analysis – used for prediction
▪ Predict the values of a dependent or
response variable based on values of at least
one independent or explanatory variable
▪ Residual – the difference between an
observed value of the response variable and
the value of the response variable predicted
from the regression line
▪ The Principle of Least Squares
▪ Standard Error of Estimate – standard
deviation of the residuals in regression
o Pearson r/Pearson Correlation analysis
Coefficient/Pearson Product-Moment ▪ Slope – determines how much the Y variable
Coefficient of Correlation – used when two changes when X is increased by 1 point
variables being correlated are continuous and o T-Test (Independent) – comparison or
linear determining differences
▪ Devised by Karl Pearson
 Psychological Assessment
Statistics
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Gravetter & Wallnau (2013)
▪ 2 different groups/independent samples +
interval/ratio scales (continuous varriables)
▪ Equal Variance – 2 groups are equal
▪ Unequal Variance – groups are unequal
o T-test (Dependent)/Paired Test – two groups
nominal (either matched or repeated measures)
+ continuous scales
o One-Way ANOVA – 3 or more IV, 1 DV comparison
of differences
o Two-Way ANOVA – 2 IV, 1 DV
o Critical Value – reject the null and accept the
alternative if [ obtained value > critical value ]
o P-Value (Probability Value) – reject null and
accept alternative if [ p-value < alpha level ]
Norms
o Norms – refer to the performances by defined
groups on a particular tests
o Age-Related Norms – certain tests have
different normative groups for particular age
groups
o Tracking – tendency to stay at about the same
level relative to one’s peers
o Norm-Referenced Tests – compares each
person with the norm
o Criterion-Referenced Tests – describes specific
types of skills, tasks, or knowledge that the test
taker can demonstrate
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