UNIT IV STORAGE AND DISPLAY DEVICES

Classification of Printers:

Classification of Printers – Character printers and graphic plotters are the two
devices used to prepare a permanent (or hard copy) record of computer
output.

The basic difference between printers and plotters is that the former are de-
vices whose purpose is to print letters, numbers and similar characters in
text-readable form, while the latter print diagrams with continuous lines.

Classification of Printers in computers are divided into below categories.

1. Impact and Non-impact Printers

Impact printers form characters on a paper by striking the paper with a print
head and squeezing an inked ribbon between the print head and the paper.

In this Classification of Printers, Non-impact printers form characters without

engaging the print mechanism with the print surface, e.g. by heating
sensitized paper or by spraying ink from a jet.

2. Fully Formed Character and Dot Matrix Printer

Fully formed characters are like those made by a standard typewriter—all

parts of characters are embossed in the reverse on the type bars of
the typewriter. When printed, all type elements appear connected or fully
formed.

Dot matrix characters are shaped by combinations of dots that form a group
representing a letter or number when viewed together.

3. Character at a Time and Line at a Time Printer

Character at a time printers (character printers or serial printers), print each

character serially, and virtually instantaneously.

Line at a time printers (line printers), print each line virtually instantaneously.

(Some advanced printers, e.g. those using lasers and xerographic methods,
print lines so rapidly that they virtually print a page at a time, and are
therefore called page printers. They are rarely used in mini computers and
microcomputers, for special purposes like phototype setting.)

Printer Character Set:

Most printers used with mini or microcomputers use ASCII codes. Printers
are specified as using the 48-character set, the 64-character set, the 96-
character set or the 128-character set.

The 48- and 64-character sets include commonly used special symbols, num-
bers, a space, and upper case (capital) English alphabets.

The 96 ASCII character set includes the lower-case English alphabet and
several additional special symbols. Of the 96 characters, ‘space’ and ‘delete’
do not print, leaving only 94 printable characters.

The entire 128-character ASCII set contains 32 characters normally used for
communication and control. These characters usually do not print, but corre-
spond to expandable functions, such as communication and control.

Character at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Drum

Wheel):

The typewriter is the classic example of this printer, with characters fully
formed because they are embossed on each type bar.

Ordinary type bar typewriters cannot be used with computers, because they
lack a computer coding interface for easy communications.
(The classic printer used with mini and micro computers in the past was the
Teletype Model 33 printer. The ready availability and low cost of these print-
ers, plus their relatively easy interfacing, made them natural for use in small
computers. The model 33 prints at a rate of 10 characters per second which
is slow compared to today’s printer of 55 characters per second for similar
printers.) The print mechanism is a vertical cylinder. Characters are embossed
in several rows and columns around the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 2.26 (a).

The ASCII character code sent to the printer, is translated into motion that
rotates the cylinder, so that the column containing the desired character
faces the paper. The cylinder is then raised or lowered (depending on the
ASCII code) to present the column containing the desired character to be
printed directly to the paper. A hammer mechanism propels (hits)
the cylinder towards the paper, where only the positioned character strikes
the ribbon, creating the printed impression of the character on the paper.

These Classification of Printers are interfaced with small computers by a 20

— 60 mA current used to transmit ASCII coded bits serially.

Another type of fully formed character printer, designed for computer use,
has characters mounted on the periphery of a spinning print head, known as
a daisy wheel printer, and is shown in Fig. 2.26 (b).

A daisy wheel print head is mounted on a rotating disk with flexible flower
like petals similar to a daisy flower. Each petal contains the embossed
character in reverse. As the daisy wheel spins, a hammer strikes the desired
flexible petal containing the character, in turn impacting the paper with the
embossed character through an inked ribbon.

To print a letter, the wheel is rotated until the desired letter is in position over
the paper. A solenoid driven hammer then hits the petal against the ribbon
to print the letter.

Daisy wheel printers are slow, with a speed of about 50 characters per second
(cps). The advantage of the daisy wheel mechanism is high print quality, and
interchangeable fonts.

Character at a time printing follows the following sequence of steps; left to

right printing to the end of the line, stop, return carriage and start a second
line, and again print left to right. It is unidirectional.

Spinning wheel printers are capable of bidirectional printing. The second line
is stored in a buffer memory within the printer control circuitry and can be
printed in either direction, depending on which takes the least printer time.

Line at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Line

Printers):

In line printers, characters or spaces constituting printable lines (typically

132-character positions wide) are printed simultaneously across the entire
line. Paper is spaced up and the next line is printed. Speeds for line printers
range from several hundreds to thousands of lines per minute.

This Classification of Printers are used for high volumes of printed output
and less frequently in microcomputers, because of their high equipment cost
relative to character at a time printers.
An embossed type font is positioned across a line for printing by using em-
bossed type, either on a carrier consisting of a chain, train or band moving
horizontally across the paper and print line, or a drum rotating in front of the
paper with characters embossed. Typically, there are 132 columns on the
drum. As the drum rotates, the column of characters pan vertically across the
paper and the print line (shown in Fig. 2.27). In both methods, hammers (one
for each of 132 print positions) strikes when the correct character is
positioned, imprinting the character on the paper with an inked ribbon.

Print characters are embossed on the band. The band revolves between two
capstans, passing in front of the paper. An inked ribbon is positioned
between the moving band and the paper. As the print characters on the band
move by 132 horizontal print positions, the 132 corresponding print
hammers behind the paper strike the band at the appropriate time, causing
the line of characters to print each desired character in 132 print positions.

In band printers, a metallic or plastic band has a fully formed etched charac-
ter on it. The band rotates at high speed. There is one hammer for one print
position, because several hammers can strike simultaneously for many print
positions. These printers are faster than dot matrix printers. These line
printers have speeds varying from 75 to 4000 lines per minute (1 pm). These
printers are both noisier and costlier than dot-matrix printers.

A band always contains more than one character set. This reduces access
time needed to match the characters, thereby reducing the printing time.
Below the characters are the timing marks which are sensed by the printers
electronic circuitry. It compares the character to be printed with the character
corresponding to the timing mark, senses it and if a match occurs, fires the
corresponding hammer.

A chain printer is similar to a band printer, except that in the former the
characters sets are held in a metal or rubber chain and rotated across the
paper along a print line.

A chain revolves in front of the ribbon and paper. Each link in the chain is
designed to hold a pallet on which type characters are embossed. Hammers
are located behind the paper and each of 132 hammers strikes the moving
type pallet when the desired character passes the position in which it is timed
to print.

Drum Printer:

Figure 2.28 illustrates a drum printer. Each of the 64 or 96 characters used is

embossed in 132 columns around the drum, corresponding to the print posi-
tions. The drum rotates in front of the paper and ribbon. Print hammers strike
the paper, imprinting characters from the drum through the ribbon and
forming an impression on the paper.
The drum printer uses a cylindrical drum which contains characters em-
bossed around it. There is one complete character set for each print position.
To print characters, magnetically driven hammers in each character position
strike the paper and ribbon against the spinning drum. An entire line of
characters can be printed during each rotation of the drum. Printing speeds
of drum printers vary from 200 — 300 1pm. The drawbacks of drum printers
are that the fonts are not easily changeable, and the print lines may be wavy.

Dot Matrix Printers:

Dot matrix characters are formed by printing a group of dots to form a letter,
number or other symbol. This method is widely used with mini and
microcomputers.

Dots are formed both by impact and non-impact print methods and are both
character at a time and line at a time printers.

Figure 2.29 shows the letter ‘A’ formed by a dot-matrix, five dots wide and
seven dots high (5 x 7) and in a 9 x 7 matrix. A 5 x 7 dot-matrix is frequently
used when all letters are acceptable, in upper case.

Dot-matrix printers can print any combination of dots with all available print
positions in the matrix. The character is printed when one of 128 ASCII codes
is signaled and controlled by the ROM (read only memory) chip, which in
turn controls the patterns of the dots. By changing the ROM chip a character
set for any language or graphic character set can be used by the printer.
Character at a Time Dot Matrix Impact Printer:

The print head for an impact dot matrix character is usually composed for an
array of wires (or pins) arranged in a tabular form, that impact the character
through an inked ribbon, as shown in Fig. 2.30. For this reason, these
Classification of Printers are sometimes also called wire printers.

The Print head often contains a single Column seven wires high, though it
may be two or more columns wide (fid. 2.31(a)).

For purpose of illustration, assume that the print head contains a single col-
umn seven wires high. The seven wires are thrust from the print head (usually
electromagnetically) in whatever combination the print controller requires to
create a character. The wire strikes the ribbon and in turn impacts the paper,
printing one vertical column of a single character.
The dot-matrix print head contains wires (or pins) arranged in tabular form.
Characters are printed as a matrix of dots. The thin wire, driven by solenoids
at the rear of the print head, strikes the ribbon against the paper to produce
dots. The print wires are arranged in a vertical column, so that characters are
printed out one dot column at a time as the print head moves on a line.

For a 5 x 7 full step dot-matrix character, the print head spaces one step,
prints the second column of dots and repeats the pricess until all five
columns are printed.

If the Classification of Printers is designed to print dots in half steps, the same
process is used, except that five horizontal print steps are used to form the
characters (the five normal steps, plus four intervening half steps), thereby
forming a 9 x 7 half step dot matrix character.

The dot-matrix character printer, strictly speaking, does not actually print a
character at a time, but one column of a dot-matrix character at a time. How-
ever, the print speeds of a dot-matrix printer are very high, up to 180
characters per second.

Early dot-matrix print heads had only seven print wires, and consequently
poor print quality. Currently available dot-matrix printers use 9, 14, 18 or
even 24 print wires in the print head. Using a large number of print wires
and/or printing a line twice with the dots for the second printing offset
slightly from those of the first, ensures a better quality of print (Fig. 2.31 b).

Common speeds of dot-matrix printers range from 50 — 200 cps, but

Classification of Printers with speed as high as 300 cps are also available.

The dot-matrix codes of the characters are stored in EPROM. The fonts or
print graphics can be changed under program control. This is the main
advantage of dot-matrix printers.

The font of dot-matrix printers can be changed during printing by including

the desired formats in RAM or ROM. Hence, it is possible to include standard
ASCII characters, italics, subscripts, etc. on the same line. Special graphics can
also be programmed into the printer.
Non-Impact Dot Matrix (NIDM) Printers:

Non-impact dot-matrix printers cause a mark without directly touching the

paper. They are therefore quiet compared to impact printers.

They cannot make carbon copies, however, as there is no force to impress

the character through multiple carbon copies. NIDM printers are useful for
printing single copies of computer output, for recording the output of
printing calculators and video displays, and for logging industrial data.

There are four types of NIDM printers thermal, electrosensitive, electrostatic,

and ink jet.

Strip Chart Recorder Working Principle:

Strip Chart Recorder Working Principle are those in which data is recorded
on a continuous roll of chart paper moving at a constant speed. The recorder
records the variation of one of more variables with respect to time. The basic
element of a Strip Chart Recorder Working Principle consists of a pen (stylus)
used for making marks on a movable paper, a pen (stylus) driving system, a
vertically moving long roll of chart paper and chart paper drive mechanism
and a chart speed selector switch, (as shown in Fig. 12.1(a)).

Most recorders use a pointer attached to the stylus, so that the instantaneous
value of the quantity being recorded can be measured directly on a
calibrated scale. Most strip chart recorders use a servo feedback system, to
ensure that the displacement of the pen (stylus) across the paper tracks the
input voltage in the required frequency range. A potentiometer system is
generally used to measure the position of the writing head (stylus).The chart
paper drive system generally consists of a stepping motor which controls the
movement of the chart paper at a uniform rate.

The data on the strip chart paper can be recorded by various methods.

1. Pen and Ink Stylus:

The ink is supplied to the stylus from a refillable reservoir by capillary action.
Modern technology has replaced these pens by disposable fibre tip pens. In
addition, multichannel operation can be performed, i.e. at any instant, a
maximum of six pens can be used to record data. When using multiple pens,
staggering of the pens are necessary to avoid mechanical interference.

2. Impact Printing:

The original impact system consisted of a carbon ribbon placed between the
pointer mechanism and paper, which provided the ink for recording data.
The mark was made on the paper by pressing the pointer mechanism on it.
The advantage of impact printing over the pen and ink method is that, it can
record data on up to 20 variables simultaneously. This is achieved with the
help of a wheel with an associated ink pad which provides the ink for the
symbol on the wheel. The wheel is moved across the paper in response to
the variable being recorded.

In some mechanisms, pressure sensitive paper is used. The markings on the

paper are done with chopper bar, which applies the pressure on the paper.
The frequency of the chopper bar is once per second.

3. Thermal Writing:

In this system, a special movable pen which is thermally heated by passing

an electric current through it is used. This system requires a thermally
sensitive paper which changes its colour on application of heat.

4. Electric Writing:

This technique is based on the principle of electrostatics.

In this method, a special chart paper is used. This paper consists of a paper
base coated with a layer of coloured dye (black, blue or red), which in turn is
coated with a thin surface of aluminium. The stylus (pen) consists of a
tungsten wire moving over the aluminium surface. Markings on the paper
are achieved by applying a potential of 35 V to the stylus. This causes an
electric discharge which removes the aluminium, revealing the coloured dye.

5. Optical Writing:

In this technique of writing, a special photo sensitive chart paper, sensitive to

ultra violet light is used. This technique is mostly used in galvanometer
system.

Ultra violet light is used to reduce unwanted effects from ambient light. The
paper can be developed in daylight or under artificial light without the need
for special chemicals, which is not possible if ordinary light is used.

Most recorders use a pointer attached to the stylus. This pointer moves over
a calibrated scale giving the instantaneous value of the quantity being
recorded.

Paper drive system: The paper drive system should move the paper at a
uniform speed. A spring wound mechanism may be used in most A
synchronous motor is used for driving the paper.

Chart speed: Chart speed is a term used to express the rate at which the
recording paper in a strip chart recorder moves. It is expressed in in/s or
mm/s and is determined by mechanical gear trains. If –the chart speed is
known, the period of the recorded signal can be calculated as

and frequency can be determined as f = 1/period.

XY Recorder Working:
XY Recorder Working – In most research fields, it is often convenient to plot
the instantaneous relationship between two variables [Y = f(x)], rather than
to plot each variable separately as a function of time.

In such cases, the X-Y recorder is used, in which one variable is plotted
against another variable. In an analog X-Y recorder, the writing head is
deflected in either the x-direction or the y-direction on a fixed graph chart
paper. The graph paper used is generally squared shaped, and is held fixed
by electrostatic attraction or by vacuum.

The writing head is controlled by a servo feedback system or by a self

balancing potentiometer. The writing head consist of one or two pens,
depending on the application. In practice, one emf is plotted as a function of
another emf in an X-Y recorder.

In some cases, the X-Y recorder is also used to plot one physical quantity
(displacement, force, strain, pressure, etc.) as a function of another physical
quantity, by using an appropriate transducer, which produces an output
(EMF) proportional to the physical quantity.

The motion of the recording pen in both the axis is driven by servo-system,
with reference to a stationary chart paper. The movement in x and y
directions is obtained through a sliding pen and moving arm arrangement.

A typical block diagram of an XY Recorder Working is illustrated in Fig. 12.9.

Referring to Fig. 12.9, each of the input signals is attenuated in the range of
0-5 mV, so that it can work in the dynamic range of the recorder. The
balancing circuit then compares the attenuated signal to a fixed internal
reference voltage. The output of the balancing circuit is a dc error signal
produced by the difference between the attenuated signal and the reference
voltage. This dc error signal is then converted into an ac signal with the help
of a chopper circuit. This ac signal is not sufficient to drive the pen/arm drive
motor, hence, it is amplified by an ac amplifier. This amplified signal (error
signal) is then applied to actuate the servo motor so that the pen/arm
mechanism moves in an appropriate direction in order to reduce the error,
thereby bringing the system to balance. Hence as the input signal being
recorded varies, the pen/arm tries to hold the system in balance, producing
a record on the paper.

The action described above takes place in both the axes simultaneously.
Hence a record of one physical quantity with respect to another is obtained.

Some X-Y recorders provides x and y input ranges which are continuously
variable between 0.25 mV/cm and 10 V/cm, with an accuracy of ± 0.1% of
the full scale. Zero offset adjustments are also provided.

The dynamic performance of X-Y recorders is specified by their slewing rate

and acceleration. A very high-speed X-Y recorder, capable of recording a
signal up to 10 Hz at an amplitude of 2 cm peak to peak, would have a
slewing rate of 97 cm/s and a peak acceleration of 7620 cm/s.

An XY Recorder Working may have a sensitivity of 10 µV/mm, a slewing

speed of 1.5 ms and a frequency response of about 6 Hz for both the axis.
The chart size is about 250 x 180 mm. The accuracy of X-Y recorder is about
± 0.3%.

Applications of X-Y Recorders:

These recorders are used to measure the following.

1. Speed-torque characteristics of motors.

2. Regulation curves of power supply.
3. Plotting characteristics of active devices such as vacuum tubes,
transistors, Zener diode, rectifier diodes, etc.
4. Plotting stress-strain curves, hysteresis curves, etc.
5. Electrical characteristics of materials, such as resistance versus
temperature.
Magnetic Tape Recorder:
The major advantage of using a Magnetic Tape Recorder Working Principle
is that once the data is recorded, it can be replayed an almost indefinite
number of times.

The recording period may vary from a few minutes to several days. Speed
translation of the data captured can be provided, i.e. fast data can be slowed
down and slow data speeded up by using different record and reproduce
speeds.

The recorders described earlier have a poor high frequency response.

Magnetic tape recorder, on the other hand, have a good response to high
frequency, i.e. they can be used to record high frequency signals. Hence,
magnetic tape recorders are widely used in instrumentation systems.

Basic Components of Magnetic Tape Recorder:

A magnetic tape recorder consists of the following basic components.

1. Recording Head
2. Magnetic Head
3. Reproducing Head
4. Tape transport mechanism
5. Conditioning devices

Magnetic Recording:

The basic elements of a simple Magnetic Tape Recorder Working Principle

system are illustrated in Fig. 12.10(a).
The Magnetic Tape Recorder Working Principle is made of a thin sheet of
tough, dimensionally stable plastic, one side of which is coated with a
magnetic material.

Some form of finely powdered iron oxide is usually cemented on the plastic
tape with a suitable binder. As the tape is transferred from one reel, it passes
across a magnetising head that impresses a residual magnetic pattern upon
it in response to an amplified input signal.

The methods employed in recording data on to the magnetic tape include

direct recording, frequency modulation (FM) and pulse code modulation
(PCM). Modulation of the current in the recording head by the signal to be
recorded linearly modulates the magnetic flux in the recording gap. As the
tape moves under the recording head, the magnetic particles retain a state
of permanent magnetization proportional to the flux in the gap. The input
signal is thus converted to a spatial variation of the magnetization of the
particles on the tape. The reproduce head detects these changes as changes
in the reluctance of its magnetic circuit which induce a voltage in its winding.
This voltage is proportional to the rate of change of flux. The reproduce head
amplifier integrates the signal to provide a flat frequency characteristic.

Since the reproduce head generates a signal which is proportional to the rate
of change of flux, the direct recording method cannot be used down to dc.
The lower limit is around 100 Hz and the upper limit for direct recording,
around 2 MHz. The upper frequency limit occurs when the induced variation
in magnetization varies over a distance smaller than the gap in the reproduce
head.
The signal on an exposed tape can be retrieved and played out at any time
by pulling the tape across the magnetic head, in which a voltage is induced.

It is possible to magnetize the tape longitudinally or along either of the other

two main axis, but longitudinal magnetization is the best choice.

Figure 12.10(b) shows simply how the tape is magnetized. If a magnetic field
is applied to any one of the iron oxide particles in a tape and removed, a
residual flux remains. The relationship between the residual flux and the
recording field is determined by the previous state of magnetization and by
the magnetization curves of the particular magnetic recording medium.
A simple magnetic particle on the tape might have the B – H curve shown in
Fig. 12.10(c) where H is the magnetizing force and B the flux density in the
particle.

Consider the material with no flux at all, i.e. the condition at point 0. Now if
the current in the coil of the recording head [Fig. 12.10(b)] is increased from
0 in a direction that gives positive values of H, the flux density increases along
the path 0 – 1 – 2, until the material is eventually saturated. If the operating
point is brought from 0 only as far as 1, and H is brought back to 0, B follows
a minor hysteresis loop back to point 6. A greater value of coil current would
leave a higher residual flux, and a lower current a lower residual; a very simple
recording process result.

However, the linearity between residual flux and recording current is very
poor. Hence to obtain linearity in direct recording, FM is used. In all systems,
the signal is reproduced by passing the magnetized tape over a magnetic
head similar to the recording head. The magnetization of the particles on the
tape induces a varying flux in the reproducing head and a voltage is induced
in the coil, proportional to the rate of change of flux.

Methods of Magnetic Tape Recording:

There are three methods of magnetic tape recording which are used for
instrumentation purposes.

1. Direct recording
2. FM recording
3. Pulse Duration Modulation recording (PDM)
FM recorders are generally used for instrumentation purposes. PDM
recording is used in instrumentation for special applications where a large
number of slowly changing variables have to be recorded simultaneously.

Block Diagram of Oscilloscope:

The major Block Diagram of Oscilloscope shown in Fig. 7.4, of a general
purpose CRO, is as follows:

1. CRT
2. Vertical amplifier
3. Delay line
 4. Time base
5. Horizontal amplifier
6. Trigger circuit
7. Power Supply

The function of the various blocks are as follows.

1. CRT

This is the cathode ray tube which emits electrons that strikes the phosphor
screen internally to provide a visual display of signal.

2. Vertical Amplifier

This is a wide band amplifier used to amplify signals in the vertical section.

3. Delay Line

It is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical sections.

4. Time Base

It is used to generate the sawtooth voltage required to deflect the beam in

the horizontal section.

5. Horizontal Amplifier

This is used to amplify the sawtooth voltage before it is applied to horizontal

deflection plates.
6. Trigger Circuit

This is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulses so that the
input signal and the sweep frequency can be synchronized.

7. Power Supply

There are two power supplies, a -ve High Voltage (HV) supply and a +ve Low
Voltage (LV) supply. Two voltages are generated in the CRO. The +ve volt
supply is from + 300 to 400 V. The -ve high voltage supply is from – 1000 to
– 1500 V. This voltage is passed through a bleeder resistor at a few mA. The
intermediate voltages are obtained from the bleeder resistor for intensity,
focus and positioning controls.

Simple CRO:
The Basic Block Diagram of CRO is shown in Fig.7.5. The ac filament supplies
power to the CRT heaters in the Block Diagram of CRO. This also provides as
accurate ac calibrating voltage. CRT dc voltage is obtained from the HV dc
supply through voltage dividers. R1 – R5 Included along with this voltage
divider is a potentiometer (R3) which varies the potential at the focusing
electrode, known as focus control, and one which varies the control grid
voltage, called the intensity control (R5).
Capacitor C1 is used to ground the deflection plates and the second anode
for the signal voltage, but dc isolates these electrodes from the ground.

Normally S2 is set to its linear position. This connects the sweep generator
output to the horizontal input. The sweep voltage is amplified before being
applied to the horizontal deflecting plates.

When an externally generated sweep is desired, S2 is connected to its external

position and the external generator is connected to the input. The sweep
synchronizing voltage is applied to the internal sweep generator through
switch S1, which selects the type of synchronization.

Dual Beam CRO Block Diagram and Working

Principle:
Figure 7.18 illustrates a block diagram of a Dual Beam CRO.
The dual trace oscilloscope has one cathode ray gun, and an electronic switch
which switches two signals to a single vertical amplifier. The dual beam
oscilloscope uses two completely separate electron beams, two sets of VDPs
and a single set of HDPs. Only one beam can be synchronized at one time,
since the sweep is the same for both signals, i.e. a common time base is used
for both beams. Therefore, the signals must have the same frequency or must
be related harmonically, in order to obtain both beams locked on the CRT
screen, e.g. the input signal of an amplifier can be used as signal A and its
output signal as signal B.
Dual Trace Oscilloscope:
Figure 7.19 (a) shows a block diagram of Dual Trace Oscilloscope.

This CRO has a single electron gun whose electron beam is split into two by
an electronic switch. There is one control for focus and another for intensity.
Two signals are displayed simultaneously. The signals pass through identical
vertical channels or vertical amplifiers. Each channel has its own calibrated
input attenuator and i positioning control, so that the amplitude of each
signal can be independently adjusted.

A mode control switch enables the electronic switch to operate in two modes.
When the switch is in ALTERNATE position, the electronic switch feeds each
signal alternately to the vertical amplifier. The electronic switch alternately
connects the main vertical amplifier to channels A and B and adds a different
dc component to each signal; this dc component directs the beam alternately
to the upper or lower half of the screen. The switching takes place at the start
of each new sweep of the sweep generator. The switching rate of the
electronic switch is synchronized to the sweep rate, so that the CRT spot
traces the channel A signal on one sweep and the channel B signal on the
succeeding sweep [Fig. 7.19 (b)]
The sweep trigger signal is available from channels A or B and the trigger
pick-off takes place before the electronic switch. This arrangement maintains
the correct phase relationship between signals A and B.

When the switch is in the CHOP mode position, the electronic switch is free
running at the rate of 100-500 kHz, entirely independent of the frequency of
the sweep generator. The switch successively connects small segments of A
and B waveforms to the main vertical amplifier at a relatively fast chopping
rate of 500 kHz e.g. 1 μs segments of each waveform are fed to the CRT
display (Fig. 7.19 (c)).
If the chopping rate is slow, the continuity of the display is lost and it is better
to use the alternate mode of operation. In the added mode of operation a
single image can be displayed by the addition of signal from channels A and
B, i.e. (A + B), etc. In the X – Y mode of operation, the sweep generator is
disconnected and channel B is connected to the horizontal amplifier. Since
both preamplifiers are identical and have the same delay time, accurate X –
Y measurements can be made.

Dual Trace Oscilloscope Specifications:

Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
Digital Storage Oscilloscope are available in processing and non-processing
types. Processing types include built in computing power, which takes
advantage of the fact that all data is already in digital form.

The inclusion of interfacing and a microprocessor provides a complete

system for information acquisition, analysis and output. Processing capability
ranges from simple functions (such as average, area, rms, etc.) to complete
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) spectrum analysis capability.

(Units with built in hard copy plotters are particularly useful, since they can
serve as digital scope high speed recorders, tabular printers and X-Y plotters,
all in one unit, with computing power and an 8 1/2″ x 11″ paper/ink printout.)

Non-processing digital scopes are designed as replacements for analog

instruments for both storage and non-storage types. Their many desirable
features may lead to replace analog scopes entirely (within the Bandwidth
range where digitization in feasible).

The basic principle of a digital scope is given in Fig. 7.51. The scope operating
controls are designed such that all confusing details are placed on the back
side and one appears to be using a conventional scope. However, some
digital scope panels are simpler also, most digital scopes provide the facility
of switching selectable to analog operation as one of the operating modes.

The basic advantage of digital operation is the storage capability, the stored
waveform can be repetitively read out, thus making transients appear
repetitively and allowing their convenient display on the scope screen. (The
CRT used in Digital Storage is an ordinary CRT, not a storage type CRT.)

Furthermore, the voltage and time scales of display are easily changed after
the waveform has been recorded, which allows expansion (typically to 64
times) of selected portions, to observe greater details.

A cross-hair cursor can be positioned at any desired point on the waveform

and the voltage/time values displayed digitally on the screen, and/or readout
electrically.

Some scopes use 12-bit converters, giving 0.025% resolution and 0.1%
accuracy on voltage and time readings, which are better than the 2-5% of
analog scopes.

Split screen capabilities (simultaneously displaying live analog traces and

replayed stored ones) enable easy comparison of the two signals.

Pretrigger capability is also a significant advantage. The display of stored

data is possible in both amplitude versus time and X-Y modes. In addition to
the fast memory readout used for CRT display, a slow readout is possible for
producing hard copy with external plotters.

When more memory than the basic amount (typically 4096 points/words) is
needed, a magnetic disk accessory allows expansion to 32,000 points.

All Digital Storage Oscilliscope scopes are limited in bandwidth by the speed
of their A/D converters. However, 20 MHz digitizing rates available on some
scopes yield a 5 MHz bandwidth, which is adequate for most applications.

Consider a single channel of Fig. 7.51. The analog voltage input signal is
digitized in a 10-bit A/D converter with a resolution of 0.1% (1 part in 1024)
and frequency response of 25 kHz. The total digital memory storage capacity
is 4096 for a single channel, 2048 for two channels each and 1024 for four
channels each.
The analog input voltage is sampled at adjustable rates (up to 100,000
samples per second) and data points are read onto the memory. A maximum
of 4096 points are storable in this particular instrument. (Sampling rate and
memory size are selected to suit the duration and waveform of the physical
event being recorded.)

Once the sampled record of the event is captured in memory, many useful
manipulations are possible, since memory can be read out without being
erased.

If the memory is read out rapidly and repetitively, an input event which was
a single shot transient becomes a repetitive or continuous waveform that can
be observed easily on an ordinary scope (not a storage scope). The digital
memory also may be read directly (without going through DAC) to, say, a
computer where a stored program can manipulate the data in almost any
way desired.

Pre-triggering recording allows the input signal preceding the trigger points
to be recorded. In ordinary triggering the recording process is started by the
rise of the input (or some external triggering) above some preset threshold
value.

As in digital recorder, Digital Storage Oscilloscope can be set to record

continuously (new data coming into the memory pushes out old data, once
memory is full), until the trigger signal is received; then the recording is
stopped, thus freezing data received prior to the trigger signal in
the memory.

An adjustable trigger delay allows operator control of the stop point, so that
the trigger may occur near the beginning, middle or end of the stored
information.

The 1E-522 Digital Storage Oscilliscope (DSO) has the following features.

1. Sampling rate 20 Mega-samples per second per channel. Max.

(simultaneous) capture of both channels.
2. Pre-trigger: 25%, 50%, 75%, for Single Shot, Roll normal.
3. Roll mode: (Continuous and Single Shot with Pre-trigger of 25%,
50%, 75%)
4. Single Shot (0.5 μs Single shot @ 10 pts./div resolution with pre-
trigger 25%, 50%, 75%)
 5. Digital Sweep rate: 0.5 μs/cm to 50 sec/cm, (event as long as 8.33
minutes can be captured)
6. Computer built in Interface: (RS 232 Serial port and Centronics
Parallel interface).

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The Light Emitting Diodes, Fig. 2.10 (a) is basically a semiconductor PN
junction diode capable of emitting electromagnetic radiation under forward
conductions. The radiation emitted by LEDs can be either in the visible
spectrum or in the infrared region, depending on the type of
the semiconductor material used. Generally, infra-red emitting LED’s are
coated with Phosphor so that, by the excitation of phosphor visible light can
be produced. LEDs are useful for electronics display and instrumentation.
Figure 2.10 (b) shows the symbol of an LED.

The advantage of using LEDs in electronic displays are as follows.

• Light Emitting Diodes are very small devices, and can be considered as
point sources of They can therefore be stacked in a high-
density matrix to serve as a numeric and alphanumeric display. (They
can have a character density of several thousand per square metre).
• The light output from an LED is function of the current flowing through
An LED can therefore, be smoothly controlled by varying the current.
This is particularly useful for operating LED displays under different
ambient lighting conditions.
• LEDs are highly efficient emitters of EM radiation. LEDs with light
output of different colours, i.e. red, amber, green and yellow are
commonly available.
• LEDs are very fast devices, having a turn ON-OFF time of less than 1
ns.
• The low supply voltage and current requirements of LEDs make them
compatible with DTL and TTL, ICs.
In germanium and silicon semiconductors, most of the energy is released in
the form of heat. In Gallium Phosphide (GaP) and Gallium Arsenide
Phosphide (GaAsP) most of the emitted photons have their wavelengths in
the visible regions, and therefore these semiconductors are used for the
construction of LEDs. The colour of light emitted depends upon the
semiconductor material and doping level.
Different materials used for doping give out different colours.

1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) — red

2. Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) — red or yellow

3. Gallium Phosphide (GaP) — red or green

Alphanumeric displays using LEDs employ a number of square and oblong

Light Emitting areas, arranged either as dotmatrix or segmented bar matrix.
Alphanumeric LEDs are normally laid out on a single slice
of semiconductor material, all the chips being enclosed in a package, similar
to an IC, except that the packaging compound is transparent rather than
opaque. Figure 2.10 (c) and (d) gives typical LED Packages for single element
LEDs.

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) are passive displays characterized by very low
power consumption and good contrast ratio. They have the following
characteristics in common.

1. They are light scattering.

2. They can operate in a reflective or transmissive configuration.

3. They do not actively generate light and depend for their

operation on ambient or back lighting.

A transmissive Liquid Crystal Display has a better visual characteristic than a

Reflective LCD. The power required by an LCD to scatter or absorb light is
extremely small, of the order of a few μW/cm. Liquid Crystal Display operate
at low voltages, ranging from 1-15 V.

The operation of liquid crystals is based on the utilization of a class of organic

materials which remain a regular crystal-like structure even when they have
melted. Two liquid crystal materials which are important in display
technology are nematic and cholesteric, as shown in Fig. 2.11.
The most popular liquid crystal structure is the nematic liquid crystal (NLC).
The liquid is normally transparent, but if it is subjected to a strong electric
field, ions move through it and disrupt the well-ordered crystal structure,
causing the liquid to polarise and hence turn opaque. The removal of the
applied field allows the crystals structure to reform and the material regains
its transparency.

Basically, the Liquid Crystal Display comprises of a thin layer of NLC fluid,
about 10μ thick, sandwiched between two glass plates having electrodes, at
least one of which is transparent. (If both are transparent, the LCD is of the
transmissive type, whereas a reflective LCD has only one electrode
transparent.)

The structure of a typical reflective LCD is shown in Fig. 2.12.

The NLC material in Fig. 2.12 has a homogeneous alignment of molecules.

While the glass substrate supports the LCD and provides the required
transparency, the electrode facilitates electrical connections for the display.
The insulating spacers are the hermetic seal.

The LCD material is held in the centre cell of a glass sandwich, the inner
surface of which is coated with a very thin conducting layer of tin-oxide,
which can be either transparent or reflective. The oxide coating on the front
sheet of the indicator is etched to produce a single or multi segment pattern
of characters and each segment of character is properly insulated from each
other.

LCDs can be read easily in any situation, even when the ambient light is
strong. If the read electrode is made transparent instead of reflective, back
illumination is possible by a standard indicator lamp. Extending back
illumination a step further by adding a lens arrangement. LCDs can be used
as the slide in a projection system, to obtain an enlarged image.

Important Features of LCDs:

1. The electric field required to activate LCDs is typically of the

order of 104 V/cm. This is equivalent to an LCD terminal voltage
of 10 V when the NLC layer is 10μ thick.

2. NLC materials possess high resistivity > 1010Ω. Therefore the

current required for scattering light in an NLC is very marginal
(typically 0.1 μA/cm2).

3. Since the light source for a reflective LCD is the ambient light
itself, the only power required is that needed to cause turbulence
in the cell, which is very small, typically 1 μW/cm.

4. LCDs are very slow devices. They have a turn-on time of a few
milliseconds, and a turn-off time of tens of milliseconds.

To sum up, LCDs are characterized by low power dissipation, low cost, large
area and low operating speed. LCDs are usually of the seven-segment type
for numeric use and have one common back electrode and seven transparent
front electrodes characters, as shown in Fig. 2.13. The back electrode may be
reflective or transmissive, depending on the mode of operation of the display
device.
Generally, arrays of such characters are simultaneously fabricated using thin-
film or hybrid IC technology for segments and conductors on glass plates,
and then filled in with NLC material, followed by hermetic sealing. LCD arrays
utilizing a dot-matrix are also possible, but they are not popular because of
their slow operation.

7 Segment LED Display Working Principle:

In 7 Segment Led Display, it is usual to employ a single LED for each segment.

For conventional 7 Segment Led Display (including the decimal point, i.e. the
8th segment), the wiring pattern is simplified by making
one terminal common to all LEDs and other terminals corresponding to
different segments. The terminals can be either of the common anode (CA)
form or common cathode (CC) form, shown in Figs 2.18 (b) and (c).

A typical static single digit 7 segment LED display system and multi-digit are
shown in Figs. 2.18 (a) and (d).

Multi-digit display system may be static or dynamic.

Common anode type displays require an active low (or current sinking)
configuration for code converter circuitry, whereas an active high (or current
sourcing) output circuit is necessary for common-cathode LED type display.

Both multi-digit and segmental displays require a code converter; one code
converter per character for static display systems and a single code converter
for time shared and multiplexed dynamic display systems, which are
illuminated one at a time.

The typical circuit schemes described in the figures are only of the decimal
numeric character. An 8 digit display system, operating on this principle and
suitable for digital instrumentation is given in Fig. 2.18 (d).
It is also possible to generate hexadecimal numeric characters and
conventional alphanumeric characters using 7 segment and 14 or 16
segment LED display units respectively, with a proper code converter. Both
static and dynamic displays can be realized using LCDs, either in a common
format (7 segment) or in single or multi character.

A chopped dc supply may be used, for simplicity, but conventionally an ac

voltage is applied either to the common electrode or to the segment. Various
segmental LCD driver circuits are displayed in Fig. 2.19.

Referring to Figs 2.19 (a) and (b), it is seen that an ac voltage (Vac) is applied
to either the common electrode or to the segment. High value resistances (R
> 1M) are included in the circuit, as shown. The code converter controls the
switches (S) . Vac is present across the selected segment and the common
electrode when S is ON, and the voltage between any other segment (S-OFF)
and the common electrode is zero. Hence the desired segments are
energized, provided Vac has a magnitude greater than or equal to the
operating voltage of the LCD.

The basic operation of the phase shift method for driving the segment is
shown in Fig. 2.19 (c). In this circuit, ac voltages of the same amplitude and
frequency (not necessarily same phase) are supplied to the common
electrode as well as the segments.

There will be a finite voltage drop between a segment and the common elec-
trode only when the ac voltages applied are out of phase, and thus the
selected segment is energised. On the other hand, when in-phase voltages
are present, the voltage drop between a segment and the common electrode
is zero, leading to the off state.

5×7 Dot Matrix Led Display Character Patterns:

Excellent alphanumeric characters can be displayed by using dot matrix LEDs
with an LED at each dot location. Commonly used Dot Matrix Displays of
prominent characters are 5 x 7, 5 x 8, and 7 x 9, of which 5×7 Dot Matrix Led
Display Character Patterns shown in Fig. 2.20 (a), is very popular due to
economic considerations.

The two wiring patterns of dot matrix displays are as follows.

1. Common anode or common cathode connection

(uneconomical).
2. X — Y array connection (economical and can be extended
vertically or horizontally using a minimum number of wires, Fig.
2.20 (b)).
A typical 3 digit alphanumeric character display system using 5×7 Dot Matrix
Led Display Character Patterns is shown in Fig. 2.21.

Led Bar Graph Display:

Bar graph displays are analogue displays which are an alternative to

conventional D’ Arsonval moving coil meters. They use a closely packed
linear array or column of display elements, i.e. “DOT-LED’ S”, which are
independently driven so that the length of the array (or the height of the
column) corresponds to the voltage or current being measured. These
displays are generally used in the panel meters to accept analog input signals
and produce an equivalent display of the input signal level by illuminating
the corresponding LEDs, as shown in Bar Graph of LEDs Fig. 2.22.
Data Logger Operation:
Data Logger Operation – For proper understanding of a Data Logger
Operation, it is essential to understand the difference between analog and
digital signals. For example, measurement of temperature by a milli
voltmeter, whose needle shows a reading directly proportional to the emf
generated by the thermocouple, is an analog signal.

However, digital equipment presents a digital output in terms of pulses and

involves an electronic pulse counting equipment which counts the number
of pulses. The pulses are generated such that each pulse corresponds to the
smallest value of the parameter being measured.

These digital signals are precise at all times. Consider the example of
temperature. In the case of analog measurements even the accuracy of the
potentiometric method is limited by the precision with which the resistance
can be subdivided. In the digital method, the electrical signal obtained from
the thermocouple is subdivided by an electronic decade circuit and thus the
thermocouple voltage can be measured to many places of decimal.

An analog device is capable of measuring with an error of ± 0.5% to

±1%,whereas a digital device can be obtained with an error of any ± 0.01%.
An analog instrument responds to a change in input levels in times of the
order of 0.25 to 1 s while a digital instrument gives accurate readings in a
few hundredth’s of a second, and often many times faster.

One advantage of a digital instrument is that its reading can be recorded by

suitable printer.
The Data Logger Operation senses only digital signals and hence analog
signals, if any, have to be converted to digital signals. The digital technique
is employed because it measures very small (or large) signals accurately and
fast.

The recording device may be a printed log or a punched paper tape. The
printed output can be either line by line on a paper strip or on a type written
page.

Time words are printed at the start of each sequence. Time is recorded in
hours, minutes and seconds. Data Logger Operation consists of the channel
identity number, followed by polarity indication (+ or —), the measured value
(4 or 6 digits) and units of measurement. Sometimes the range may also be
indicated.

Basic parts of a Data Logger Operation

1. Input scanner
2. Signal conditioner
3. A/D converter
4. Recording equipment
5. Programmer

The block diagram of a Data Logger Operation involving all these parts is
shown in Fig. 17.24.

The input scanner is an automatic sequence switch which selects each signal
in turn. Low level signals, if any, are multiplied to bring them up to a level of
5 V. If the signals are not linearly proportional to the measured parameter,
these signals are linearised by the signal conditioner.
The analog signals are then converted to digital signals suitable for driving
the recording equipment (printer or punched paper tape).

The programmer (serialiser) is used to control the sequence operation of the

various items of the logger. It tells the scanner when to step to a new channel,
and receives information from the scanner, converter and recorder. The real
time clock is incorporated to automatic the system. The clock commands the
programmer to sequence one set of measurements at the intervals selected
by the user.

Input Signals

The input signals fed to the input scanner of the Data Logger Operation can
be of the following types.

1. High level signals from pressure transducers

2. Low level signals from thermocouples
3. ac signals
4. Pneumatic signals from pneumatic transducers
5. On/off signals from switches, relays, etc.
6. Pulse train from tachometer
7. Digital quantities
The last three signals (5, 6 and 7) are of the digital type and are handled by
one set of input scanners and the remaining signals are of the analog type
and are handled by a different set of input scanner.

Low level dc signals are first amplified and then conditioned by the law
network and finally fed to the A/D converter.

High level signals are fed straight to law network and converter.

The ac and pneumatic signals are first converted to electrical dc signals,

conditioned and then converted.

In this manner, all types of signals are converted to a form, suitable for
handling by the data logger.

The purpose of the conditioner is to provide a linear law for signals from
various transducer which do not have linear characteristics.

Filters are used for noise and ripple suppression at the interface of the output
of the transducers and the input of the signal conditioner, since these signals
carried by the cables are of very low magnitude. Digital signals are then fed
to the digital interface, whereas analog signals are first amplified, linearised
and then brought to the analog interface. They are then converted into
digital form and finally fed to the digital interface.

(Signal) Input Conditioning

Since Data Logger Operation give their readout in the units of measurements
concerned, there are two requirements:

• Scaling linear transducers

• Correcting the curvature of a non-linear transducer, such as a
thermocouple
Linear inputs can be dealt with in two ways.

• The simplest is to provide individual resistance attenuation on

each input in order to reduce the transducer output level, where
the scale factor is an integral power of ten. For example, if a
particular transducer has a full scale of 10 mV for a pressure of
500 kg/cm2, we can reduce the value to one half by the use of an
attenuator, such that 500 kg/cm2 may be represented by 5 mV.
If the system is to have a resolution of 1 kg/cm2, the A/D
converter must have a resolution of 10 pV. This technique is
limited only by the sensitivity of the A/D converter.
• The second method is to change the sensitivity of the A/D
converter. But since each input may require a different scale
factor, this is not convenient as an input attenuation technique.
The signal can be linearised at any one of the following three places.

• In the analog stage before conversion

• In the conversion process
• Digitally after conversion
The first method is not suited to low level voltages, as it requires some form
of amplification. The signal conditioner may be placed between the scanner
and the converter. But, each type of transducer requires individual linearising
circuits.

The third method requires a storage capability and a computer processing

technique. The most satisfactory is the second method, whereby linearisation
is built into the conversion process.
 • A/D Converters

• Recorders

The output from the Data Logger Operation can be printed on any of the
following.

1. Typewriter
2. Strip printer and/or digitally recorded on punched tape or
magnetic tape for further analysis in a digital computer.

The typewriter provides a conventional log sheet with tabulated results, and
prints in two colours.

The signals obtained from the A/D converters are applied to the electro-
magnetic operated levers of a typewriter. Plus, Minus, characters which can
be printed one at a time, decimal point shift, line shift, type colour and
spacing are controlled by the EM solenoids which are energised from the
programmer unit. Punched paper tape or magnetic tape is used when the
recorded data is to be further analysed or where the rate of data acquisition
is too great for a printer.

Programmer

This can be considered as an automatic sequence switch which controls the

operation of all other units of the data logger. The sequential operations
performed by a programmer are as follows.

• Set amplifier gain for individual input, i.e. gain of the amplifier
has to be so adjusted that for a maximum value of input signal,
the A/D converter records a full scale reading.
• Set linearization factor so that the adjusted output from the
signal amplifier is directly proportional to the measured quantity.
• Set high and low alarm limit
• Initiate alarm for abnormal condition
• Select input signal scanner switching is set normally by a timing
pulse to select the reset input.
• Start A/D conversion
• Record reading channel identify and time (in order that the
readings may be identified at a later stage, a number identifying
 that the input has been normally recorded, with the actual
reading and the time during the beginning of each complete
scan).
• Display reading
• Reset logger. (At the end of cycle the A/D converter sections of
the logger are reset to their initial conditions and the cycle, starts
again.)