Hydrogen Economy: Generation Storage Usage

Is combustion the only way to generate energy?

Petrol/CNG + O2 from air Thermal energy + unburnt fuel + gases (CO x, NOx etc.)

Fuel + oxidant (O 2 from air) Thermal energy + biproducts

e-

Energy

The energy that is released from the reaction is due to difference in bond energies of reactant and product.
What if, the electrons that are shared between reactants is caught? Will that give us the electrical energy???
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Hydrogen Economy: Generation Storage Usage
e-

Energy

2H2 O2 2H2O

e- Need electronic conductors to carry the electrons (2 electrodes;

-
e one to receive from H2 and one to donate to O2)

H2
atom

H+ Need an ionic conductor to carry the protons (electrolyte)

Two electrodes and an electrolyte: Electrochemical system

2
Hydrogen Economy: Generation Storage Usage

Fuel cells: A better way of conversion of energy?

Electrochemical
Energy
Thermal
2H2 O2 2H2O

Thermal conversion
1) Combustion efficiency ~30% (MAXIMUM), COx, NOx, noise etc.
Energy Electrochemical conversion
2) Conversion efficiency ~40-50% (MINIMUM), no air and noise pollution
Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
3) Conversion efficiency ~80-90%, no air and noise pollution

3
Fuel Cells

Fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of gases
directly into electrical energy!
It typically houses an electrolyte for conducting the ions between the electrodes
(anode and cathode).
Anode: electrode where oxidation of hydrogen takes place (loss of electrons)
Cathode: electrode where reduction of oxygen takes place (gain of electrons)

Anode
H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
Fuel cell as a black
box
Chemical energy Electrical energy
Cathode in terms of gases (DC power) +
water
½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e- → H2O

4
Working of a fuel cell

5
 Working of an
Electrolyzer

Pl note: electrode names are mistakenly typed in the video. Cathode to be read as anode and vice-versa.
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 Importance of cell components
Catalyst
layer:
Supports
the
reactions H+
at
respective
electrodes
e.g. Pt Carbon Bipolar plate (BPP): to
np ~50
nm supply the gases in a
defined pathway
Pt np ~2 nm (channels)
Representation Should possess high
of Pt on electrical conductivity
carbon
(support to Pt)
High machinability,
Good strength etc.
Gas diffusion layer (GDL): to distribute the gas more e.g. graphite, S.S.
uniformly over catalyst layer, highly porous (>70 %) e.g.
carbon paper, carbon cloth
Y. Wang et al. A review on unitized regenerative fuel cell technologies, part-A: Unitized regenerative proton exchange membrane fuel cells, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 65 (2016) 961–977
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Assembling of a Fuel Cell

Fuel cell system

Possible applications of fuel cells in various field

Y. Wang et al. , A review on unitized regenerative fuel cell technologies, part-A: Unitized regenerative proton exchange membrane fuel cells,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 65, 2016, 961–977. 8
Space applications

NASA used alkaline fuel cell stack to generate electricity and water in their space applications in 1960s

9
Automobile applications

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LSxPkyZOU7E&ab_channel=ToyotaEurope
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Stationary Applications

General Motors installed the first fuel

cell trailer at the Dow Chemical
Company plant in Freeport, TX

General Motors installed the first fuel 1 kW stationary combined heat and
cell trailer at the Dow Chemical power PEM fuel cell stack by BALLARD
Company plant in Freeport, TX. for a Japanese market

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Advantages of fuel cells

• High efficiency conversion: Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly into
electricity without the combustion process (electrical efficiency ~50%). Further, the
heat generated by fuel cell stacks can also be used in cogeneration system to
achieve overall efficiencies ~85-90%
• Quiet operation: There is no noise pollution by fuel cells due to absence of
moving parts/components.
• Unlimited runtime: since fuel cells are conversion devices (and not storage
devices like batteries), they need not be recharged with fuel. The operating range
in terms of time can be extended with increase in the size of fuel tank like in case
of gasoline powered vehicles. This distinguishingly overcomes fuel cell operated
vehicles over battery operated electric vehicles.
• Zero emission: Fuel cells do not produce greenhouse gases and are therefore
found environmental friendly in nature. The water produced by fuel cell stacks can
even be utilized for other purposes.

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Advantages of fuel cells

• High energy density:

comparable energy
density w.r.t. gasoline
based fuels
• Better specific energy
compared to batteries

Ragone plot showing energy density vs. power

density for various devices along with discharge time
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Disadvantages of fuel cell

Cost:
Cost represents a major barrier to fuel cell implementation (e.g. 5 kW stack costs close
20000 $)
Fuel storage:
Due to ultra low density of hydrogen (0.089 g/L), hydrogen need higher volumes for storage
which increases the storage cost.
CO layer
Catalyst poisoning:
Pt
Fuel cells work with high purity hydrogen gas (>99.999%) and are prone to COnppoisoning.
Low gravimetric power density:
Majority of weight of fuel cell stacks is governed by bipolar plates and the end plates
reducing its power density per unit mass compared to combustion engines and batteries.
However, fuel cell power densities have been improved substantially over past decade
making them a good competitor to established technologies in automobile sector.

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 Disadvantages of Fuel Cells
Density of H2 = 0.089 kg/m3 vs ~900 kg/m 3 of diesel
Gasoline/diesel powered automobile

X
Liter

Hydrogen powered automobile

~10X Liter

Same distance
Energy density comparison of selected fuels
P. Millet, S. Grigoriev, Electrochemical Characterization and Optimization of a PEM Water Electrolysis Stack for Hydrogen Generation, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
TRANSACTIONS, 41, 2014, 7-12
15
 Disadvantages of Fuel Cells

Automotive fuel cell cost evolution and

projection
Bars show the PEMFC stack cost (US$), while
the cost of the total FCEV is printed for
selected years. Inset figure: automotive fuel
cell component cost distribution based on
500,000 fuel cell systems produced per year.
BOP, balance of plant; GDL, gas diffusion layer;
FCEV, fuel cell electric vehicle; MEA, membrane
electrode assembly; PEMFC, proton-exchange
membrane fuel cell.

[6] Bruno G. Pollet et al, Current status of automotive fuel cells for sustainable transport, Current Opinion in Electrochemistry, 16, 2019, 90-95

16
Cost of Platinum

Evolution of total platinum group metal (PGM)

cost and loading for a 100-kW FCEV, showing
historic development, current status, and
targets. Bars show the total PGM cost based
on current raw Pt prices (≈US$30/g). Values
inside bars give the total fuel cell stack cost for
a manufacturing volume of 500,000 per year.
Values outside bars give the total PGM loading
per unit cell area (mg/cm 2) and for a 100-kW
FCEV. Inset figure shows a broader set of
technical targets for FCEVs in 2020. FCEV,
fuel cell electric vehicle

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Various losses in a fuel cell
1.48 -286/(2*96485) = 1.48
-237/(2*96485) = 1.23
(Reversible potential)

Importance of Current density:

To normalize the fuel cell performances;
Helps in comparing fuel cells of different
sizes
e.g. comparing automobiles based on
mileage

H 2 + ½ O2 → H 2O (Enthalpy of
reaction: -286 kJ/mol)

18
•

19
•

20
•

e.g. Ecell = 0.7 V

21
 Few examples:
• Operating potential of cell = 0.4 V; λ = 1.3, overall efficiency? :~21%
• Operating potential of cell = 0.6 V; λ = 1.5, overall efficiency?: ~27%

22
Flow rate calculations

I = total current in the cell/stack

N = No of cells
V = molar volume (22.4 L/mol) at STP e.g. Ecell = 0.7 V

Ex. Calculate the flow rates of hydrogen and oxygen to be

supplied if the cell is operating at 0.7 V

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Distribution of gases

• Attributed to designs of flow field

patterns
• More the size of cell, more complex
is the design and travel length
• More pressure drop

Four flow fields: (a) serpentine, (b) parallel, (c) multi-parallel

and (d) discontinuous/interdigitated

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Heat and water management

Heat management
- Not a serious problem with small cells (< 50 cm2) Gas inlet
- Major concern with stacks
- For example, a fuel cell operating at 1.0 kW and 50%
efficiency generates 1.0 kW of waste heat.
- Water with NO IMOURITIES is circulated to extract the
heat generated and utilized for better cause.

Water management:
- water to be continuously taken out to avoid flooding
- GDL and BPP to be made hydrophobic Gas outlet

Water distribution (kmol m -3 )

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RFCs and URFCs

RFC URF
C
• Frank Ludwig filed a patent (No: US3132972A) for regenerative fuel cell in 1964.
• Regenerative fuel cell as a system is a set of a fuel cell and an electrolyser.
• Unitized regenerative fuel cell is a single device that works in both fuel cell and electrolysis mode. Only one
mode can be operated at a time
 Advantages of URFC

1. Onboard generation of fuel and oxidant at higher pressures

2. ~50% reduction in cost of the system
3. Works well with other renewable sources of energy
4. Effective for standalone systems

PV: Photovoltaic system EL: Electrolyser FC: Fuel cell stack Bat: Battery system URFC: unitized regenerative
fuel cell system
 Terminologies in URFC

Fuel cell mode: Electrolysis mode:

Hydrogen electrode Hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER)

Oxygen electrode Oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) Oxygen evolution reaction (OER)
Polarization and efficiency

(Electrolysis efficiency)

Round trip efficiency

Importance of fuel cell stacking

Power = Voltage x current (limited by the kinetics)

(limited by the thermodynamics)

P2>P1>P3 (in this case)

How do I increase the power of fuel cell?

(P1 (P2
) So, in order to increase power, either voltage or
) (P3 current or both are increased
)
Power = Number of fuel cells x power of a single
fuel cell

30
 Fuel cell stacking
A
e -
B
P O
P 2

O
Anodic BPP/current collector

Cathodic BPP/current
2H + 2H +
H2 O2
H2 O
H2 O
2H ++2e -

2H ++2e -
End plate

End plate
collector
(1/2)O2 +2H ++2e -
(1/2)O2 +2H ++2e -

2e
-
H
H2

H2

2
2H + 2H +

A C A C
H2 O2
M M H ME
2e
-
1 2 2 A
A Dismantled view of stack 3 cells
Schematic working of stack 2 cells
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 Fuel cell stacking

Schematic structure of a fuel cell stack

S.Porstmann, T. Wannemacher, W.-G. Drossel, A comprehensive comparison of state-of-the-art manufacturing methods for fuel cell bipolar plates including
anticipated future industry trends, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 60, 2020, 366-383 32
Importance of Current density

A: 25 cm2

A: 100 cm2
Cell potential, V

A: 300 cm2

Current, A

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Importance of Current density

OCV = 1 V

A: 25 cm2

A: 100 cm2
Cell potential, V

A: 300 cm2

Current density, A/cm 2

34