SECTION 1 - FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY

1-1 -- The Macroscopic and the Microscopic World

1-1 -- The Scientific Method
 Qualitative Observations vs. Quantitative Observations
 Formulating a Hypothesis
 Testing the Hypothesis
 Theory vs. Law
1-3 -- Units of Measurement
 SI Fundamental Units (SI Base Units)
 Derived Units

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 Seven Prefixes to Know
1-5 -- Mass vs. Weight
1-5 -- Uncertainty in Measurement
1-6 -- Significant Figures (“Sig Figs”)
1-7 -- Types of Errors in Measurement
 Random Errors (Human Errors)
 Systematic Errors (Instrumentation Errors)
1-7 -- Accuracy vs. Precision
1-8 -- Significant Figures and Calculations
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
 Nonzero Numbers
 Leading Zeros
 Captive Zeros (Inclusive Zeros)
 Trailing Zeros
 Exact Numbers (“Counted Numbers“)
1-10 -- Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
 Rules for Multiplication and Division
 Rules for Addition and Subtraction
1-11 -- Dimensional Analysis
 Unit to Unit Calculations
1-12 -- Conversion Factors for Mass, Length, Volume, Pressure, and
Temperature
1-13 -- Unit Conversions
1-14 -- Temperature Conversions
1-15 -- Density
 Density of Solids
 Density of Liquids
 Density of Gases
1-16 -- Classification of Matter
 Solids, Liquids, and Gases
 Heterogeneous Mixtures
 Homogeneous Mixtures
 Pure Substances
 Compounds and Elements
1-18 -- Physical Changes and Chemical Changes
 Physical Properties and Chemical Properties

SECTION 2 - ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

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2-1 -- Three Fundamental Chemical Laws
 The Law of Conservation of Mass
 The Law of Definite Proportions
 The Law of Multiple Proportions
2-3 -- Dalton’s Atomic Theory
2-4 -- Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom
 The Electron and J.J. Thomson
 The Cathode Ray Tube
 The Plum Pudding Model
 Robert Millikan and the Mass of the Electron
 Ernest Rutherford
2-6 -- Brief Introduction to Modern Atomic Structure
 Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons
2-6 -- Isotopes
 Nuclear Symbol Notation
 Hyphen Notation
 Mass Number (A) vs. Atomic Number (Z)
2-8 -- Molecules and Ions
 Covalent Bonds and Molecules
 Ionic Bonds, Cations, Anions, and Ionic Compounds
2-9 -- Introduction to the Periodic Table
 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
 Group I -- The Alkali Metals
 Group 2 -- The Alkaline-earth Metals
 Groups 3-12 -- The Transition Metals
 Group 17 -- The Halogens
  Group 18 -- The Noble Gases
2-11 -- Naming Compounds
 Ionic Compounds
 Molecular Compounds (Covalent Compounds)
2-12 -- Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
 Cations with Multiple Charges
 Some Common Anions
2-15 -- Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
 List of Polyatomic Anions to Know
2-16 -- Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
 Rules for Naming

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 Prefixes (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca)
2-18 -- Naming Acids
 Binary Acids
 Oxyacids

SECTION 3 - CHEMICAL QUANTITIES AND STOICHIOMETRY

3-1 -- Atomic Masses

 The Carbon-12 Standard
 Weighted Average
3-2 -- The Mole
 Avogadro’s Number (6.022 x 1023)
 Molar Mass (Molecular Weight, Formula Mass)
3-4 -- Determining Mass Percent (Percent Composition)
3-5 -- Determining Empirical Formula
 Determining Molecular Formula
3-7 -- Chemical Equations (“Chemical Reactions”)
 Reactants and Products
 Balancing Chemical Equations (Balancing Chemical Reactions)
 Word Equations and Formula Equations
3-10 -- Reaction Stoichiometry
 The Coefficients of a Reaction
 Mole to Mole Calculations
 Mole to Mass Calculations
 Mass to Mole Calculations
 Mass to Mass Calculations
 Stoichiometric Quantities
3-12 -- Limiting Reactant Calculations
 Limiting Reactants
 Excess Reactants
3-15 -- Calculating Percent Yield
 Actual Yield, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield

SECTION 4 -- TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND SOLUTION

STOICHIOMETRY

4-1 -- Water as a Solvent

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 Aqueous Solutions
 Water: a Polar Molecule
 Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions
4-2 -- Hydration (Solvation)
 Polar Substances
 Nonpolar Substances
4-3 -- Electrolytes
 Strong Electrolytes, Weak Electrolytes, and Non-electrolytes
4-5 -- Concentrations of Solutions
 Molarity (M)
4-7 -- Dilutions
 Dilute vs. Concentrated
 M1V1 = M2V2
4-8 -- Types of Chemical Reactions
4-8 -- Precipitation Reactions (Double Displacement Reactions)
 Formation of a Precipitate
 Solubility Rules
 Molecular Equations
 Complete Ionic Equations and Spectator Ions
 Net Ionic Equations
4-11 -- Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
4-12 -- Acid-Base Reactions
 Strong Acid + Strong Base
 Weak Acid + Strong Base
4-16 -- Volumetric Analysis
 Acid-Base Titrations
 Titrations, Titrants, Analytes, Burets, and Indicators
 Stoichiometric Point (Equivalence Point) vs. Endpoint
4-19 -- Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions)
 Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers (Oxidation States)
 The Oxidizing Agent and The Reducing Agent
 “OIL RIG”
4-23 -- Balancing Redox Reactions
 The Half-Reaction Method
 Writing Half-Reactions
 Balancing Half-Reactions in Acidic Solution
 Balancing Half-Reactions in Basic Solution

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SECTION 5 – GASES

5-1 -- Atmospheric Pressure

 The Barometer
 Two Factors Affecting Barometric Pressure
5-2 -- Units of Pressure
 mm Hg, torr, atm, Pa, psi
5-2 -- Boyle’s Law
5-3 -- Charles’ Law
5-4 -- Avogadro’s Law
5-5 -- The Combined Gas Law and the Ideal Gas Law
 Units of the Universal Gas Constant (R)
5-8 -- Gas Stoichiometry
 Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
 Molar Volume of a Gas at STP (22.4 L)
5-10 -- Rearranging the Ideal Gas Law
 Molar Mass of a Gas
 Density of a Gas
5-10 -- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
5-12 -- Mole Fractions
5-14 -- The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter (KMT)
 Four Postulates of KMT
5-15 -- The Meaning of Temperature
 The Relationship between Temperature and Kinetic Energy
5-15 -- The Root Mean Square Velocity (μrms)
5-16 -- Diffusion and Effusion of Gases
 Diffusion Rates
 Effusion
  Graham’s Law of Effusion
5-18 -- Real Gases
 What Does it Mean to “Behave Ideally”?
 The Van Der Waals Equation
 Corrected Pressure and Corrected Volume for Real Gases

SECTION 6 – THERMOCHEMISTRY

6-1 -- The Nature of Energy

6-1 -- Types of Energy

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 Potential Energy
 Kinetic Energy
6-1 -- The Difference between Temperature and Heat (q)
6-2 -- The Transfer of Heat
 System vs. Surroundings
 Exothermic Reactions and Endothermic Reactions
6-3 -- The Internal Energy of a System
 ΔE = q + w
 Work, External Pressure, and Volume; w = - PΔV
6-7 -- Calorimetry
 Heat Energy (q)
 Heat Capacity vs. Specific Heat Capacity
 Heat Gained vs. Heat Lost
6-9 -- Molar Heat Capacity
6-10 -- The Coffee-Cup Calorimeter
6-11 -- The Change in Enthalpy (ΔH)
 Enthalpy Change = Heat of Reaction
 ΔH for Exothermic Reactions
 ΔH for Endothermic Reactions
6-13 -- State Functions
6-13 -- Hess’ Law
6-15 -- Standard Enthalpies of Formation
 ΔHf° values
SECTION 7 - THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL VIEW OF THE ATOM AND
PERIODICITY

7-1 -- Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Visible Light (“VYBOGR”)
 Complementary Colors
 Wavelength of Light (λ) and Frequency of Light (ν)
7-3 -- The Nature of Matter
 Max Planck and Planck’s Constant (h)
 ΔE = nhν

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 Albert Einstein and the Photon
 The Wave-Particle Duality of Light
 The deBroglie Equation
7-6 -- The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen
 Bohr Model of the Atom
 Line Emission Spectra and the Line Emission Spectrum for Hydrogen
 Quantized Energy-Levels
7-9 -- Quantum Numbers
 The Principal Quantum Number (n)
 Atomic Orbitals
 The Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
 The Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
 The Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)
7-12 -- Polyelectronic Atoms
 Degenerate Orbitals
 Electron Configurations
 The “Diagonal Rule” and Writing Electron Configurations
 Hund’s Rule
 Orbital Notation
7-16 -- Core Electrons vs. Valence Electrons
 Noble-Gas Notation
 Valence Electron Configurations
7-17 -- Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
 Atomic Radius, Ionization Energy, and Electron Affinity
SECTION 8 - CHEMICAL BONDING

8.1 -- Types of Chemical Bonds

 Ionic Bonds vs. Covalent Bonds
 Bond Energy
 Coulomb’s Law
 Bond Length
 The Potential Energy Diagram for H2
8-2 -- Electronegativity Trends
 Bond Polarity
 Dipole Moment

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8-4 -- Overall Polarity and Dipole Moments
8-6 -- Ions: Electron Configurations and Relative Sizes
8-8 -- Formation of Binary Ionic Compounds
 Ionic Bonds
 Lattice Energy
8-9 -- Energies Contained in Various Covalent Bonds
 Bond Dissociation Energies (BDE)
 Bond Energies of Multiple Bonds
8-10 -- Calculating the Enthalpy Change (ΔH) from Bond Energies
 Calculating the Enthalpy Change from Standard Enthalpies of Formation (ΔHf°)
8-12 -- Electron Dot Notation
 The Octet Rule
 Non-Bonding Electrons (Lone Pairs of Electrons)
8-13 -- Lewis Structures
 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
 Expanded Octets
8-14 -- Rules for Drawing Lewis Structures
 Drawing Lewis Structures of Molecules
8-21 -- Drawing Lewis Structures of Ions
8-22 -- Resonance Structures
 Nonequivalent resonance structures
 Formal Charges
8-24 -- Molecular Structure and Molecular Geometry
 VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion)
 Linear Geometry
 Trigonal Planar Geometry
 Tetrahedral Geometry
 Trigonal Pyramidal Geometry
  Bent Geometry
 Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry
 Octahedral Geometry
 Square Planar Geometry

SECTION 9 - COVALENT BONDING AND MOLECULAR ORBITALS

9-1 -- Hybridization
 Hybrid Orbitals
 Types of Hybridization

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 The Localized Electron Model
9-2 -- sp3 Hybridization
 Effective Pairs
9-3 -- sp2 Hybridization
 Sigma Bonds (σ-bonds)
 Pi Bonds (π-bonds)
9-4 -- sp Hybridization
9-5 -- dsp3 Hybridization
9-6 -- d2sp3 Hybridization
9-9 -- The Molecular Orbital Model
 Types of Molecular Orbitals
 Bonding Molecular Orbitals (MO’s)
 Antibonding Molecular Orbitals (*MO’s)
 Molecular Orbital Energy Diagrams
9-10 -- Bond Order
 Bond Strength
9-12 -- Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
 Paramagnetic vs. Diamagnetic
 P-S Mixing in Diatomic Molecules
 Molecular Electron Configurations
9-15 -- Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules and Ions
 P-S Mixing Always Observed

SECTION 10 - LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

10-1 -- Three States of Matter: Gases, Liquids, and Solids

10-1 -- Intermolecular Forces (IMF’s)
  Dipole-Dipole Forces
 London Dispersion Forces (LDF) or “van der Waals” Forces
10-3 -- Hydrogen Bonding
10-4 -- London Dispersion Forces - a Closer Look
 Instantaneous Dipoles
 Induced Polarization
10-5 -- The Liquid State
 Surface Tension
 Capillary Action
 Cohesive Forces and Adhesive Forces
 Viscosity

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10-6 -- Amorphous Solids
10-6 -- Crystalline Solids
 Lattice Framework of Solids
 Simple Cubic Unit Cells
 Body-Centered Cubic Unit Cells (bcc)
 Face-Centered Cubic Unit Cells (fcc)
 Hexagonal Closest Packing Arrangements
 Cubic Closest Packing Arrangements
10-9 -- Types of Crystalline Solids
 Ionic Solids and Molecular Solids
 Atomic Solids, Network Solids, and Metallic Solids
10-10 -- The Electron Sea Model for Metallic Bonding
10-11 -- Metal Alloys
 Substitutional Alloys
 Interstitial Alloys
10-11 -- Semiconductors
 n-type Semiconductors
 p-type Semiconductors
10-13 -- The Vapor Pressure of Liquids
 Heat of Vaporization, ΔHvap (Enthalpy of Vaporization)
 Dynamic Equilibrium
 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
 The Vapor Pressure of a Liquid
 Volatile Liquids
10-15 -- Mathematical Relationship between Vapor Pressure and Temperature
10-16 -- Changes of State
10-16 -- The Heating Curve for Water
 The Molar Heat of Fusion, ΔHfus (Enthalpy of Fusion)
  The Molar Heat of Vaporization, ΔHvap (Enthalpy of Vaporization)
 Normal Melting Points and Normal Boiling Points
10-18 -- Phase Diagrams

SECTION 11 - SOLUTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

11-1 -- Homogeneous Mixtures (Solutions)

11-1 -- Solution Composition
 Dilute vs. Concentrated
 Molarity (M)

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 Molality (m)
 Mass Percent
 Mole Fraction
 Normality (N)
11-3 -- Three Factors Affecting the Solubility of a Solution
 Structure Effects
 Pressure Effects
 Henry’s Law
 Temperature Effects
 Solid Solutes, Liquid Solutes, and Gas Solutes
11-4 -- The Vapor Pressure of Solutions
 Nonvolatile Solutes
 Raoult’s Law
11-7 -- Colligative Properties
11-7 -- Boiling Point Elevation
11-9 -- Freezing Point Depression
11-10 -- Osmotic Pressure
 Relationship between Osmotic Pressure (π) and Molarity (M)
 van’t Hoff Factor
 Isotonic Solutions
11-13 -- Ion Pairing

SECTION 12 - CHEMICAL KINETICS

12-1 - Introduction to Kinetics

12-2 - Reaction Rates
 Instantaneous Reaction Rates
  Average Reaction Rates
12-4 - Rate Laws
12-5 - Types of Rate Laws
 The Differential Rate Law
 The Integrated Rate Law
12-6 -- Determining the Form of the Rate Law
 The Method of Initial Rates
12-9 -- Determining a Differential Rate Law
12-10 -- The Integrated Rate Law
12-10 -- The First-Order Integrated Rate Law
 The Half-Life of a First-Order Reaction

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12-13 -- The Second-Order Integrated Rate Law
 The Half-Life of a Second-Order Reaction
12-16 -- The Zero-Order Integrated Rate Law
 The Half-Life of a Zero-Order Reaction
12-16 -- Reaction Mechanisms
 Mechanisms
 Reaction Intermediates
 Elementary Steps and Molecularity
 Unimolecular Reactions, Bimolecular Reactions, and Termolecular Reactions
 The Rate-Determining Step
12-19 -- The Collision Model for Chemical Kinetics
 Collision Frequency
 Activation Energy
 Molecular Orientations of Colliding Reactants
12-21 -- The Arrhenius Equation
12-22 -- Catalysis
 Catalyzed Pathways vs. Uncatalyzed Pathways
12-23 -- Integrated Rate Laws for Reactions with More than One Reactant
 Pseudo First-Order Rate Laws

SECTION 13 - CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

13-1 -- The Equilibrium Condition

 Dynamic Equilibrium
 The Equilibrium Expression
 The Equilibrium Constant (K)
 Equilibrium Positions
13-4 -- Equilibria Involving Gases
13-5 -- Heterogeneous Equilibria
13-6 -- Applications of the Equilibrium Constant
 The Extent of a Reaction
 The Size of the Equilibrium Constant
 The Reaction Quotient (Q)
 Q vs. K
13-9 -- Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
 The ICE Method (“Initial, Change, Equilibrium”)
13-13 -- Calculating Equilibrium Pressures
13-14 -- Systems with Small Equilibrium Constants

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 Making Approximations for Equilibrium Concentrations
13-15 -- Factors Controlling the Position of Equilibrium
 Le Chatelier’s Principle
13-16 -- The Effect of a Change in Concentration on Equilibrium
13-17 -- The Effect of a Change in Pressure on Equilibrium
 Addition / Removal of Gaseous Reactants and Products
 Addition of an Inert Gas
 Changing the Volume of the Reaction Container
13-19 -- The Effect of a Change in Temperature on Equilibrium
 Le Chatelier’s Principle
 Endothermic Conditions vs. Exothermic Conditions

SECTION 14 - ACIDS AND BASES

14-1 -- Acid-Base Chemistry

 Arrhenius Acids and Bases
 Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
 Proton (H+) Donors and Proton (H+) Acceptors
 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
 The Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka)
14-3 -- Simple Acid Dissociation Reactions
14-4 -- Acid Strength
 Table of Ka Values for Some Common Acids
 List of Strong Acids to Know
14-5 -- Amphoteric Substances
 Auto-Ionization of Water
 The Dissociation Constant for Water, Kw (“Ion Product for Water“)
14-6 -- The pH Scale
 The Relationship between pH and [H+]
 A Shortcut to Calculating pH Values
 The pOH scale and [OH-]
 pKw
14-8 -- Calculating the pH of Strong Acid Solutions
14-9 -- Calculating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions
 Solving for pH Using the ICE Method
 Weak Acid Equilibrium Expressions
14-11 -- Solutions Containing Two Weak Acids
14-12 -- Percent Dissociation (Percent Ionization)

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 Calculating Ka from Percent Dissociation
14-14 -- Calculating the pH of Strong Base Solutions
 Group I Hydroxides
 Group II Hydroxides
 Antacids
14-15 -- Calculating the pH of Weak Base Solutions
 Kb and Base Equilibrium Expressions
14-17 -- Polyprotic Acids
 Diprotic Acids and Triprotic Acids
 Stepwise Dissociation Reactions
14-19 -- Acid-Base Properties of Salts
 Salts that Produce Neutral Solutions
 Salts that Produce Basic Solutions
 Salts that Produce Acidic Solutions

SECTION 15 - APPLICATIONS OF ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA

15-1 -- Solutions of Acids or Bases Containing a Common Ion

 Common Ions and the “Common Ion Effect”
15-2 -- Buffered Solutions (Buffer Solutions)
 Approaching Buffer Problems and Questions
 Major Species and the ICE Method
15-5 -- How Do Buffers Resist a Change in pH?
15-5 -- The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
15-7 -- Titrations and pH Curves (Titration Curves)
 The Buret, the Titrant, and the Analyte
 Stoichiometric Point (Equivalence Point) vs. Endpoint
  Monitoring the Progress of an Acid-Base Titration
15-8 -- Types of Acid-Base Titrations
 Strong Acid - Strong Base Titrations
 Buffer Capacity
 Weak Acid - Strong Base Titrations
 Halfway Point of a Titration
 The pH Curve of a Weak Acid - Strong Base Titration
15-16 -- Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product (Ksp)
 Saturated Solutions
 The Solubility Product
 The “Solubility” vs. the “Solubility Product”

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15-18 -- Precipitation of Solids from Solution
 The Ion Product (Q)
 Q vs. Ksp

SECTION 16 - SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

16-1 -- The First Law of Thermodynamics

16-1 -- Spontaneous Processes and Entropy (S)
 The Definition of Entropy
 Entropy of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
16-3 -- The Change in Entropy (ΔS)
16-3 -- The Second Law of Thermodynamics
16-4 -- Gibbs Free Energy
 The Free Energy Change (ΔG)
 ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
 Threshold Temperature
16-5 -- Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions
 Less Disorder vs. More Disorder
 Standard Entropy Values
 Calculating the Standard Entropy Value (ΔS°)
16-7 -- Free Energy and Chemical Reactions
 The Standard Free Energy Change (ΔG°)
 Three Ways to Calculate ΔG°
 Standard Free Energies of Formation (ΔGf°)
16-9 -- The Relationship between Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
SECTION 17 – ELECTROCHEMISTRY

17-1 -- Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions)

 A Typical Redox Reaction
 The Oxidizing Agent and the Reducing Agent
 Redox Half-Reactions
17-2 -- Redox Reactions and Electricity Generation
 Separating the Oxidizing Agent and the Reducing Agent
 Electrochemical Cells
17-2 -- Galvanic Cells
 Galvanic Cell Setup

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 The Anode and the Cathode (“OIL RIG”)
 The Salt Bridge
 Measuring Voltage with a Voltmeter
17-4 -- Cell Potential (ξ cell)
 The Electromotive Force (emf)
 Calculating the Cell Potential
 Standard Reduction Potentials (ξ°cell)
17-5 -- Table of Standard Reduction Potentials
17-7 -- Line Notation to Describe an Electrochemical Cell
17-10 -- Inert Electrodes
 Platinum as an Inert Conductor
17-11 -- The Relationship between Free Energy and Cell Potential
 The Faraday Constant (F)
17-13 -- Concentration Cells
17-15 -- The Nernst Equation
 Non-standard Cell Potentials
17-17 -- Calculating the Equilibrium Constant for a Redox Reaction
17-18 -- Batteries
 Sources of Direct Current
 The Lead Storage Battery
 The Dry Cell Battery
17-21 -- Electrolysis
 Electrolytic Cells
 Reversal of Electron Flow
 Electrolytic Cells vs. Galvanic Cells
SECTION 18 - TRANSITION METALS AND COORDINATION CHEMISTRY

18-1 -- The Importance of Transition Metals

 The d-block Metals
18-2 -- General Properties of Transition Metals
 The Addition of Core Electrons to Inner d-orbitals and f-orbitals
 Chemical Properties and Physical Properties
 The Formation of Ionic Compounds
 Multiple Oxidation States
 Complex Ions and Paramagnetism
18-4 -- Electron Configurations

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 The Diagonal Rule
 Oxidation States (Oxidation Numbers)
18-5 -- Ionization Energy Trends
18-5 -- Atomic Radius Trends and Ionic Radius Trends
 The Lanthanide Contraction
18-6 -- Coordination Compounds
 Complex Ions, Ligands, and Counterions
 Paramagnetic Complexes vs. Diamagnetic Complexes
 Oxidation Numbers vs. Coordination Number
 Geometries of Complex Ions (Linear, Tetrahedral, Square Planar, Octahedral)
18-8 -- Ligands (“Coordinate Covalent Bonds”)
 Monodentate Ligands (Unidentate Ligands) and Bidentate Ligands
 The Oxalate Ligand and the Ethylenediamine Ligand
 Polydentate Ligands
 EDTA, a Hexadentate Ligand
 Chelating Ligands (“Chelates”)
18-10 -- Naming Coordination Compounds
 Names of Some Common Ligands
18-12 -- Isomerism of Complex Ions
 Isomers and Types of Isomerism
18-12 -- Structural Isomers
 Coordination Isomerism
 Linkage Isomerism
18-13 -- Stereoisomerism
 Geometrical Isomerism (Cis-Trans Isomers)
 Optical Isomerism
 Enantiomers and Chiral Compounds
18-16 -- Hybridization
  sp Hybridized Complexes (linear)
 sp3 Hybridized Complexes (tetrahedral, square planar)
 d2sp3 Hybridized Complexes (octahedral)
18-16 -- The Crystal Field Model
 Magnetic Properties of Complex Ions
 Ligands as “Negative Point-Charges”
 d-orbital Splitting: the eg Set vs. the t2g Set
18-17 -- Crystal Field Splitting, Δ
 Strong-Field Case (Large Δ, Low-Spin)
 Weak-Field Case (Small Δ, High-Spin)
 Strong-Field Ligands vs. Weak-Field Ligands

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18-20 -- Why are Transition Metal Complexes Usually Colored?
 Complimentary Colors
 Ground States vs. Excited States

SECTION 19 - THE NUCLEUS AND NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

19-1 -- The Nucleus

 Protons and Neutrons
 The Relative Size and Density of the Nucleus
 The Energies Associated with Nuclear Reactions
19-2 -- Some Nuclear Definitions
 Nucleons
 Atomic Number (Z) and Mass Number (A)
 Isotopes and Nuclides
19-2 -- Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay
 A Typical Radioactive Decay Process
19-3 -- Types of Radioactive Decay Reactions
 Alpha-Particle Production (α-particles)
 Spontaneous Fission
 Beta-Particle Production (β-particles)
 Gamma Ray Production (γ-rays: photons)
 Electron Capture
 Positron Production (β+-particles)
19-5 -- Writing and Balancing Nuclear Reactions
19-5 -- Radioactive Decay Series
19-6 -- Half-Life (t½)
 Half-lives of Radioactive Nuclides
  First-Order Decay Processes
19-6 -- Detection of Radioactivity
 The Geiger Counter and Ar+(g) Detection
19-7 -- Carbon-14 Dating
 Radioactive Decay and First-Order Kinetics
19-10 -- Nuclear Fission
 Uranium-235
 Self-Sustaining Chain Reactions (subcritical, supercritical, and critical
reactions)
 Critical State and “Critical Mass”
19-12 -- Nuclear Fusion

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 Fusion Reactions in the Sun and in Stars
 Fusion of Protons (H+) to Form Helium (He)
19-13 -- Stability of the Nucleus
19-13 -- Mass Defect (Δm)
 Calculating Nuclear Binding Energy from Mass Defect
19-15 -- Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus (ΔE)
 Units: “J/nucleon” vs. “MeV/nucleon”
 Binding Energy Problems where Electron Mass Must be Taken into Account

SECTION 20 - Introduction to Organic Chemistry

20-1 -- The Characteristics of Carbon

20-1 -- Alkanes
 Saturated Hydrocarbons
 n-Alkanes vs. Branched Alkanes
 Systematic Names (IUPAC) and Common Names of Alkanes
20-3 -- Nomenclature of Alkanes
 Rules for Naming Alkanes
 Common Alkyl Groups and Alkyl Branches
 Determining the Structure from the Name
 Determining the Name from the Structure
20-8 -- Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
20-8 -- Alkenes
 Carbon-Carbon Double Bonds
 sp2 Hybridized Carbon Atoms
 Sigma Bonds (σ-bonds) and Pi Bonds (π-bonds)
20-9 -- Stereoisomerism of Alkenes
  Cis-Trans Isomers
20-9 -- Nomenclature of Alkenes
20-10 -- Alkynes
 Carbon-Carbon Triple Bonds
 sp Hybridized Carbon Atoms
 Sigma Bonds (σ-bonds) and Pi Bonds (π-bonds)
 Perpendicular Sets of p-orbitals
20-11 -- Naming Alkynes
20-11 -- Hydrocarbon Derivatives
 Functional Groups
 Halohydrocarbons

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 Alcohols
 Aldehydes and Ketones
 Carboxylic Acids and Esters
 Amines
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