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IGCSE Chemistry-2.4

The document discusses the structure of atoms, including the development of atomic models, subatomic particles, isotopes, atomic mass, radioactivity, and modern measurement methods. It covers topics like Dalton's theory, the discoveries of the electron, proton, neutron, and nucleus, isotopic notation, relative atomic mass calculations, radioactive decay and half-life, uses of radioactivity, and scanning tunneling microscopy and mass spectrometry.

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Stamen Markov
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41 views27 pages

IGCSE Chemistry-2.4

The document discusses the structure of atoms, including the development of atomic models, subatomic particles, isotopes, atomic mass, radioactivity, and modern measurement methods. It covers topics like Dalton's theory, the discoveries of the electron, proton, neutron, and nucleus, isotopic notation, relative atomic mass calculations, radioactive decay and half-life, uses of radioactivity, and scanning tunneling microscopy and mass spectrometry.

Uploaded by

Stamen Markov
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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The Nature of Matter

Chapter 2
 Chapter Overview

◦ 2.4 – The structure of the atom.

Chapter 2
 New Terms
◦ The atomic model

◦ Atomic number

◦ Neutron number

◦ Nucleon (mass) number

◦ Isotopes

◦ Atomic mass

◦ Relative atomic mass

◦ Radioactivity

◦ Modern methods for measuring atomic size and mass

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 1. Development of the atomic model.

◦ A). J. Dalton’s theory, 1808:


 Atoms are solid indivisible particles.

◦ B). J. J. Thompson, 1897:


 Discovery of the electron
and the proton.

Table 1 Properties of subatomic particles.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


◦ C). E. Rutherford, 1909:
 Discovery of the nucleus.

◦ D). J. Chadwick, 1933:


 Discovery of the neutron.

Figure 1 The structure of the Helium


atom.

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/hydrogen-atom

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 2. Identifying an atom.

◦ A). Atomic number:


 Z = Number of p+.

◦ B). Neutron number:


 N = Number of n0.

◦ C). Nucleon (Mass)


number:
A=Z+N

Figure 2 A model of the Helium atom.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


Table 2 The subatomic composition and structure of certain atoms.

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-an-atom

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 3. Isotopes.

◦ A). What are isotopes?

 Atoms of the same


element with:

◦ the same number of:


 Protons
 Electrons

◦ different:
 Number of neutrons Figure 3 The three isotopes of hydrogen and
 Mass their atomic, neutron and mass number.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


◦ B). Properties of isotopes:

 Isotopes of the same element:

◦ Same electron structure.


◦ Have same chemical properties.

 Radioisotopes:

◦ Isotopes with unstable nuclei.


◦ Emit various forms of radiation.

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/isotopes-and-atomic-mass

2.4 The structure of the atom.


◦ C). Describing isotopes:

 Hyphen notation:

◦ carbon – 12

◦ hydrogen – 2

 Nuclear notation:

◦ 12C

◦ 2H

2.4 The structure of the atom.


Table 3 Several elements that exist as mixtures of isotopes.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 Practice

◦ Copy and answer the questions.

◦ https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Concept-
Builders/Chemistry/Isotopes/Concept-Builder

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 4. Atomic mass.
◦ A). Absolute atomic mass:
 Mass of Hydrogen = 1.7 x 10-24 g

◦ B). Relative atomic mass:


 Masses of atoms relative to each other.

Table 4 The relative masses of some atoms.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


◦ C). Measuring against a standard:
 Masses of all atoms expressed in terms of the
mass of specific (standard) atom.

 Standard atom: Carbon – 12 weighs 12 units.

Figure 4 The standard atom for


measuring relative atomic mass.

6.1 Chemical analysis and formulae


 5. Relative atomic mass, Ar.

◦ A). What is Ar?

 The average mass of naturally occurring atoms of


the element
.

◦ B). How do we find Ar?

 From the periodic table.


 The number below the element symbol.

6.1 Chemical analysis and formulae


Table 5 The periodic table. (Appendix p. 346)

2.4 The structure of the atom.


◦ C). Calculating relative atomic mass:

σ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒


 Ar = σ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Isotope Mass of Percent


Isotope abundance
Chlorine – 35 1 75%
 x
Chlorine - 37 2 25%

35∗75 + 37∗25 3550


 Ar(H) = = = 35.5
100 100

6.1 Chemical analysis and formulae


 Practice

◦ What is the relative atomic mass, Ar of:

 H, Li, Na

 Fe

 C, S, F

◦ Example:

 Ar(O) = 16

6.1 Chemical analysis and formulae


 6. Radioactivity.

◦ A). Why does radioactivity happen?

 Due to instability of some isotopes.

 Extra neutrons cause them to disintegrate.

◦ B). How does radioactivity happen?

 Spontaneous decay.

 Nuclear fission.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


◦ C). How often does it happen?
 It is a random process (considers samples).
 Every isotope decays at specific rate.

Figure 5 Half-life of a sample of radioactive isotopes.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


◦ D). Uses of radioactivity:

Figure 6 Radiocarbon dating of wooden and organic objects.


https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/cheerpj/nuclear-physics/latest/nuclear-
physics.html?simulation=radioactive-dating-game

2.4 The structure of the atom.


Figure 7 Industrial use of radioisotopes: (a) detecting the level of liquid, (b)
detecting leaks in underground pipes, (c) controlling the thickness of metal sheets.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 Medical and food safety uses of radioisotopes:

◦ γ – radiation from cobalt – 60 is used to treat internal


cancer tumors.

◦ phosphorus-32 and strontium-90 are used for treating


skin cancer.

◦ Medical instrument sterilization with γ – radiation.

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 Practice

◦ Copy and complete the table in your notebook

◦ https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Concept-
Builders/Chemistry/Subatomic-Particles/Concept-Builder

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 7. Modern measuring methods.
◦ A). Scanning tunneling microscopy.

Figure 7a Si atoms; 20 mil


times enlarged.

Figure 7b Silicon carbide


atoms; 0.3 nm apart.
Figure 8 Main parts of a STM (left) and typical STM images (right).
https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV3181.html

2.4 The structure of the atom.


◦ A). Mass spectrometry:

Figure 9 Main parts of a mass spectrometer (left) and a mass spectrum (right).

https://www.britannica.com/science/mass-spectrometry

2.4 The structure of the atom.


 Practice

◦ Questions:
 p. 47; ex. 2.16 – 2.19

2.4 The structure of the atom.

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