RADIATION PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS

Course Description:
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Study of the physical principles of
radiation, its nature, characteristics, WHAT IS MATTER?
properties, interaction with matter,
• Is anything that occupies
and application in radiologic
space and has mass or weight.
sciences. This course establishes a
basic knowledge of atomic structure • It Is made up of the smallest
and terminology. particle known as ATOM.

• It is characterized by its
MASS, the quantity of matter
contained in any physical object.
In this unit, we would attempt to find out the MASS is actually described by its
answers to some of the questions like: energy equivalence, whereas
WEIGHT is the force exerted by a
1. What is the structure of an ATOM? body under influence of gravity.

2. What are the constituents of ATOM?

3. Why the atoms of different elements

are different?

• John Dalton (1766-1844),

Historical Development and Theory of Atom helped to revolutionize
chemistry with his
In the fifth century BC, Leucippus and Democritus
hypothesis that the
argued that all matter was composed of small,
behavior of matter could
finite particles that they called atomos, a term
be explained using an
derived from the Greek word for “indivisible.”
atomic theory.
They thought of atoms as moving particles that
differed in shape and size, and which could join
together.
First published in 1807, many of
Dalton’s hypotheses about the
microscopic features of matter
are still valid in modern atomic
theory. Here are the postulates
of Dalton’s atomic theory.
1. Matter is composed of exceedingly
small particles called atoms. An atom is
the smallest unit of an element that
can participate in a chemical change.

2. An element consists of only one type of

atom, which has a mass that is
characteristic of the element and is the
same for all atoms of that element A
macroscopic sample of an element
A pre-1982 copper penny (left) contains
contains an incredibly large number of approximately 3 × 1022 copper atoms (several
atoms, all of which have identical the
dozen are represented as brown spheres at
chemical properties. right), each of which has the same
chemical properties
 3. Atoms of one element differ in
properties from atoms of all other 4. A compound consists of atoms of
elements. two or more elements combined
in a small, whole-number ratio.
“HOOK and EYES”
In a given compound, the
numbers of atoms of each of its
elements are always present in
the same ratio

Copper(II) oxide, a powdery,

black compound, results from
the combination of two types of
atoms—copper (brown spheres)
and oxygen (red spheres)—in a
1:1 ratio.

5. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed

during a chemical change, but are instead
rearranged to yield substances that are
different from those present before the
change.

When the elements copper (a shiny, red-

brown solid, shown here as brown spheres)
and oxygen (a clear and colorless gas, shown
here as red spheres) react, their atoms
rearrange to form a compound containing
copper and oxygen (a powdery, black solid).

Atomic Theory after the Nineteenth

Century:

English physicist Joseph John

Thomson ( J.J. THOMSON 1856-1940 )
2. The electron can change its shells or Certain experiments showed that an
energy level by absorbing or atom is neither the smallest nor
indivisible particle of matter as stated by
releasing energy.
Dalton. It was shown to be made up of
even smaller particles. These particles
were called electrons, protons and
neutrons. The electrons are negatively
charged whereas the protons are
positively charged. The neutrons on the
other hand are uncharged in nature.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The NUCLEUS, consists of protons and neutrons which

are made of QUARKS bound together by GLUONS.

ATOMIC
NOMENCLATURE
 ATOMIC NUMBER AND ATOMIC MASS The In Rutherford’s model the mass of the
number of protons in an atom is called the atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
ATOMIC NUMBER and is denoted by the This is due to the presence of two
symbol ‘Z’. heavy particles namely protons and
neutrons in the nucleus. These particles
All atoms of an element have the same
are called nucleons.
atomic number. The electrons occupy the
space outside the nucleus. In order to The number of nucleons in the nucleus
account for the electrically neutral nature of an atom is called its MASS
of the atom, the number of protons in the NUMBER. It is denoted by ‘A’ and is
nucleus is exactly equal to the number of equal to the total number of protons
electrons. and neutrons present in the nucleus of
an element.
Thus,:
Thus:,
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) = number of protons
= number of electrons MASS NUMBER (A) = number of
protons(Z) + number of neutrons(n).

Atomic number and mass number are

represented on the symbol of an element.
12
An
element, X with an atomic number, Z and C
the mass number, A is denoted as follows:
6

means that the carbon has an atomic

number of 6 and the mass number of
12.

This can be used to compute the

number of different fundamental
particles in the atom.

Let us calculate it for carbon:

 As the atomic number is 6 this

means:

Number of protons = number of

electrons = 6

 As Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

⇒ 12 = 6 + number of neutrons

⇒ number of neutrons = 12 – 6 = 6

Thus, an atom of

12

has 6 protons, 6 electrons and 6 neutrons.

  ATOMIC MASS NUMBER AND THE PRECISE MASS OF AN
ATOM ARE NOT EQUAL.

ISOTOPES- Atoms that have the same atomic number but

different atomic mass number. Isotopes describes all atoms of a ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION:
given element.
DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS IN
ISOBARS- Atoms that have the same atomic mass number, but
DIFFERENT ORBITS
different in atomic number.

ISOTONES- Atoms that have the same number of neutrons but

different numbers of protons.

ISOMERS- Have the same atomic number and atomic mass

number.

. These orbits or shells in an atom are represented by the letters

K, L, M, N,…

or the positive integral numbers, n = 1,2,3,4,….

II. The orbits are arranged in the order of increasing energy. The
energy of M shell is more than that of the L shell which in turn is
more than that of the K shell.

III. The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given

by the formula 2n2,

where ‘n’ is the number of the orbit or the shell.

The arrangement of electrons in

the various shells or orbits of an
atom of the element is known as
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Hydrogen (H) atom has only one electron. It would

occupy the first shell and electronic configuration of
hydrogen can be represented as 1.

The next element helium (He) has two electrons in its

atom. Since the first shell

can accommodate two electrons; hence, this second

electron will also be placed

in the first shell. The electronic configuration of helium

is written as 2.

The third element, Lithium (Li) has three electrons.

Now the two electrons occupy

the first shell whereas the third electron goes to the

next shell of higher energy

level, i.e. second shell. Thus, the electronic

configuration of Li is 2, 1.
 ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY

Electron Binding Energy- the strength of attachment of an

electron to the nucleus,. The closer an electron is to the nucleus,
the more it is bound. Also called IONIZATION POTENTIAL, is the
energy required to remove an electron from an atom, a molecule,
or an ion.

Centripetal Force- “Center-Seeking”, the force that keeps the

electron in orbits.

Centrifugal Force- “Flying-out from the center force”, the force

created by the electron velocity, so that it maintains their distance
from the nucleus while travelling in a circular path.

The Four Fundamental Forces

Every force is a manifestation of one of the four

BASIC FORCES IN NATURE fundamental forces of nature. They are (listed in order of
decreasing strength):

1. STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
3. WEAK NUCLEAR FORCE
4. GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
 RADIOACTIVITY

The Discovery of Radioactivity

 In 1896 Henri Becquerel was using naturally

fluorescent minerals to study the properties of x-
rays, which had been discovered in 1895 by
Wilhelm Roentgen. He exposed potassium uranyl
sulfate to sunlight and then placed it on
photographic plates wrapped in black paper,
 Becquerel used an apparatus to show that the radiation believing that the uranium absorbed the sun’s
he discovered could not be x-rays. X-rays are neutral and energy and then emitted it as x-rays. This
cannot be bent in a magnetic field. The new radiation was hypothesis was disproved on the 26th-27th of
bent by the magnetic field so that the radiation must be February, when his experiment “failed” because it
charged and different than x-rays. was overcast in Paris.

 For some reason, Becquerel decided to develop his

photographic plates anyway. To his surprise, the
 When different radioactive substances were put in the images were strong and clear, proving that the
magnetic field, they deflected in different directions or uranium emitted radiation without an external
not at all, showing that there were three classes of source of energy such as the sun. Becquerel had
radioactivity: negative, positive, and electrically neutral. discovered radioactivity.

 The term radioactivity was actually coined by

Marie Curie, who together with her husband
Pierre, began investigating the phenomenon
recently discovered by Becquerel.

 The Curies extracted uranium from ore and to

their surprise, found that the leftover ore
showed more activity than the pure uranium.
They concluded that the ore contained other
radioactive elements. This led to the discoveries
of the elements polonium and radium. It took
Apparatus similar to that used by Henri Becquerel to determine the
four more years of processing tons of ore to
magnetic deflection of radioactive decay products. The magnetic
isolate enough of each element to determine
field is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the decay
their chemical properties.
products.
 Units of Radioactivity Radioactivity in Nature

 The number of decays per second, or activity, from a Radioactivity is a natural part of our environment.
sample of radioactive nuclei is measured in becquerel (Bq),
In nature, the nuclei of most atoms are stable. However,
after Henri Becquerel. One decay per second equals one
certain atoms have unstable nuclei due to an excess of
becquerel.
either protons or neutrons, or an excess of both. To
 An older unit is the curie, named after Pierre and Marie reach stability the nucleus spontaneously emits particles
Curie. and energy and transforms itself into another atom.

 One curie is approximately the activity of 1 gram of radium This process is called radioactive disintegration or
and equals (exactly) 3.7 x 1010 becquerel. radioactive decay.

 The activity depends only on the number of decays per  Radioactivity is the emission of particles and
second, not on the type of decay, the energy of the decay energy in order to become stable.
products, or the biological effects of the radiation.

 1 Ci = 3.7·10¹⁰ Bq

Radioisotopes can be produce artificially and naturally.

 Artificial radioisotopes are produced in

 Atoms are described as radioactive, and are known as machines such as particle accelerator or nuclear
radioisotopes or radionuclides. reactors.

 When a nucleus contains too few or too many neutrons,  Naturally occurring radioisotopes have 2
the atom can disintegrate radioactively, bringing the primary sources:
number of neutrons and protons into a stable and proper
ration. 1. Some originated at the time of the Earth’s
formation and are still decaying slowly. An
* Neutrons are one of the factors that affects nuclear stability. example is URANIUM, which ultimately decays
to Radium, which in turn decays to Radon.

2. Radioisotopes, also produced in the upper

atmosphere through the action of cosmic radiation
such as the 14C (carbon 14).
 These natural radioisotopes are present throughout the
planet, in the atmosphere (carbon-14, radon-222), in the
Earth’s crust (uranium-238 and uranium-235, radium-226,  Artificial radioisotopes are produced using a
etc.) and in our food (potassium-40). cyclotron or nuclear reactor, for many
different applications. Some radioisotopes
 That is why everything around us is radioactive. Since the (cobalt- 60, iridium-192, etc.) can be used as
dawn of time, the Earth and living beings, have therefore sources of radiation for gamma radiography or
been bathed in radio activity. It was only recently (slightly sources of irradiation for radiotherapy or
more than 100 years ago), through the work of Henri industrial applications. The use of these
Becquerel, that humans discovered, they had always been sources is widespread in medicine and industry.
living in this environment.
 Other artificial radioisotopes are created in
nuclear reactors (strontium-90, cesium-137,
etc.). Some are not used by man. They
ALPHA RADIOACTIVITY
constitute what is known as nuclear waste.
 Alpha radiation is the emission of helium nuclei that Being highly radioactive, these radioisotopes
have two protons and two neutrons. The nuclei have two have to be stored under high surveillance and
positive charges. kept isolated from humans.

 Atoms with radioactive nuclei that have too many

protons and neutrons often emit alpha radiation. A
nucleus must be extremely unstable to emit an alpha
 Radioisotopes can decay to stability in many
particle. When it does it loses 2 units of positive charge
ways.
and 4 units of mass.
 Radioactive decay results in emission of alpha
 They transform into another chemical element with a
particles, beta particles (+plus , - minus) , and
lighter nucleus.
usually gamma rays.
 For example,uranium-238 is alpha radioactive and
transforms into thorium-234.
 BETA PLUS RADIOACTIVITY

 Beta plus radiation consists of positrons (particles

with the same mass as electrons but positively
charged).

 Some atoms with nuclei too heavily loaded with

protons emit beta plus radiation. One of the protons
within the nucleus disintegrates into a neutron plus a
positron. The positron is ejected, so the atom is
transformed into a different chemical element.

 For example, iodine-122 is beta plus radioactive and

transforms into tellurium-122.
GAMMA RADIOACTIVITY
 For both types of beta disintegration, the nucleus
 Gamma radiation is an electromagnetic wave, just
keeps the same number of nucleons (and therefore
like visible light or x-rays but with more energy.
the same mass number).
 This type of radiation often follows alpha or beta
 The results of beta emission therefore,is to increase
disintegration. After emission of the alpha or beta
the atomic number, while the atomic mass number
particle, the nucleus is still excited because its
remains the same.
protons and neutrons are not yet in equilibrium. The
excess energy is then rapidly released through the
emission of gamma radiation. This is gamma
radioactivity.
BETA MINUS RADIOACTIVITY
 For example, cobalt-60 transforms by beta
disintegration into nickel-60, which reaches a stable  Beta minus radiation consists of negatively charged
state by emitting gamma radiation. electrons.

 Certain atoms with nuclei that have too high a number

of neutrons emit beta minus radiation. One of the
neutrons within the nucleus disintegrates into a proton
plus an electron. The electron is ejected, so the atom is
transformed into a different chemical element.

 For example, thorium-234 is beta minus radioactive and

changes into protactinium-234.

RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE

 The activity of a radioactive sample diminishes over

time with the gradual disappearance of the unstable
nuclei it contains. The radioactive disintegration of a
particular nucleus is a random phenomenon.

 For each radioactive isotope it is possible to give a

half-life (T1/2), which is the time needed for half of
the radioactive atoms present at the outset to
disappear by spontaneous transformation.
The half-life of Iodine-131 is 8days.
 Half-life of a radioisotopes, the time required
for a quantity of radioactivity to be reduced to one-  If 100mCi was present on January 1 at noon, then at
half its original value. noon on January 9 , only 50mCi would remain.

 Depending on the radioactive nuclei concerned, this  On January 17, 25mCi would remain.
half-life varies greatly, from a few seconds or hours,
or several days, to hundreds or billions of years,  On January 25, 12.5mCi would remain.
 Problem #1: The half-life of Zn-71 is 2.4 minutes. If one
had 100.0 g at the beginning, how many grams would
be left after 7.2 minutes has elapsed?

Solution:

7.2 / 2.4 = 3 half-lives

(1/2)3 = 0.125 (the amount remaining after 3 half-lives)

100.0 g x 0.125 = 12.5 g remaining

Problem #4: After 24.0 days, 2.00 milligrams of an

original 128.0 milligram sample remain. What is the
half-life of the sample?

Problem #3: Os-182 has a half-life of 21.5 hours. How many grams of Solution:
a 10.0 gram sample would have decayed after exactly three half-
The decimal fraction remaining:
lives?
2.00 mg / 128.0 mg = 0.015625
Solution:
2) How many half-lives must have elapsed to get to
(1/2)3 = 0.125 (the amount remaining after 3 half-lives)
0.015625 remaining?
10.0 g x 0.125 = 1.25 g remain
(1/2)n = 0.015625
10.0 g − 1.25 g = 8.75 g have decayed
n log 0.5 = log 0.015625
 Note that the length of the half-life played no role in this
n = log 0.5 / log 0.015625
calculation. In addition, note that the question asked for the
amount that decayed, not the amount that remaining. n=6

3) Determine the half-life:

Problem #5: A radioactive isotope decayed to 17/32 of its original 24 days / 6 half-lives = 4.00 days
mass after 60 minutes. Find the half-life of this radioisotope.

Solution:
Problem #6: How long will it take for a 40.0 gram sample
17/32 = 0.53125 (this is the decimal amount that remains) of I-131 (half-life = 8.040 days) to decay to 1/100 its
original mass?
(1/2)n = 0.53125
Solution:
n log 0.5 = log 0.53125
(1/2)n = 0.01
n = 0.91254 (this is how many half-lives have elapsed)
n log 0.5 = log 0.01
60 min / 0.91254 = 65.75 min
n = 6.64
n = 66 min (to two sig figs)
6.64 x 8.040 days = 53.4 days

Problem #8: At time zero, there are 10.0 grams of W-

187. If the half-life is 23.9 hours, how much will be
present at the end of one day? Two days? Seven days?
Problem #7: Fermium-253 has a half-life of 0.334 seconds. A
radioactive sample is considered to be completely decayed after 10 Solution:
half-lives. How much time will elapse for this sample to be
considered gone? 24.0 hr / 23.9 hr/half-life = 1.0042 half-lives

Solution: One day = one half-life; (1/2)1.0042 = 0.4985465

remaining = 4.98 g
0.334 x 10 = 3.34 seconds
 Two days = two half-lives; (1/2)2.0084 =
0.2485486 remaining = 2.48 g

 Seven days = 7 half-lives; (1/2)7.0294 =

0.0076549 remaining = 0.0765 g
Problem #53: How long will it take for 25% of the C-14 atoms in a
sample of C-14 to decay?

Solution:

25% decay means 75% remains

(1/2)n = 0.75

n log 0.5 = log 0.75 RADIOACTIVE DECAY

n = 0.415

(5730 yr) (0.415) = 2378 yr.

HALF-LIFE Radioactivity  Starting material =

NUMBER
remaining original activity
1 50%  Isotope remaining =
activity remaining
2 25%

3 12.5%

4 6.25%

5 3.12%

6 1.56%
Recall from previous discussions:
7 0.78%
 The total number of electrons in the orbital
shells, is exactly equal to the number of protons
8 0.78
in the nucleus.

 If an atom has an extra electron or has had

electron removed, it is said to be IONIZED.

 IONIZATION- is the removal of an orbital

electron from an atom.

IONIZING RADIATION
 SOURCES OF RADIATION
ELECTROMAGNETISM

XRAY AND GAMMA RAYS are forms of Electromagnetic

Radiation.

- They are often called PHOTONS.

- PHOTONS – no mass, no charge.

- They travel at a speed of light ( c ) = 3 x 108 m/s.

PHOTONS- an atom of light.

SINE WAVE are identical except for their AMPLITUDE.
- the smallest quantity of any type of EM energy, just as
AMPLITUDE is one half the range from the crest to the valley over atom is the smallest quantity of an element.
which the sine wave varies.
-A PHOTON, may be pictures as a smally bundle of energy,
sometimes called

QUANTUM, that travels through space at the speed of

light.

-They have no identifiable form, they do have EECTRIC

AND MAGNETIC FIELD, that continuously changing in a
SINUSOIDAL FASHION.

SINUSOIDAL VARIATIONS- usually called SINE WAVE.

PROPERTIES OF EM ENERGY

1. FREQUENCY (f)

2. WAVELENGHT (λ)

FREQUENCY

- Is equal t the number of crest or the number of valley

(trough) that pass the point of an observer per unit of time.

- The rate of rise and fall.

- Usually identifies as CYCLES PER SECOND. WAVELENGHT

- Unit of measurement is Hertz (Hz), name after Heinrich - The distance from ne crest to another, from one
Hertz. valley to another.

- 1Hz= 1 cycle per second. - Crest and troughs

 As the frequency is increased, the wavelength is reduced.

-At a give velocity (constant), the wavelength and

frequency are inversely proportional.

EM EQUATION

WAVE EQUATION
c = fλ
Wavelenght = velocity/ frequency
c = speed of light
Velocity = frequency x wavelenght
f= frequency

λ= wavelenght

OTHER PORTIONS OF SPECTRUM INCLUDES:

1.ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
2.INFRARED LIGHT
- The classification of EM waves according to its frequency.
3.MICROWAVE RADIATION
- The classification is based roughly on how the waves are
produced/or detected. - With all of the types of energy, PHOTONS are
essentially the same.
3 REGIONS OF EM SPECTRUM important to RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE:
- The PHOTONS, of these various portions of EM
1.VISIBLE LIGHT spectrum differ only in frequency and wavelength.
2.X-RADIATION

3.RADIOFREQUENCY.

MEASUREMENT OF EM SPECTRUM
EM spectrum contains 3 scales:

1.Energy

2.Frequency

3.Wavelenght

- Because velocity is constant (speed of light),

the wavelength and frequency are inversely
proportional.

- The photon energy is directly proportional

to frequency.
 VISIBLE LIGHT

- occupies the smallest segment of the EM spectrum and yet it is

the only portion that we can sense directly.

• Frequency range- 4 x 1014 Hz – 7x 1014 Hz

• Wavelenght range- 400nm-700nm

- Photons of visible light travel in straight line, their course

can be deviated when they pass from one transparent
medium t another. (prism)

❖ REFRACTION- deviation in line from travel.

- the cause of phenomena, such as the rainbow.

X-ray RADIATION

• Characterized by the energy contained in a

photon.
RADIOFREQUENCY
• Frequency is much higher and wavelength is
• Radiowaves are produced by the accelerated motion of much shorter than for the other types of EM
changes in conducting wires. energy.

• They are used in radio and television communication • Frequency range from 10nm – 10-4 nm.
system.
• Xray are produced in diagnostic imaging system.
• Frequency range- 500kHz- 1,000kHz. Gamma rays are emitted from radioactive
material.
• RF has relatively low energy and relatively long
wavelength. • The only difference between Xray- and gamma
ray is their origin.
• MRI uses RF waves to generate images of the human
body.
THE QUANTUM THEORY

• Relationship between energy and frequency.

EM REGIONS IMPORTANT TO RAD.SCI:
• Photon energy is directly proportional to photon
• Xray – produced radiograph frequency.

• Visible light- for viewing conditions/ fluoroscopic images Plank’s Quantum Equation:

• Radiofrequency- MRI E= hf

• Visible light- identify by its wavelength where E= photon energy

• RF- Frequency h=Plank’s constant ( 4.5 x 10-15eV or 6.63 x 10-34 Js)

• Xray- identify by its energy, measures in electron Volts f=frequency

(eV).
❖ f= E/h , E= hc/λ
 THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW

EM PROPAGATION: -means, that the concentration of EM

radiation decreases very rapidly with increasing distance from the
emitter.

-when light is emitted from the source such as the sun or a light
bulb, the intensity decreases rapidly with the distance from the
source.

-Xray exhibit precisely the same property.

-the decrease in intensity is inversely proportional to the square of

the distance of the object from the source.

- parameters; 2 distances, 2 intensities.

MATTER AND ENERGY

According to quantum physics and physics of relativity, matter can

be transformed into energy, and vise versa.
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
Nuclear fission, the basis of generating electricity is an example of IN RADIOLOGY
it.

Theory of relativity equation:

E= mc2

Where:

E= the energy measured in joules. (1 J= 6.24 x 1018 eV)

m= mas measured in kilograms

c=velocity of light in m/s

 Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
In 1904, Thomson proposed the “plum
pudding” model of atoms, which  THE FATHER OF NUCLEAR AGE
described a positively charged mass with
an equal amount of negative charge in  A physicist from New Zealand
the form of electrons embedded in it, who largely spent his scientific
since all atoms are electrically neutral. career in Canada and England.

Geiger and Rutherford fired α particles at

a piece of gold foil and detected where
those particles went, as shown in this
schematic diagram of their experiment.
Most of the particles passed straight
through the foil, but a few were deflected
slightly and a very small number were
significantly deflected.

Analyzing a series of such experiments in detail,

Rutherford drew two conclusions:

1. The volume occupied by an atom must

consist of a large amount of empty space.

2. A small, relatively heavy, positively charged

body, the nucleus, must be at the center of each
atom.

This analysis led Rutherford to propose a model in

NIELS BOHR ( 1885-1962)
which an atom consists of a very small, positively
charged nucleus, in which most of the mass of the  In 1913, Niels Bohr, a student
atom is concentrated, surrounded by the of Rutherford proposed a
negatively charged electrons, so that the atom is model to account for the
electrically neutral. shortcomings of Rutherford’s
model. Bohr’s model can be
understood in terms of two
postulates proposed by him.
The postulates are:

1. The electrons move in

definite circular paths of fixed
energy around a central
nucleus; just like our solar
system in which different
planets revolve around the
Sun in definite trajectory.
Similar to the planets, only
certain circular paths around
the nucleus are allowed for
the electrons to move. These
paths are called orbits, or