Measurements and instrumentation 4-4 fi ——— THES hha °21Y OF Meas tions ing block diagram indicates the necessary elements and their func! died interms ene measuring system. The entire operation of an instrument can be stu functional elements. The Fig, 12.1 shows the block diagram showing th © funey Auction elements of an instrument. 5 Primary Variable Variable Data Suan sensing conversion |] manipulation mecnred [element element element (Measurand) ———— a Data conditioning elements Fig. 1.2.1 Functional elements of an instrument The various elements can be grouped as, 2. Data conditioning elements, 3. Data resentation 1. Primary sensing element, ponents which perform g element Each element is made up of number of distinct com, Particular function in the measurement procedure. In the block diagram, the function of each element is important rather than the construction of the element. Primary Sensing Element An element of an instrument which makes first, the contact with the quantity to be measured is called primary sensing element. Thus first detection of the measurand is done by the primary sensing element. In ammeter, coil carrying current to be ‘measured is a primary sensing element. In most of the cases, a transducer follows primary sensing element which converts the measurand into a corresponding electrical signal. CED © general, a transducer converts a physical quantity from one form to other in case of electrical and electronic measurements, it converts physical quantity to be n into an analogous electrical signal. Variable Conversion Element The output of the primary sensing element is in electrical form such as ee frequency or any other electrical parameter. Such an output may not be suitable for ti actual measurement system. For example if the measurement system is digital then a analog signal obtained from the primary sensing element is not suitable for the digit system. Thus analog to digital converter is required which is nothing but <7 conversion element. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS™- An up thrust for knowledgeMeasurements and instrumentation 1-5 Theory of Measurement Seme instruments: do not need variable conversion element while some need more than one ‘The original information about the measurand must be retained as it is while doing such conversion. Variable Manipulation Element The level of the output from the previous stage may not be enough to drive the next ‘anipulation element manipulates the signal, preserving. the original nature of the signal, The manipulation inootes the change in numerical value of the signal. For example an amplifier which just amplifies the output, retaining the original natur Sometimes the output of the transducer may get affected due to. unwanted signals like noise. Thus such signals are required to be processed with some Processes like i to obtain the signal in pure and acceptable form conditioning elements, Data Transmission Element When the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to transmit the data from one stage to other. This is achieved by the data transmission element, The signal conditioning and data transmission together is called intermediate stage of an instrument. Data Presentation Element The transmitted data may be used by the system, finally for monitoring, controlling, or analysing purposes. Thus the person handling the instrument must get the information in the proper form, according to the purpose for which it is intended, This function is done by the data presentation element. If the data is to be monitored then visual display devices are used as data presentation element. If the signal is to be tecorded for analysis purpose then magnetic tapes, recorders, high speed cameras are TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS" “An up thrust for knowledgeTheory of Me he “erent elements. For control and analysis purpose, \d microcontrollers may be used as data prese e an ntati sors, computers ° . Presentation ergata presentation stage may be called terminating stage of an instrumeny Je consider a simple analog meter used to measure current or voltage For erihe Fig. 122 The moving coil is primary sensing element. The magnets ual sar rcther act as data conditioning stage to convert current in a coil to a force, ‘1 eee pansmitted to the pointer through mechanical linkages which act as transmission element. The pointer and scale act as data presentation element. [Magnets and) Current. Moving citer | op Oe | Mechenical Oberg cel components ert scale Primary Data Data’ sensing conditioning transmission Presentation Fig. 1.2.2 Block schematic of an ammeter ‘as data presentation data For pressure gauge, it can be illustrated as shown in the Fig. 1.2.3, Displacement Variable Data | manipulation Tepresentation Mechanical Gearing linkages Fig. 1.2.3 Block diagram of pressure guage For pressure thermometer, the elements can be represented as shown in the Fig. 1.2.4, sce 4 Data transmission Sensitive bulb ‘Mechanical Gearing ‘and capilary tube linkages + Pressure sensor Fig. 1.2.4 Block diagram of thermometer For D’Arsonval galvanometer, the elements can be as shown in the Fig. 1.aaa Measurements and instrumentation ERES calibration The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct values of measura comparison with the standard ones. The standard of device with which compai a] tmade is called a standard instrument. The insument which’ is/ unknown’ ands all calibrated is called test instrument. Thus in calibration, test instrument is compared a the standard instrument. ERE Calibration Methodology CE aa There are two fundamental methodologies for obtaining the comparison between | instrument and standard instrument. These methodologies are, Theory of Me (e0suren 1. Direct comparisons 2. Indirect comparisons Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology strument Test In a direct comparison, a source or generator applies a known input to the meter under test. The ratio of what meter is indicating and the known generator values gives the meter’s error. In such a case meter is test instrument while generator is the standard instrument. The deviation of meter from the standard value is Standard instrun compared with the allowable performance limit. If Meter meter deviation exceeds the allowance, then the ae i panes of tolerance. This © 445-4 (p) Generator calibra With the help of direct cor such calibration, the meter acts as a standard instrument while the test instrument. This is shown in the Fig. 1.15.1 (b). The transducer converts the signal from one form to another. Hence if transduo to be calibrated using direct comparison then both generator as well as meters are e transducer acts as a test instrument. The transd Fig. 1.15.1 (a) Meter calibration Test instrument mparison a generator or source also can be calibrated yenerator acts standard instruments while th characteristics are then expressed canard instrument as a ratio between the device's Test instrument Standard instru, output to its input, in the appropriate input and output measurement units. This is shown the Fig. 1.15.1 (). in the Fig TE, Fig. 1.15.1 (c) Transducer calibration TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS» An up thust for knowledge‘Measurements and Instrumentation 4251 ‘Theory of Measurement Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology In the indirect comparison, the test instrument is compared with the response of standard instrument of same type ice. if test instrument is meter, standard instrument is. also meter, if test instrument is generator, standard instrument is also generator and so on. eros ‘Tost instrument If the test instrument is a meter then the same G=a-— input is applied to the test meter as well as a est standard meter. Thus the indication of test meter is standard compared with the indication of the standard meter __ instrument ' for the same stimulus or input. Care must be taken that during the comparison process, the source Lee }-—_ supplying input to both must have the required Fig, 1.15.2 (a) Meter calibration level of stability. The magnitude of input is not important. This is shown in the Fig. 1.15.2 (a). Testigstument og In case of generator calibration, the output of both the generators, test as well as standard, are set to same nominal levels. Then a transfer meter is used which measures the outputs of both standard and test generators. From the linearity and the resolution of the transfer ‘ent eter, the generator is calibrated. The set up ] for the generator calibration is shown in the Hig Tae, Fig. 1.15.2 (b) Generator calibration The transducer calibration using, indirect tion method is similar to the generator calibration. The same input is given to the test transducer and the standard transducer. These are measured using the standard transfer Im peter. The sensitivity of the test transducer is obtained by multiplying the determined 5 ratio of the two outputs by the known sensitivity of the standard. The set up is shown * in the Fig. 1.15.2 (0), er is tte Test instrument i a i Source | nent : j y . Standard instrument ugh oa Sid value ~ Mi.” Svat) Fig, 1.15.2 (c) Transducer calibrationMeasurements and instrumentation 1-52 Theory of (08 Calibration Curve ae The calibration means obtaining error at a number of points on its scale. The aul line joining all such error points gives a curve called the calibration curve, ot Fig. 1.15.3 shows a typical calibration curve. The +5 Error 9 in% -5 a Quan eae Ae Re sees Hor 60 80 100 ay 0 20 40 Fig. 1.15.3 A typical calibration curve 1. What are the different calibration methodologies ? Explain. SECS TESTE TT) 2. Explain in detail calibration technique and draw the calibration curve in general. DEA Standard All the instruments are calibrated at the time of manufacture against a measurement standard. A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A standard means known accurate measure of a physical quantity. Other’ Physical quantities are compared with the standards to obtain their values. A unit is realised by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to natural Phenomenon including physical and atomic constants. For example, the fundamental unit of mass i.e. kilogramme, defined as the mass of a cubic decimeter of water as ifs femperature of maximum density of 4 °C. This unit is represented by a material standard ie. by the mass of intemational prototype kilogramme, consisting of a platinum-irridium alloy cylinder which is preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Severes, near Paris and is the material representation of the unit Kilogramme. The unit of length ie. metre is represented by the distance between two fine lines engraved on gold Plugs near the ends of a platinum-irridium alloy at 0°C and mechanically supported in a prescribed manner, Similarly, for all the units including fundamental and derived units, the different standards have been developed. All these standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Severes, near Paris. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” An up thrust for knowledge‘Measurements and Instrumentation FThechy of eater 1eory of Measur ‘The different types: of standarty of nseanpeinent! sie! chadeficd: ae 1. International Standards 2. Primary Standards 3. Secondary Standards 4. Working Standards Let us discuss in brief, each of these categories of standards, | International Standards | International standards are defined. as the international agreement. These standards, as mentioned above are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of fundamental units of Physics. These international standards are not available to the ordinary users for the calibration purpose. For the improvements in the accuracy of absolute measurements, the international units are replaced by the absolute units in 1948. Absolute units are more accurate than the international units. Primary Standards These are highly accurate absolute standards, which can be used as ultimate reference standards. These primary standards are maintained at National Standard Laboratories in different countries. These standards representing fundamental units as welll as some electrical and mechanical derived units are calibrated independently by absolute measurements at each of the national laboratories. These are not available for use, outside the national laboratories. The main function of the primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary standards. Secondary Standards | As mentioned above, the primary standards are not available for use outside the | national laboratories. The various industries need some reference standards. So, to protect highly accurate primary standards the secondary standards are maintained, | which are designed and constructed from the absolute standards. These are used by the measurement and calibration laboratories in industries and are maintained by the | particular industry to which they belong. Each industry has its own standards. For example, the national bureau of standards has set up National Secondary Standards in the United States of America. The particular industry maintaining the secondary standards is responsible for the calibration of these standards. These standards are periodically sent to the national standard laboratories for calibration. The national laboratories sent them back to the industries with the certification, comparing TEQHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thrust for knowledge‘Measurements and Instrumentation them with the primary standards. The certification indicates the mea secondary standards in terms of a primary standard. EERE] Working Standards These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory and are used to hed calibrate the instruments used in laboratory for accuracy and the performanc a example, the resistor manufacturing industry maintains a standard res; a laboratory for checking the values of the manufactured resistors. The verifies that the values of the manufactured resistors are well within accuracy limits. Thus, the working standards are some what less accu primary standards. Thus, the working standards are used to check and calibrate general laborat instruments for accuracy and performance. ROUGuAC tetas) 1. What is standard ? Explain the different types of standards. 2. What is the difference between international and absolute standards ? 3. What are primary standards ? Where are they used ? | 4 Describe primary and secondary standards in instruments. Cea Sources of Errors istor in manufactur the specifies rate than thy ory In the process of measurement, the errors are bound to occur. If the sources of erro are known, then the efforts can be made to reduce the errors and partly to eliminate them. The various possible sources of errors are, 1. Faulty design of the instrument which directly leads to the serious measurement errors. 2 Due to insufficient knowledge of the quantity to be measured and. design conditions can cause errors. 3. For the instruments frequent maintenance is necessary. If such maintenance is not done then the errors may occur. 4 If there are irregularities in quantity to be measured or sudden changes in the Parameter to be measured then errors may exist. 5. The unskilled operator of the instrument can cause serious errors. 6. The certain limitations while designing the instrument can cause errors. 7. Loading effect i.e. improper way of using the instrument can cause the errors. TECHINICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thrust for knowledge“Measurements and Instrumentation 13 hoe. The iro shape of a horse-s m core Pivot and jewel is spherical if coil is circular and ig Bear cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. Due to iron core, the deflectin, torque increases, increasing the sensitivity of the instrument, The controlling torque ig provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs. wipe‘Measurements and instrumentation Torque Equation The equation for the developed torque can be obtained from the basic law of y,, 1e equation for is given by, electromagnetic torque. The deflecting toque is given by, | Ta = NBAI | aa | Ty = Deflecting torque in N-m B = Flux density in air gap, Wb/m? N = Number of tums of the coil ‘A = Effective coil area, m? I = Current in the moving coil, amperes T% = GI G = NBA = Constant Provided by the springs and is proportional to the angular where The controlling torque is deflection of the pointer. T. = K@ where T. = Controlling torque K = ‘Spring constant, Nm/rad or Nm/deg 6= Angular deflection For the final steady state position, the direction of the Pointer also changes. HH, i oe Ee Bes. Hence such instruments are well suited for the In the microammeters and millia : mmeters upto about 20 mA, the ee is passed through the coil. The Springs carry current to : = carrying capacity of the Springs, limits the current which can b carri ‘or higher es Moving coil is shunted by sufficient Tesi se a oltmeters having high Fanges use a moving coi] together a i‘Measurements and Instrumentati resistance, to limit the instrum, full scale deflection with a cur, The power requirement ¢ order of 25 UW to 200 uw. A, scale reading, meoenal constant is 02% 10~° Nmn/degree, Solution : The deflecting torque is given by, Tg = NBAI= 100*015x(A)x5%10-3 Nn A Area = 10% 8 = 80 mm? = 80 10° oy? Tq = 100x015x80x10-6 5519-3 _ 6x10 °Nm Ta = T.=KO ite. 6x 19-6 - 02x 10°F 9 6x10-6 8) anierie— ar SO depress 02x10-6 Advantages ‘The various advantages of PMMC instruments are, 1) It has uniform: scale. current is small. 3) The sensitivity is high, Provide effective damping. 5) It consumes low power, of the order of 25 W to 200 LW. 6) It has high accuracy. 7) Instrument is free from hysteresis error. 8) Extension of instrument range is possible. 9) Not affected by external magnetic fields called stray magnetic fields, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thrust for knowledgeelectrical and Electronic Measurements and instrumentation EEXEI Disadvantages The various disadvantages of PMMC instruments a2 if ts only. 1) Suitable for d.c. measurements only 1 eprings introduces the errors 2) Ageing of permanent magnet and the control aah 3) The cost is high due to delicate construction and accra | 4) The friction due to jewel-pivot suspension. Errors in PMMC Instrument instruments are friction, temperature and agi The basic sources of errors in PMMC eral ; i to weight is made of various parts. To reduce the frictional errors ratio of torque ig von hi a most serious errors are produced by the heat generated or by changes in the temperature. This changes the resistance of the working coil, causing ee errors. In case of voltmeters, a large series resistance of very low temperature coefficient is used. This reduces the temperature errors. The ageing of permanent magnet and control springs also cause errors. The q weakening of magnet and springs cause opposite errors. The weakening of magnet cause less deflection while weakening of the control springs cause large deflection, for a particular value of current. The proper use of material and preageing during manufacturing can reduce the errors due to weakening of the control springs. The coil of instrument has 42.5 turns. The mean width of the coil is 2.5 cm ‘and the axial length of the coil is 2 cm. If the flux density is 0.1 Wb/m?, calculate the torque on the moving coil in Nm, if a current of 15 mA flows through the coil. Dec.-12, Marks 6 Solution: N= 42.5,1= 15 mA, B= 0.1 Wb/m* A = 2.5x2 cm? =5x10-* m? Ty = NBAI = 42.5x01x5x10~4 x15x10 = 3,1875x10-5>Nm. GEEERERZ) 4 Puc ammeter ives reading of 40 mA when connected across two opposite corners of a bridge rectifier, the other two corners of which are connected in series ‘with a capacitor to 100 kV, 50 Hz supply. Determine the capacitance, Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig, 27.3 (a). TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thust for knob‘Measurements and instrumentation 2 -18 Electric! end Electron nate, ts EEX Moving tron Instruments The moving iron instruments are classified as : 1) Moving iron attraction type instruments and it) Moving iron repulsion type instruments EEEXI Moving iron Attraction Type Instruments The basic working principle of these instruments is very simple that a soft iron piege if brought near the magnet gets attracted by the magnet. The construction of the attraction type instrument is shown in the Fig. 2.8.1. Ponte a % ae Calwindng Se Moying iron o 5 Balance weight 3, Tm; Control weight Fig. 2.8.1 Moving iron attraction type instrument It consists of a fixed coil C and moving iron piece D. The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like opening. The moving iron is a flat disc which is eccentrically mounted on the spindle. The spindle is supported between the jewel bearings. The spindle carries a pointer which moves over a graduated scale. The number of turns of the fixed coil are dependent on the range of the instrument. For passing large current through the coil only few turns are required. The controlling torque is provided by the springs but gravity control may also be used for vertically mounted panel type instruments, The damping torque is provided by the air friction. A light aluminium piston is attached to the moving system. It moves in a fixed chamber. The chamber is closed at one end. It can also be provided with the help of vane attached to the moving system. The operating magnetic field in moving iron instruments is very weak. Hence eddy current damping is not used since it requires a permanent magnet which would affect ot distort the operating field. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thrust for knowledgeMeasurements and instrumentation 2-19 Electrical and Electronic Instruments [EEE Moving tron Repulsion Type instrument ‘These instruments have two vanes inside the coil, the one is fixed and other is movable. When the current flows in the coil, both the vanes are magnetized with like polarities induced on the same side. Hence due to the repulsion of like polarities, there is a force of repulsion between the two vanes causing the movement of the moving vane. The repulsion type instruments are the most commonly used instruments, ‘The two different designs of repulsion type instruments are : i) Radial vane type and and ii) Co-axial vane type [EEQAI Radial Vane Repulsion Type instrument The Fig. 2.8.2 shows the radial vane repulsion type instrument. Out of the other moving iron mechanisms, this is the most sensitive and has most linear scale. The two vanes are radial strips of iron. The fixed vane is attached to the coil. The movable vane is attached to the spindle and suspended in the induction field of the coil. The needle of the instrument is attached to this vane. Eventhough the current through the coil is alternating, there is always repulsion between the like poles of the fixed and the movable vane. Hence the deflection of the pointer is Msp fi iim om vane vane Gixection riTheldefleninetas Fig, 2.8.2 Radial vane repulsion type instrument effectively proportional to the actual current and hence the scale is calibrated directly to read amperes or volts. The calibration is accurate only for the frequency for which it is designed because the impedance is different for different frequencies. EEX] concentric Vane Repulsion Type Instrument Fig. 2.8.3 shows the concentric vane repulsion type instrument. The instrument has two concentric vanes. One is attached to the coil frame rigidly while the other can rotate co-axially inside the stationary vane. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” An up thrust for knowledgeMeasurements and Instrumentation Both the vanes _—_ are magnetized to the same polarity due to the current in the coil. Thus the movable vane rotates under the repulsive force. As the movable vane is attached to the pivoted shaft, the repulsion results in a rotation of the shaft. The pointer deflection is Proportional to the current in the coil. The concentric vane type instrument is moderately sensitive and the deflection is Proportional to the square of the current through coil. Thus Fixed vane Movable vane the instrument is said to have Fig. 2.8.3 Concentric vane repulsion type instrument square law response. Thus the z scale of the instrument is non-uniform in nature. Thus whatever may be the direction of the current in the coil, the deflection in the moving iron instruments is in the same direction. Hence moving iron instruments can be used for both ac. and de measurements. Due to square law response, the scale of the moving iron instrument is non-uniform. [EEX Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments Consider a small increment in current supplied to the coil of the instrument. Due to this current let d6 be the deflection under the deflecting torque Ty. Due to such deflection, some mechanical work will be done. a = Mechanical work = Tg d@ | There will be a change in the energy stored in the magnetic field due to the chang in inductance. This is because the vane tries to occupy the position of minimum reluctance hence the force is always in such a direction so as to increase the inductance of coil. The inductance is inversely proportional to the reluctance of the magnetic circuit of coil. 4 Let I = Initial current, L = Instrument inductance ® = Deflection, _ dI = Increase in current d= Change in deflection, dL = Change in inductance TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” An up thrust for knowledgeMeasurements and Instrumentation 2-21 eectiaiene eee eee In order to effect an increm there incre: an increment i SPECTER in the current, must be an increase in the = 4) _ at is a dt atta a As both I and L are changing. The electrical energy supplied is given by, dL d Idt = eldt (get hg Jide = at tbat if 1 The stored energy increases from 5 LI? to Sar ayaran? Hence the cee in the stored energy is given by, = gilt dl (i+ an? - gut Neglecting higher order terms, this becomes, IL di+4 1? dL 2 The energy supplied is nothing but increase in stored energy plus the energy required for mechanical work done. PdL+IL al = ILai+5 17 dL +1 ie. Tyde=1 Pat s = bpd Pa can) While the controlling torque is given by, ens K = Spring constant 1) dL Ke = =? 2 a0 Thus the deflection is proportional to the square of the current through the coil. And the instrument gives square law response: Advantages The various advantages of moving iron instruments are, 1) The instruments can be used for both a.c. and d.c. measurements. 2) As the torque to weight ratio is high, errors due to the friction are very less. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS" An up trust fer knowledge| ‘Measurements and Instrumentation 2-22 Electrical and Electronic inetont anerumeni 3) A single type of moving element can cover the wide range hence these instrument, are cheaper than other types of instruments. 4) There are no current carrying paris in the moving system hence these mete: extremely rugged and reliable. 5) These are capable of giving good accuracy. Modern moving iron instruments hayg a dc. error of 2 % or less, TS ate 5 conditions. 7) The range of instruments can be extended, The various disadvantages of moving iron instruments are, 1) The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform and is cramped at the lower end. Hence accurate readings are not possible at this end. 2) There are serious errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes and stray magnetic fields. 3) The increase in temperature increases the resistance of coil, decreases stiffness of the springs, decreases the permeability and hence affect the reading severely. 4)Due to the non-linearity of BH curve, the deflecting, torque is not exactly Proportional to the square of the current. 6) Power consumption is on higher side. EG Errors in Moving Iron Instruments The various errors in the moving iron instruments are, 1) Hysteresis error : Due to hysteresis effect, the flux density for the same current while ascending and descending values is different. While descending, the flux density is higher and while ascending it is lesser. So meter reads higher for descending values of current or voltage. So temedy for this is to use smaller iron parts which can demagnetize quickly or to work with lower flux densities, 2) Temperature error : The temperature error arises due to the effect of temperature on the temperature coefficient of the Spring. This error is of the order of 0.02 % per °C change in temperature. Errors can cause due to self heating of the coil and due to which change in resistance of the coil. So coil and series resistance must have low temperature voefficient. Hence manganin is generally used for the series resistances, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thus for knowledge4, woth te Hele af nent diagrams, explain the oscillographic method for testing of magnetic materia. instrument Transformers Pe Ee sy currents and high voltage a. circuits, the measurement cannot be done by sp setae Of extension of ranges of low range meters by providing suitable specially constructed accurate ratio tre ent ‘ransFOrTier®: ‘These can be used, irrespective of the voltage and current ac. ci cuits, These transformers not only extend the range of the low range aris but also, wolats them from high current and high voltage a.c. circuits. This their handling Very safe. These are generally classified as (i) Current transfor in seks conditions, ansformers called mers | transformers. po current Transformer (C-T.) che large alternating currents which cannot be sensed or passed through normal ammeters and current coils of wattmeters, energy meters can easily be measured by use sf erent tFansfOrTTiers along with normal low range instruments. 7 gangformer 3 9 Gevice, Whichy consis of two windin gs called primary and secondary. It transfers enerBy from one side to another with suitable change in the level greurent or voltage. A current transformer basically has a primary coil of one oF more fans of heavy cross-sectional area. In some; the bar carrying high current may act as a primary. This is connected in series with the lin e carrying high current. This is shown in the Fig. 2501 (a). The bar type primary is shown in the Fig. 250.1 (b). The secondary of the transformer is made up of a large ‘number of tums of fine wire ie. having small ‘qoss-sectional area. This is usually rated for 5 A curren it. This is connected to the coil of normal low range meter. Heavy ‘Secondary line current A) Ammeter ‘Ammeter {a) Wound primary (b) Bar primary Fig. 2.50.1 Current transformer TEGHNICAL PUBLIGATIONS"~ An up thrust for knowledgeiid Elec a lectong Measurements ond ers ie. stepping up a y, sommara are basically SP 8 Han ably gets stepped ose Hee ae obviously cur ran 15 range ie. if primary SA CI, is o cur _ For ample pict teps up the . : won secondary. But it » Primary, " hip for the current trang ns, relationship | , Zils i on set meter reading is known, the actual x ic T. is kno. if current ratio of C- r Hence if current current value can be di ZIRE why secondary of C-T- It is very important that the orted t be connected Rocio Cmncns. ee rncter, coil of ammeter etc. If it is left open, current coils of wat Y by secondary which ge re tums produced by al secondary becomes zero hence ee asa theres no counter mn ian oppose primary ampere turns) produce high flux in the core, 3 i sa 3 primary man. Mae core beyond limits. Similarly Lea em. ig ws We aa oe eee rndary side. This may damage the insulation i wading ieee = ame point of view as well. It is usual to groun To danger from the tor. secondary side to avoid a danger of shock to the operator. ‘A 250 : 5, current transformer is used along with an ammeter. If uae i f reading is 2.7 A, estimate the line current. jot be open ? ee ry of C-T. should not be kept open, e secondal rin series with a low resistance coil ] ion: 1 . 20 Solution: (t= 2 But as ammeter is in secondary, 1h = 2.7 A ha 1, = 135A 27 3 So line current is 135 A. Potential Transformer (P.T.) The basic principle of these transformers 1s same as current transformers, The high alternating voltages are reduced in a fixed Proportion for the measurement Purpose with the help of potential transformers. The construction of these transformers is similar fo the normal transformer, extremely “ecciirate\ ratio These are Primary of PT, er Fig. 2.50.2 Potential transform’ind Instrumentation omens 2 i elie jormal pare pa its ratio can be specified as, Ny of P.T. is known and jf voltage ratio of and the voltmeter a fo be measured, can be determined, reading is known then the high volta ‘A 11000 : 110, potential transformer i ess is used along wit . a’ the value of line voltage. cae olution = For a PT. 11000 110 Mi V2 Vi _ 11000 87.5 and V,=875.V = 9 te Vi= 8750 ~~ High voltage to be measured. EEEEN Advantages 1, The normal range voltmeter and ammeter can be used along with these transformers to measure high voltage and currents. 2. The rating of low range meter can be fixed irrespective of the value of high voltage or current to be measured. 3. These transformers isolate the measurement from high voltage and current circuits. This ensures safety of the operator and makes the handling of the equipments very easy and safe. 4. These can be used for operating many types of protecting devices such as relays or pilot lights. 5. Several instruments can be fed economically by single transformer. 1250-4 | Disadvantages The only disadvantage of these instrument transformers is that they can be useel only f . ; °F Ac. circuits and not for d.c. circuits. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS" An up trust for knowledgeMeasurements and Instrumentation na oe These electrons have low energy and the} hor ang oor con becomes negatively charged Until it reaches gt Ba god gun electrons. When Writing gun ig gy required to cause the secondary emissi ite a Poy Mi tom lity yy cannot penetrate phos due to collimator. The where it repels all further fl electrons have very high enersy ositive i traced on the screen. The trace is therefore at high p« potential. This ig seyon, The low energy electrons from fl to low leakage of the phosphor. attracted to fe positive areas of the screen eee. ae the Phosphor ig fretal’ film. at the back. While passing Whrougil Se Ear ay they cause. Sty traced out by the writing: gun electron beam i.e. store, arn 10: Boy, - displ: the area i ' \ Gue te which the electrons are repelled back. nea gt x EXER] Comparison of Mesh and Phosphor Storage > ‘The two storage techniques can be compared as below = Mesh storage Based on the dielectric material deposited ‘ona storage mesh. Storage target and display target are different. There is no possibility of reduction in the light output with use. Variable persistence is p' 5. ___ Grey scales or half tones are possible. 6 Continuous persistence control is possible. 7. The material used for storage target and display target is different. |_& Relatively ong CRT le 9. Comparison of previous waveform and present waveform is not possible. 1 Describe the mesh storage technique used in storage scl scribe the mesh storage technique used in storage oscilloscope. Fis, Dec 06, aoa 2 Des : pose ‘he following storage techniques used in storage oscilloscopes : ) Mesh stonge i) Phosphor storage 30 ‘Ompare the mesh and phosphor storage techniques. NAL PUBLICATIONS”. An up thrust for knowledgeyith suitable di ain wit i ,, a Fi pisadvantages of Analog Storage he ie erase cycle in a mesh, vantages of analog, storage osc ie « waveform can Be preserved for waveform will be lost. ne see amount of | As long a8 image is required to be : ii stored, the ibe. fn trace obtained from the storage tube onventional oscilloscope tube, ‘The writing rate of storage fube is less th tube. This limits the speed of the storage The storage cathode ray tube is very ray tube. i) The storage cathode ray fube requires ad only one waveform can be stored in compared, they are required to be sup be displayed together. : vii) The stored waveform cannot computer. ree Review Question 1. State the disadvantages of analog storage igital Storage Oscilloscope | iil y) vii) The digital storage oscilloscope eliminates sxllocope. It replaces the unreliable storage method With the digital storage with the help of memory. ae without degradation. It also allows the 8h speed digital signal processing circuits. Bahn , digitised ie digital storage oscilloscope, the waveform 10 be Sorel ST tmatgg. & digital memory. The conventional cathode ec aallat “unc oPe hence the cost is less: The power fo be ante day ind wold by small battery. Due to this the stored ETN ied he a Power is supplied to memory. Once ee eee loaded into the computer and can be analysed in ‘anup tt or Oe TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”Measurements and Instrumentation Block Diagram The block diagram of digital storage oscill joscope is shown in the Fig. 5 Fig. 5.17.1 Block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope ‘As done in all the oscilloscopes, the input signal is applied to the amplifier attenuator section. The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuiy as used in the conventional oscilloscopes. The attenuated signal is then applied to vertical amplifier. The vertical input, after passing through the vertical amplifier, is digitised analog to digital converter to create a data set that is stored in the memory. The datas is processed by the microprocessor and then sent to the display. To digitise the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used. The the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section. The main : { ‘A/D converter in the digital storage oscilloscope is its speed, while in digital voltmett accuracy and resolution were the main requirements. The digitised output ne in the binary form and not in BCD. The successive approximation type converter is most oftenly used in the digital storage oscilloscopes. iti The digitising the analog input signal means taking samples at periodic ’ the input signal. The rate of sampling should be at least twice as fast as # frequency present in the input signal, according to sampling theorem. This | loss of information. The sampling rates as high as 100,000 samples per | This requires very fast conversion rate of A/D converter. . CARED sence genertly fash analog to digital converters are decreases as the sampling rate increases, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". Anup thst for knowledge2298 an ana nstreerttio” iy prigher and Piss? display with colour to distinguish mutiny, ‘ ” veatent time sampling and average cross COnBECUtive shiney 1) ration down tO HV: a sp tow traces ike the temperature variation 27086. a day can be a ‘The digital technique allows 2 quantitative analysis, ‘orded, a memory can be arranged not only 85 one dimensional lst. dimensional array: i me xv) The built in interfaces such as RS 232 serial port, centronix Parallel, Bus are available. RR hy [ERIZA Applications of D.S.0. ‘The various applications of digital storage oscilloscope are, and dc. parameters such as currents, yo, Vol tages eh 1. Measurement of various ac. ‘Measurement of various parameters of alternating signal such as oe MS, averay cB crest factor, duty cycle etc. ‘Measurement of frequency, time period, phase, phase difference for Petiodig nonperiodic waveforms. The transient parameters of fast changing waveforms such as overshoy, time, fall time etc. can be measured. Mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration ete, of y waveforms can be obtained. Used to measure slow moving parameters such as temperature of the day, The operations such as fast Fourier transform, discrete Fourier tr inverse Fourier transform etc. can be performed. The parameters like inductance, capacitance, impedance etc. also can h measured. For component testing and troubleshooting as the transients can be cap! and stored. For transmission line analysis to obtain standing waves, modulatio characteristics etc, The visual representation of a target for aeroplane, ship etc. can be obtained. The characteristics of various components such as V-I characteristics of dio’ transistors etc, can be obtained. 13. To obtain the P-y diagrams, B-H curves, Hysteresis loops etc. ss 12 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” An up thrust for knowledgeData Acquisition System ‘Measurements and instrumentation 7-6 ‘The various components of the digital data acquisition system are as follows. 1. Transducers ‘They convert the physical quantity into a proportional electrical signal which is given as a input to the digital data acquisition system. 2. Signal conditioners They include supporting circuits for amplifying, modifyin positions of these signals. or selecting. certain 3. Multiplexers The multiplexer accepts multiple anal measuring instrument. Jog inputs and connects them sequentially to one 4. Signal converters The signal converters are used to translate analog signal to a form which is suitable for the next stage that is analog to digital converter. This block is optional one. 5. Analog to digital converters (AID converter) The analog to digital converter converts the analog voltage to its equivalent digital form. The output of the analog to digital converter may be fed to the digital display devices for display or to the digital recorders for recording. The same signal may be fed to the digital computer for data reduction or further processing. 6. Auxiliary equipments The devices which are used for system programming functions and digital data processing are included in the auxiliary equipments, The typical functions of the auxiliary equipment includes linearization and limit comparison of the signals. These functions are performed by the individual instruments or the digital computer. 7. Digital recorders They record the information in digital form. The digital information is stored on punched cards, magnetic tape recorders, type written pages, floppies or combination of these systems. The digital printer used provides a high quality, hard copy for records minimizing the operator's work. The data acquisition systems are used, nowadays in incre: becoming very much popular because of simplicity, accuracy reliability of the systems. These are widely used in industrial areas, including aerospace, biomedical and telemetry industries. sing, wide fields. These are and the most important scientific areas, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”- An up thrust for knowledgeJot i is tolerable or when wide ae bands | The digital nth is needed, sys! co Systems, ee ar ee See EBNSS, the ultimate solution ae ‘ ih ae aoe ‘Sto use the