UNIT 3

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSFORMER

• Classification of Induced EMF

• Self Induced EMF

✓ Consider a coil having N number of turns as shown in the figure. When the switch S is closed
& current I flows through the coil, it produces flux (φ) linking with its own turns.
✓ If the current flowing through the coil is changed by changing the value of resistance (R),
the flux linking with it, changes and hence emf is induced in the coil.

✓ This induced emf is called Self Induced emf. The direction of this induced emf opposes the
change of current in the coil. This effect is because of Lenz’s Law.
✓ The magnitude of self-induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of current
in the coil. L is constant of proportionality and called as Self Inductance.
• Mutual Induced EMF
✓ The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by another neighbouring coil
linking to it, is called Mutually Induced emf.
✓ When the switch (S) is closed in the circuit shown, current I1 flows through the coil A, and
it produces the fluxφ1. Most of the flux says φ12 links with the other coil B.

✓ If the current flowing through the coil A is changed by changing the value of variable
resistor R, it changes flux linking with the other coil B and hence emf is induced in the
coil.
✓ This induced emf is called Mutually Induced emf.

✓ Single Phase Transformer

✓ The transformer is the static device which works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
✓ It is used for transferring the electrical power from one circuit to another without
any variation in their frequency.
 ✓ In electromagnetic induction, the transfer of energy from one circuit to another takes
places by the help of the mutual induction. i.e the flux induced in the primary
winding is linked with the secondary winding.

Working Principle of Single Phase Transformer

✓ Working principle of electrical power transformer is similar to that of mutual induction.

✓ A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric
power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another
circuit.
✓ It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in
current.
✓ The physical basis of a power transformer is mutual induction between two circuits
linked by a common magnetic flux.
✓ In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but
magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance.
✓ The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked
with the other coil in which it produces mutually-induced e.m.f. (according to Faraday’s
Law of Electromagnetic Induction e = M.dI/dt).
✓ If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flow in it and so electric energy is transferred
(entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil.
✓ The first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the a.c. supply mains is called primary
winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called secondary winding.

Different types of a transformer

There are two types of a transformer

• Step –up
• Step-down
 ❖ Step-up Transformer

✓ A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is greater than its input (primary)
voltage is called a step-up transformer.
✓ The E1 and E2 are the voltages, and T1 and T2 are the number of turns on the primary and
secondary winding of the transformer.
✓ The number of turns on the secondary of the transformer is greater than that of the primary,
i.e., T2 > T1.

❖ Step down transformer

✓ A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is less than its input
(primary) voltage is called a step-down transformer.
✓ The number of turns on the primary of the transformer is greater than the
turn on the secondary of the transformer, i.e., T2 < T1. The step-down
transformer is shown in the figure below.
✓ The voltage turn ratio of the step-down transformer is 2:1.

Construction of Transformer

• The transformers are of two general types, distinguished from each other merely by the manner in
which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated core.
The two types are known as
(i) core-type transformer
(ii) shell-type transformer
❖ Core Type Transformer

✓ The magnetic core of the transformer is made up of laminations to form a rectangular frame.
The laminations are cut in the form of L-shape strips shown in the figure.
✓ For avoiding the high reluctance at the joints where laminations are butted against each
other, the alternate layer is stacked differently to eliminate continues joints.

✓ The primary and secondary windings are interleaved to reduce the leakage flux.
✓ Half of each winding is placed side by side or concentrically on the leg of the core as
shown in the figure below.
✓ For simplicity, the primary and secondary winding is located on the separate limbs of the
core.
 ❖ Shell Type Transformer

✓ The laminations are cut in the form of a long strip of E’s, and I’s as shown in the figure.
✓ To reduce the high reluctance at the joints where the lamination are butted against each other,
the alternate layers are stacked differently to eliminate continuous joint.
✓ The shell type transformer has three limbs or legs. The central limb carries the whole of the
flux, and the side limb carries the half of the flux. Hence the width of the central limb is
about to double to that of the outer limbs.

✓ The primary and secondary both the windings are placed on the central limbs.
✓ The low voltage winding is placed near the core, and the high voltage winding is placed
outside the low voltage winding to reducing the cost of insulation placed between the core
and the low voltage winding.
✓ The windings are cylindrical, and the core laminations are inserted on it.

• Transformation Ratio
✓ The transformer transformation ratio or transformer turns ratio (K) is the quotient
value obtained by dividing the number of turns of the primary winding (N1) and the
number of turns of the secondary winding (N2).
✓ Then
K = N2/N1
Further we may write
K = N2/N1 = V2/V1 = I1/I2

• Applications of Single-phase transformer

 ✓ To step-down long-distance signals to support both residential and light-commercial
electronic devices.
✓ In television sets for voltage regulation.
✓ To step-up power in home inverters.
✓ To supply power to non-urban areas.
✓ To isolate two circuits electrically as primary and secondary are placed far from each other.
• Ideal Transformer

An Ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has the following properties:

✓ Negligible primary and secondary winding resistances
✓ Infinite permeability (µ)
✓ Zero leakage flux
✓ No losses

• Losses in transformer

1. Iron Loss (or Core Loss):

Description: Iron loss occurs in the transformer's core due to the hysteresis and eddy current
losses. Hysteresis loss is the result of the magnetic domains in the iron core repeatedly aligning and
 realigning with the changing magnetic field. Eddy current loss is caused by circulating currents
induced within the core.
Mitigation: To reduce iron loss, transformer cores are often constructed using materials with low
hysteresis and eddy current losses.

Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are two types of losses associated with the magnetic properties
of materials, particularly in the context of transformers and other electromagnetic devices. Let's
delve into each of them:

• Hysteresis Loss:

Description: Hysteresis loss occurs when a magnetic material, such as the iron core in a
transformer, is subjected to a varying magnetic field. The magnetic domains in the material tend to
lag behind the changes in the external magnetic field due to the inherent resistance to change in their
alignment. As a result, energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
Mechanism: When the magnetic field is applied in one direction, the magnetic domains align.
When the field is reversed, these domains do not immediately follow due to the residual
magnetization. The energy required to reverse the magnetization is lost as heat during each magnetic
cycle.
Mitigation: To reduce hysteresis loss, transformer cores are often made from materials with low
hysteresis loop areas, such as silicon steel.
The equation shown below:

Where
• KȠ is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the material of the
core used in the transformer,
• f is the supply frequency,
• Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density.

• Eddy Current Loss:

Description: Eddy current loss occurs when a varying magnetic field induces circulating currents,
known as eddy currents, in nearby conductive materials. In a transformer core, these currents
circulate within the metal, leading to resistive heating and energy loss.
Mechanism: When the magnetic field changes, it induces voltage in the conductive material
according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This induced voltage drives eddy currents,
which encounter resistance and dissipate energy as heat.
Mitigation: Eddy current losses can be minimized by laminating the transformer core. The
laminations, which are thin insulated layers of the core material, break up the continuous path for
the eddy currents, reducing their magnitude and associated losses.

The equation of the eddy current loss is given as:

 Where,
• Ke – coefficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material like
volume and resistivity of core material, the thickness of laminations
• Bm – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2
• T – thickness of lamination in meters
• F – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz
• V – the volume of magnetic material in m3

2. Copper Loss (or I²R Loss):

• Description: Copper loss is the power dissipated in the windings of the transformer due to the
resistance of the copper conductors. As current flows through the winding resistance, it generates
heat. If I1 and I2 are the primary and the secondary current. R1 and R2 are the resistance of primary
and secondary winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary winding will
be I12R1 and I22R2 respectively.
• Therefore, the total copper losses will be

Mitigation: Using materials with lower electrical resistance and optimizing the design to minimize
current flow can help reduce copper losses.

3. Stray Loss:

Description: Stray losses are losses that occur due to the leakage of magnetic flux from the
intended path in the core. This can result in additional losses in nearby conductive materials or
structures.
Mitigation: Proper design, including the use of magnetic shields and insulating materials, helps
minimize stray losses.

4. Dielectric Loss:

Description: Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating materials (dielectrics) used to separate
conductive materials in a transformer. It is associated with the dissipation of energy as heat.
 Mitigation: Choosing materials with low dielectric loss and proper insulation design can help reduce
this type of loss.

• Transformer Efficiency
✓ The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of useful output power to the input
power.
✓ The input and output power are measured in the same unit. Its unit is either in Watts (W) or
KW. Transformer efficiency is denoted by Ƞ.

Where,
• V2 – Secondary terminal voltage
• I2 – Full load secondary current
• Cosϕ2 – power factor of the load
• Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current losses
• Pc – Full load copper losses = I22Res
• Consider, the x is the fraction of the full load. The efficiency of the transformer regarding x is
expressed as

Condition for maximum efficiency of transformer

• The efficiency of the transformer along with the load and the power factor is expressed by
the given relation:
• The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus, for a given power
factor the Transformer efficiency depends upon the load current I2.
• In equation (1), the numerator is constant and the transformer efficiency will be maximum
if the denominator with respect to the variable I2 is equated to zero.

• i.e Copper losses = Iron losses

• Thus, the transformer will give the maximum efficiency when their copper loss is equal to
the iron loss.

• From equation (2) the value of output current I2 at which the transformer efficiency will be
maximum is given as

• If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is maximum
then,
• Copper losses = x2Pc (where Pc is the full load copper losses)
• Iron losses = Pi
So iron loss must be equal to copper loss.

• Voltage Regulation
✓ Voltage regulation is a measure of change in the voltage magnitude between the
sending and receiving end of a component.
✓ It is commonly used in power engineering to describe the percentage voltage
difference between no load and full load voltages distribution lines, transmission
lines and transformers.
✓ The equation for the voltage regulation of transformer, represented in percentage,
is
Voltage Regulation= change in output voltage/No-load output voltage
Voltage Regulation= V(no load)-V(full load)/V(no load)

In percentage we can write:

 Voltage Regulation= V(no load)-V(full load)/V(no load) X 100

So when the secondary winding of transformer is connected with the load its output
voltage can be changed and it can be expressed in terms of ratio or percentage.
• All Day Efficiency of a Transformer
✓ Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the
transformer throughout the day.
✓ It is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power in kWh
or wh of the transformer over 24 hours.

• Applications of Transformer
✓ It can rise or lower the level of level of Voltage or Current ( when voltage
increases, current decreases and vice versa because P =V x I, and Power is
same ) in an AC Circuit.
✓ It can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor or resistance in an
AC circuit. It can thus act as an impedance transferring device.
✓ It can be used to prevent DC from passing from one circuit to the other.
✓ It can isolate two circuits electrically.

NUMERICALS
Q1. In a single-phase transformer with a 1200/480 V rating and 60 Hz frequency, having 80 turns
on the secondary winding, determine the number of turns on its primary winding, the
transformation ratio, and the turn’s ratio?
Q2. (a) A transformer has a core loss of 300 watts and copper loss of 150 watts. Calculate the total
losses in the transformer?
(b) If the core loss in a transformer is 50 watts and the transformer's efficiency is 95%, what is
the copper loss in the transformer at full load?

Questions for practice

Q1. Provide an explanation of the composition of a single-phase transformer along with a well-
labelled diagram?

Q2. Elaborate on the distinctions between Core-type and Shell-type transformers?

Q3. Enumerate the various losses that take place in a transformer?

Q4. Provide an in-depth comparison between a two-winding transformer and an auto-transformer?