Polarization

Only transverse waves can be polarized. Therefore, the fact that

light waves can be polarized is a proof that EM waves are
transverse in nature.

Instructor: Dr. SDV

TIET, Patiala
Imagine a rope and you are
moving it in xz plane and
then in yz plane.

It can be related to plane

polarized light in x-
direction if electric field is
oscillating in xz plane
What if you start
moving this rope in a
circle.

It can be related to
circularly polarized
light .
What if you start moving rope in random directions in
short interval of time?

It can be related to unpolarized light.

What if you introduce a slit in the path?

If a longitudinal wave were propagating in string, amplitude of

transmitted wave would have been same for all orientations.
Electromagnetic Waves :

The direction of polarization of an electromagnetic wave has

traditionally been defined to lie along the direction of oscillation of
the electric field.
Linear/Plane Polarization:

Two orthogonal plane waves with same phase but possibly different amplitudes
Circular Polarization:

Two orthogonal plane waves with 90o phase difference and same amplitudes
Elliptical Polarization:

Two orthogonal plane waves with 90o phase difference and different amplitudes
Representation of unpolarized light:

Electric field vector is decomposed into 2 perpendicular

components. If direction of propagation of wave is z-direction,
then electric field vector is decomposed into x and y
components.

For unpolarized light, the components have equal amplitudes,

and the phase difference between them varies randomly.
 Direction of
propagation

If E is represented in x and y direction:

Direction of
propagation

Represents component out of plane

Represents component in the plane

Production of Linearly Polarized light:

 The wire grid polarizer

 The Polaroid
 Polarization by reflection
 Polarization by selective absorption (dichroism)
 Polarization by double refraction
The wire grid polarizer:
The wire grid polarizer:
 Very thin Copper wires placed parallel to each other.

 When an unpolarized light is incident on it, component of

electric vector along the length of the wire is absorbed.
Because electrons in wire start moving in electric field
and energy associated with electric field is lost in Joule
heating of wires.

 Since wires are very thin electric field component along

the x-axis passes through without much attenuation
because electrons don't have much space to move.

 Therefore, outgoing wave is linearly polarized with

electric vector in x-direction.
The wire grid polarizer:
It will work ( Ey will be almost completely attenuated) if the
spacing between is ≤ λ.

Therefore, this polarizer is easy to fabricate for a 3 cm

microwave because spacing needed between wires ≤ 3 cm.

Visible light waves have small wavelength (5 × 10−5 cm),

fabricating a polarizer with wire spacing ≤ 5 × 10−5 cm is
very difficult. A polaroid is used for this.
Polaroids:
 Instead of Cu wires, long chain polymer molecules that
contain atoms (such as iodine) which provide high
conductivity along the length of the chain.

 These long chain molecules are aligned so that they are

almost parallel to one another.

 Because of the high conductivity provided by the iodine

atoms, the electric field parallel to the molecules gets
absorbed.

 A sheet containing such long chain polymer molecules

(which are aligned parallel to one another) is known as a
Polaroid.
Polaroids:
When a light beam is incident on such a Polaroid, the
molecules (aligned parallel to one another) absorb the
component of electric field which is parallel to the direction
of alignment because of the high conductivity provided by
the iodine atoms; the component perpendicular to it passes
through.

Thus the aligned conducting molecules act similar to the

wires in the wire grid polarizer, and since the spacing
between two adjacent long chain molecules is small
compared to the optical wavelength, the Polaroid is usually
very effective in producing linearly polarized light
 The lines show the direction of
polarization or the pass axis.

If you start rotating the analyzer, at 90o and 270o, the

transmitted intensity will be minimum.

The transmitted intensity will be maximum when analyzer is

at angle of 0o and 180o.
https://www4.uwsp.edu/physastr/kmenning/flash/Polaroid_filters.html
Polarization by Reflection:

 Brewster discovered that there is a particular angle of

incidence at which, if unpolarized light is incident on glass
or dielectric material, the reflected light is polarized.

 This particular angle of incidence is also known as

Brewster angle and is given by :
𝑛2
𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑛1

 Using a polaroid, reflected light can be checked for

polarization. Intensity of reflected light should be zero twice
in one complete rotation.
Polarization by Reflection:
If an unpolarized light is incident at Brewster angle, then the
reflected beam will be linearly polarized with its electric
vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence.

Reflected
Unpolarized light
polarized light

𝜃𝑝 𝜃𝑝
Air

Glass

𝜃𝑟
If an wave polarized in plane of paper is incident at Brewster
angle, then there will be no reflected beam!

polarized wave

No reflected
wave
𝜃𝑝
Air (refractive
index 𝑛1 )

Glass (refractive
index 𝑛2 )

𝜃𝑟
Polarization by Reflection:
𝑛2
Brewster angle is given by : 𝜃𝑝 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑛1
𝑛2 𝑛2
𝜃𝑝 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃𝑝 =
𝑛1 𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑝 𝑛2
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑝 𝑛1

Applying Snell's law : 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑝 𝑛2

=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑟 𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑝
From both of these equations: =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑝
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑝
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90𝑜 − 𝜃𝑝
⇒ 𝜃𝑟 = 90𝑜 − 𝜃𝑝 ⇒ 𝜃𝑟 + 𝜃𝑝 = 90𝑜
Polarization by Reflection:
Reflected
Unpolarized light polarized light

𝜃𝑝 𝜃𝑝
Air
90 Glass

𝜃𝑟
Intensity of reflected polarized light can be increased by
using a pile of plates.
Polarization by selective absorption (dichroism):
o As in doubly refracting crystals, if an unpolarized beam enters
an anisotropic crystal, it splits into two linearly polarized
beams.
o One of the beams can be eliminated by selective absorption: this
property of selective absorption is called dichroism.
o Certain crystals such as
tourmaline has different
coefficient of absorption for two
linearly polarized beams into
which incident beam splits into.
Hence, one of the beams is
quickly absorbed and other
component passes through
without much attenuation.
Hence, emerging light will be
almost linearly polarized.
Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence):
If beam of light is passed through certain crystal like calcite
(CaCO3) or quartz (SiO2), it splits into two beams. These
substances are called doubly refracting or birefringent.
Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence):

One of refracted beams obeys Snell's law and is called

Ordinary ray (O-ray). The other beam doesn't obey Snell's
law and is called Extraordinary ray (E-ray).
Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence):
 The E-ray travels in the crystal with a speed that varies with
direction and is described by ellipsoid. The O-ray travels in the
crystal with a constant speed in all direction and is described by
spheroid.
 The refractive index for O-rays is constant and is direction
dependent for E-rays.
 In the case of Calcite and Quartz crystal, there is one direction in
which there is no double refraction. This direction is called optic
axis or principal axis. There are also biaxial crystals, no double
refraction occurs in two specific directions.
 Any ray of ordinary unpolarized light incident along the optic
axis or parallel to this axis does not split up into two rays.
 O-rays and E-rays are polarized in a direction perpendicular to
each other. O-rays are polarized perpendicular to plane
containing optical axis.
Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence):

32
Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence):

The plane containing the optic axis and the perpendicular to

the pair of opposite faces of the crystal is known as
principal section for that pair of faces of the crystal.

Since the crystal has six faces, for each pair of opposite faces
of the crystal, there are three principal sections.
Wavefront of O- and E-rays :

S is the point from where light is starting at same time in

double refracting crystal.
Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence):
For negative uniaxial crystals (like calcite) in which the velocity of
O-ray is less than the velocity of E-ray, sphere lies inside the
ellipsoid. However, for positive uniaxial crystals (like quartz) the
ellipsoid lies inside the sphere since in this case the velocity of O-
ray is greater than the velocity of E-ray.
o wavefront Optic axis e wavefront

𝑉0
𝑉𝑒

S
𝑉𝑒

𝑉0

𝑉0 > 𝑉𝑒
𝑉0 < 𝑉𝑒
Negative crystal Positive crystal
Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence):

The path difference between E and O ray will be given by :

𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 𝑡 (where 𝜇𝑜 > 𝜇𝑒 )
where t is thickness of crystal, 𝜇𝑒 and 𝜇𝑜 are the refractive
indices experienced by the E and O rays, respectively.

The phase difference between E and O ray will be given by:

2𝜋𝑡 𝜇𝑜 −𝜇𝑒
𝜆
Nicol Prism: Based on double refraction

Nicol prism is an optical device which is used for producing

and analyzing plane polarized light in practice.

Calcite crystal is cut along a diagonal and cemented back

together with special cement called Canada balsam.

𝜇𝑜 = 1.65836, 𝜇𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑑𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑎𝑚 = 1.55, 𝜇𝑒 = 1.48641

Birefringence (B) = 𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜
where 𝜇𝑒 and 𝜇𝑜 are the refractive indices experienced by
the extraordinary and ordinary rays, respectively.
Nicol Prism:

Length three times of its width

Its end faces PQ and RS are cut such that the angles in the
principal section become 68° and 112° in place of 71° and
109° ( naturally occurring crystal).
Working of Nicol Prism:

 When a beam of unpolarized light is incident on the face

P′Q, it gets split into O-ray and E-ray.

 These two rays are plane polarized rays, whose vibrations

are at right angles to each other. The refractive index of
Canada balsam cement being 1.55 lies between those of
ordinary and extraordinary (1.65836 and 1.4864,
respectively).

 Canada Balsam layer acts as an optically rarer medium for

the ordinary ray and it acts as an optically denser medium
for the extraordinary ray.
Working of Nicol Prism:
 When ordinary ray of light travels in the calcite crystal
and enters the Canada balsam cement layer, it passes from
denser to rarer medium. Moreover, the angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is totally
internally reflected from the crystal and only
extraordinary ray is transmitted through the prism.

 Therefore, fully plane polarized wave is generated with

the help of Nicol prism.
Malus' law:

𝐼0

𝐼0 cos2 (𝜃)

Polarizer P which has a pass axis parallel to the y axis; i.e.,

if an unpolarized beam propagating in the z direction is
incident on the polarizer, then the electric vector associated
with the emergent wave will oscillate along the y axis.
Malus' law:
Consider the incidence of the polarized beam with field E on
the Polaroid whose pass axis makes an angle θ with the y
axis. If the amplitude of the incident electric field is E, then
the amplitude of the wave emerging from the Polaroid P will
be E cos(θ),

Only Ey will be transmitted,

Ex will be absorbed.
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Remember lines here show direction of

polarization not wire grid or chain
molecules direction. Here, wire grid or
chain molecules are aligned along x-axis.
Malus' law:
The intensity of the emerging beam will be given by

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝜽) Malus' law

𝐼0

𝐼0 cos 2 (𝜃)
P1 and P2 are polaroids.

If P1 and P2 are parallel

to each other, light
intensity will be
maximum after P2.

If P1 and P2 are
perpendicular to each
other, light intensity is
minimum after P2.
Anti-glare automobile headlights:

45

Two approaching vehicles Head light

The transmission or pass axis

shown by lines in head light and
wind screen are perpendicular
to each other.
45

No light from the head light will

Wind screen pass through the wind screen.
Adjustable tint windows :

By adjusting relative orientation of 2 polaroids, the light

intensity is adjusted in tint windows.