EEE 459 Optoelectronics

Electro Optics
 A Linearly Polarized Wave
y
Plane of polarization
E
x ^
Ey y

^x ^
xEx
Ex
^
yE
E y
z E
(a) (b) (c)

(a) A linearly polarized wave has its electric field oscillations defined along a line
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, z. The field vector E and z define a plane of
polarization. (b) The E-field oscillations are contained in the plane of polarization. (c) A
linearly polarized light at any instant can be represented by the superposition of two fields Ex
and Ey with the right magnitude and phase.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Wave Nature of Light

Wave equation
Wave Nature of Light
 Polarization of Light

If the electric field vector of an EM wave propagating vibrates

in a specific plane, the wave is said to be plane polarized.
Polarization of Light

θ2= ℼ - θB - ℼ/2= ℼ/2- θB

Therefore, sin(θ2)=sin(ℼ/2-θB) =cos θB
 Polarization of Light

a) The less optically dense side and b) the more optically dense side
 Polarization of Light

Unpolarized light to polarized light

 A Linearly Polarized Wave

Plane of polarization
y
(a) A linearly polarized wave
E
x
Ey
^
y
has its electric field
Ex
^x ^
xEx oscillations defined along a
z
E
^
yE y
E line perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, z.
(a) (b) (c)

(a) A linearly polarized wave has its electric field oscillations defined along a line

The field vector E and z

perpendicular to the direction of propagation,z. The field vector E and z define a plane of
polarization. (b) The E-field oscillations are contained in the plane of polarization. (c) A
linearly polarized light at any instant can be represented by the superposition of two fieldsEx
and Ey with the right magnitude and phase.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) define a plane of polarization.

b) The E-field oscillations are contained in the plane of

polarization.
(c) A linearly polarized light at any instant can be represented by
the superposition of two fields, Ex and Ey, with the right
magnitude and phase.
 Right Circularly Polarized Light

z Ey
 = kz
E E
z Ex
z

A right circularly polarized light. The field vector E is always at right

angles to z , rotates clockwise around z with time, and traces out a full
circle over one wavelength of distance propagated.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Linear and Circularly Polarized Light

y y y y
(a) (b) (c) (d)

E E
x x x x

=0
Exo Exo = 1 Exo=1 Exo=1
=1
Eyo Eyo = 1 Eyo=1 Eyo=1
=0 =0
 = /2  = /2
Examples of linearly, (a) and (b), and circularly polarized light (c) and (d); (c) is
right circularly and (d) is left circularly polarized light (as seen when the wave
directly approaches a viewer)
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Linear and Elliptically Polarized Light

y y y
(a) (b) (c)
E E

x x x

=1
Exo Exo=1 Exo=1
=2
Eyo Eyo=2 Eyo=2
=0  = /4  = /2

(a) Linearly polarized light with E yo = 2Exo and  = 0. (b) When  = /4 (45), the light is
right elliptically polarized with a tilted major axis. (c) When  = /2 (90), the light is
right elliptically polarized. If E xo and Eyo were equal, this would be right circularly
polarized light.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Polarization of Light

Ecos 

Linearly
 Light detector
polarized light E TA 2

TA 1

Polarizer 2 = Analyzer

Polarizer 1

Unpolarized light

Randomly polarized light is incident on a Polarizer 1 with a transmission axis TA1. Light
emerging from Polarizer 1 is linearly polarized with E along TA1, and becomes incident
on Polarizer 2 (called "analyzer") with a transmission axis TA2 at an angle to TA1. A
detector measures the intensity of the incident light. TA1 and TA2 are normal to the light
direction.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Malus’s Law
There are various optical devices that operate on the
Linearly

Ecos 

Light detector

polarization state of a wave passing through it and

polarized light E TA 2

TA 1

thereby modify the polarization state. A linear

Polarizer 1
Polarizer 2 = Analyzer

polarizer will only allow electric field oscillations

Unpolarized light

Randomly polarized light is incident on a Polarizer 1 with a transmission axis TA 1. Light

along some preferred direction, called the

emerging from Polarizer 1 is linearly polarized with E along TA1, and becomes incident
on Polarizer 2 (called "analyzer") with a transmission axis TA 2 at an angle to TA1. A
detector measures the intensity of the incident light. TA 1 and TA2 are normal to the light
direction.

transmission axis, to pass through the device.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

A polaroid sheet is a good example of a commercially available linear

polarizer. Dichroic crystals such as tourmaline crystals are good polarizers
because they are optically anisotropic and attenuate EM waves with fields that
are not oscillating parallel to a particular axis, called the transmission axis. The
emerging beam from the polarizer has its field oscillations along the
transmission axis and therefore it is linearly polarized. Let the linearly
polarized light from the polarizer is now incident on a second identical
polarizer. Then, by rotating the transmission axis of this second polarizer we
can analyze the polarization state of the incident beam; hence the second
polarizer is called an analyzer.
 Malus’s Law

Linearly
Ecos 
A polaroid sheet is a good example of a commercially available linear polarizer. Dichroic crystals

polarized light E TA 2
Light detector
such as tourmaline crystals are good polarizers because they are optically anisotropic and attenuate
TA 1 EM waves with fields that are not oscillating parallel to a particular axis, called the transmission
Polarizer 2 = Analyzer axis. The emerging beam from the polarizer has its field oscillations along the transmission axis and
Polarizer 1 therefore it is linearly polarized. Let the linearly polarized light from the polarizer is now incident on
Unpolarized light a second identical polarizer. Then, by rotating the transmission axis of this second polarizer we can
Randomly polarized light is incident on a Polarizer 1 with a transmission axis TA 1. Light
emerging from Polarizer 1 is linearly polarized with E along TA 1, and becomes incident
analyze the polarization state of the incident beam; hence the second polarizer is called an analyzer.
on Polarizer 2 (called "analyzer") with a transmission axis TA 2 at an angle to TA 1. A
detector measures the intensity of the incident light. TA 1 and TA 2 are normal to the light
direction.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

If the transmission axis of the second polarizer is at an angle θ to the E-field of

the incident beam (i.e., to the first polarizer) then only the component Ecosθ of
the field will be allowed to pass through the analyzer. The irradiance (intensity)
of light passing through the analyzer is proportional to the square of the electric
field which means that the detected intensity varies as (Ecosθ)2. The irradiance
(or intensity) I at any other angle θ is then given by Malus’s law
I(θ) = I(0)cos2θ
Malus’s law therefore relates the intensity of a linearly polarized light passing
through a polarizer to the angle between the transmission axis and the electric
field vector.
 Optical Anisotropy/ Birefringence

A line viewed through a cubic sodium chloride (halite) crystal

(optically isotropic) and a calcite crystal (optically anisotropic).
 Optical Anisotropy/ Birefringence

An important characteristic of crystals is that many of their properties depend on the

crystal direction, that is, crystals are generally anisotropic.
The dielectric constant er depends on electronic polarization, which involves the
displacement of electrons with respect to positive atomic nuclei.
Electronic polarization depends on the crystal direction inasmuch as it is easier to
displace electrons along certain crystal directions.
The refractive index n of a crystal depends on the direction of the electric field in the
propagating light beam. The velocity of light in a crystal depends on the direction of
propagation and on the state of its polarization, i.e., the direction of the electric field.
Most noncrystalline materials, such as glasses and liquids, and all cubic crystals are
optically isotropic, that is, n is the same in all directions.
For all classes of crystals excluding cubic structures, the refractive index depends on
the propagation direction and the state of polarization.
The result of optical anisotropy is that, except along certain special directions, any
unpolarized light ray entering such a crystal breaks into two different rays with
different polarizations and phase velocities.
 Optical Anisotropy/ Birefringence

 When we view an image through a calcite crystal, an optically anisotropic

crystal, we see two images, each constituted by light of different
polarization passing through the crystal, whereas there is only one image
through an optically isotropic.

 Optically anisotropic crystals are called birefringent because an incident

light beam may be doubly refracted.

 There is also a special direction in a birefringent crystal, called the optic

axis, along which all waves with different polarizations experience the
same refractive index or travel with the same phase velocity.

 A light entering a birefringent crystal along the optic axis does not
experience double refraction.
 Depending on the crystal type, there may be one or two optic axes.
 Optical Anisotropy/ Birefringence

 Experiments and theories on most anisotropic crystals, i.e., those with the
highest degree of anisotropy, light propagation in terms of three refractive
indices, called principal refractive indices, n1, n2, and n3, along three
mutually orthogonal directions in the crystal, say x, y, and z, called
principal axes. These indices correspond to the polarization state of the
wave along these axes.

 Crystals that have three distinct principal indices also have two optic axes
and are called biaxial crystals. On the other hand, uniaxial crystals have
two of their principal indices the same (n1 = n2) and only have one optic
axis. Table 6.1 summarizes crystal classifications according to optical
anisotropy. Uniaxial crystals, such as quartz, that have n3 7 n1 are called
positive, and those such as calcite that have n3 6 n1 are called negative
uniaxial crystals.
 Crystal Classifications- Optical Isotropic/Anisotropic
 Uniaxial crystals, such as quartz, that have n3 > n1 are called positive, and those such as
calcite that have n3 < n1 are called negative uniaxial crystals.
 Ordinary (o) and Extraordinary (e) Waves

Optic axis
Principal section Principal section
Incident ray E // e-wave

e-ray
o-wave
E
o-ray Incident wave

A calcite rhomb Optic axis

(in plane of paper)

An EM wave that is off the optic axis of a calcite crystal splits into two waves called
ordinary and extraordinary waves. These waves have orthogonal polarizations and
travel with different velocities. The o-wave has a polarization that is always
perpendicular to the optical axis.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Ordinary (o) and Extraordinary (e) Waves
Optic axis

Any EM wave entering an anisotropic

Principal section Principal section
Incident ray E/ / e-wave

e-ray

o-ray Incident wave

E
o-wave crystal splits into two orthogonal linearly
A calcite rhomb Optic axis
(in plane of paper)
polarized waves, which travel with
An EM wave that is off the optic axis of a calcite crystal splits into two waves called
ordinary and extraordinary waves. These waves have orthogonal polarizations and
different phase velocities, that is, they
experience different refractive indices.
travel with different velocities. The o-wave has a polarization that is always
perpendicular to the optical axis.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

These two orthogonally polarized waves in uniaxial crystals are called

ordinary (o) and extraordinary (e) waves. The o-wave has the same phase
velocity in all directions and behaves like an ordinary wave in which the
field is perpendicular to the phase propagation direction. The e-wave has
a phase velocity that depends on its direction of propagation and its state
of polarization; and the electric field in the e-wave is not necessarily
perpendicular to the phase propagation direction. These two waves
propagate with the same velocity only along a special direction called the
optic axis. The o-wave is always perpendicularly polarized to the optic
axis and obeys the usual Snell’s law.
 Dichroism

z , ne x , no
Optic axis

Ee-wave E Ee-wave

y z
Eo-wave Eo-wave
(b) Optic axis
(a)
x , no y , no

(a) A birefringent crystal plate with the optic axis parallel to the plate surfaces. (b) A
birefringent crystal plate with the optic axis perpendicular to the plate surfaces.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Dichroism

z , ne x , no
In addition to the variation in the refractive
Optic axis

Ee-wave E Ee-wave index, some anisotropic crystals also

y z exhibit dichroism, a phenomenon in which
(a)
Eo-wave
(b)
Eo-wave
Optic axis
the optical absorption in a substance
depends on the direction of propagation and
x , no y , no

(a) A birefringent crystal plate with the optic axis parallel to the plate surfaces. (b) A
birefringent crystal plate with the optic axis perpendicular to the plate surfaces.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
the state of polarization of the light beam.

A dichroic crystal is an optically anisotropic crystal in which either the e-

wave or the o-wave is heavily attenuated (absorbed).

A light wave of arbitrary polarization entering a dichroic crystal emerges

with a well-defined polarization because the other orthogonal polarization
would have been attenuated. Generally, dichroism depends on the
wavelength of light.
For example, in a tourmaline (aluminum borosilicate) crystal, the o-wave is
much more heavily absorbed with respect to the e-wave.
 Retarding Plates

z = Slow axis
Optic axis

E // E//
E ne = n3
 
y
E E no

LL
x = Fast axis

A retarder plate. The optic axis is parallel to the plate face. The o- and e-waves travel
in the same direction but at different speeds.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Optical Devices - Retarding Plates
Half wavelength plate: =š Quarter wavelength plate: = š/2
Optic axis z z

 E  45

Input x x x
Input and output
polarizations of
 = arbitrary  < 45  = 45
light through
z z z (a) a half
E 
wavelength
Output x E x
E plate and
(b) through a
quarter-
(a) (b) wavelength
Input and output polarizations of light through (a) a half-wavelength plate.
plate and (b) through a quarter-wavelength plate.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Birefringent Prisms

e-ray

e-ray
o-ray Optic axis A E1
B
A
Optic axis E1

E2
E1 E2
E2  B
Optic axis
Optic axis o-ray

The Wollaston prism is a beam polarization splitter. E 1 is orthogonal to the plane of

the paper and also to the optic axis of the first prism. E 2 is in the plane of the paper
and orthogonal to E 1.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Optical Activity and rotation of the plane of polarization

E  Levo Dextro
E
E E
z
z z
Quartz
L Optic axis

An optically active material such as quartz rotates the plane of polarization

of the incident wave: The optical field E rotated to E. If we reflect the
wave back into the material, E rotates back to E.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

An optically active material such as quartz rotates the plane of polarization of

the incident wave: The optical field E rotates to E´. If we reflect the wave back
into the material, E´= rotates back to E.
 Optical Activity and Circular Birefringence
y y y
EL ER
E   
Input x x x

y y y

 E 
 
Output x x x
EL
ER

Slow Fast

Vertically polarized wave at the input can be thought of as two right and left
handed circularly polarized waves that are symmetrical, i.e. at any instant  = .
If these travel at different velocities through a medium then at the output they are
no longer symmetric with respect to y,    ., and the result is a vector E at an
angle  to y.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Electro-Optic Effects

y Ea
y x y
n2 = no n 2 n 2
n 1
45

x z x x
z z
n1 = no Ea
n 1
KDP, LiNbO 3 KDP LiNbO 3

(a ) (b ) (c )

(a) Cross section of the optical indicatrix with no applied field, n1 = n2 = no (b) The
applied external field modifies the optical indicatrix. In a KDP crystal, it rotates the
principal axes by 45  to x and y and n1 and n2 change to n1 and n2 . (c) Applied
field along y in LiNbO 2 modifies the indicatrix and changes n1 and n2 change to n
and n2 .
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Electro-Optic Effects

Electro-optic effects refer to changes in the refractive index of a material

induced by the application of an external electric field, which therefore
modulates the optical properties.
We can apply such an external field by placing electrodes on opposite faces of
a crystal. The presence of such a field distorts the electron motions in the
atoms or molecules of the substance, or distorts the crystal structure, resulting
in changes in the optical properties.
For example, an applied external field can cause an optically isotropic cubic
crystal such as GaAs to become birefringent. In this case, the field induces
principal axes and an optic axis.
The electro-optic effects are classified according to first- and second-order
effects. If we were to take the refractive index n to be a function of the applied
electric field E, that is, n = n(E), we can, of course, expand this as a Taylor
series in E. The new refractive index n is
n´ = n + a1E + a2E2 +........
 Electro-Optic Effects

The electro-optic effects are classified according to first- and second-order

effects. If we were to take the refractive index n to be a function of the applied
electric field E, that is, n = n(E), we can, of course, expand this as a Taylor
series in E. The new refractive index n is
n´ = n + a1E + a2E2 +........ (1)
where the coefficients a1 and a2 are called the linear electro-optic effect and
second-order electro-optic effect coefficients.
Although we would expect even higher terms in the expansion in Eq. (1), these
are generally very small and their effects negligible within highest practical
fields.
The change in n due to the first E term is called the Pockels effect. The change
in n due to the second E2 term is called the Kerr effect, and the coefficient a2
is generally written as λK where K is called the Kerr coefficient. Thus, the two
effects are, Δn = a1E (Pockels effect)
Δn = a2E2 = (λK)E2 (Kerr effect) All materials exhibit the Kerr effect.
 Electro-Optic Effects

The change in n due to the first E term is called the Pockels effect. The change
in n due to the second E2 term is called the Kerr effect, and the coefficient a2
is generally written as λK where K is called the Kerr coefficient. Thus, the two
effects are, Δn = a1E (Pockels effect)
Δn = a2E2 = (λK)E2 (Kerr effect)
All materials exhibit the Kerr effect.
Only noncentrosymmetric crystals exhibit the Pockels effect.
For example, an NaCl crystal is centrosymmetric, and therefore exhibits no
Pockels effect.
On the other hand, a GaAs crystal is noncentrosymmetric and exhibits the
Pockels effect under an applied field.
(a) A centrosymmetric unit cell (such as NaCl)
has a center of symmetry at O.
(b) An example of a noncentrosymmetric unit
cell. In this example, the hexagonal unit cell
has no center of symmetry.
 Electro-Optic Effects

All materials exhibit the Kerr effect.

Only noncentrosymmetric crystals exhibit the Pockels effect.
For example, an NaCl crystal is centrosymmetric, and therefore exhibits no
Pockels effect.
On the other hand, a GaAs crystal is noncentrosymmetric and exhibits the
Pockels effect under an applied field.

(a) A centrosymmetric unit cell (such

as NaCl) has a center of symmetry
at O.
(b) An example of a
noncentrosymmetric unit cell. In
this example, the hexagonal unit
cell has no center of symmetry.
 Electro-Optic Effects-
Transverse Pockels Cell Phase Modulator

V y
Ey Ey

Input d 
light Ea x z Output
light
Ex Ex
z

Tranverse Pockels cell phase modulator. A linearly polarized input light

into an electro-optic crystal emerges as a circularly polarized light.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Electro-Optic Effects-
Transverse Pockels Cell Phase Modulator

Before the field Ea, is applied, the refractive indices n1 and n2 are both equal
to no. The Pockels effect then gives the new refractive indices n1 and n2 in
the presence of Ea as

where r22 is a constant, called a Pockels coefficient, that depends on the

crystal structure and the material.
Electro-Optic Effects-
Transverse Pockels Cell Phase Modulator

Transverse Pockels cell phase modulator.

 Electro-Optic Effects-
Transverse Pockels Cell Phase Modulator

V y
Ey Ey

Input d 
light Ea x z Output
light
Ex Ex
z

Tranverse Pockels cell phase modulator. A linearly polarized input light

into an electro-optic crystal emerges as a circularly polarized light.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Transverse Pockels cell phase modulator. A linearly polarized input light

into an electro-optic crystal emerges as a circularly polarized light.
 Pockels Cell Intensity Modulator

QWP

Transmission intensity
V
y Io
P A
Input Detector
Q
light Crystal
 x
z V
0 V 

Left: A tranverse Pockels cell intensity modulator. The polarizer P and analyzer A have
their transmission axis at right angles and P polarizes at an angle 45 to y-axis. Right:
Transmission intensity vs. applied voltage characteristics. If a quarter-wave plate (QWP)
is inserted after P, the characteristic is shifted to the dashed curve.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Pockels Cell Intensity Modulator
Pockels Cell Intensity Modulator
 Kerr Cell Phase Modulator

(a) Ea z (b) z
no
Ez
E
ne 
Input Output
y Ea
x no light y light
Ex

(a) An applied electric field, via the Kerr effect, induces birefringences in an
otherwise optically istropic material. (b) A Kerr cell phase modulator.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Kerr Cell Phase Modulator
 Integrated transverse Pockels cell phase Modulator
V(t)
Coplanar strip electrodes Thin buffer layer

Polarized d
input
light
L
Ea LiNbO 3
LiNbO 3 EO Substrate x Waveguide Cross-section
z
y

Integrated tranverse Pockels cell phase modulator in which a waveguide is diffused

into an electro-optic (EO) substrate. Coplanar strip electrodes apply a transverse
field Ea through the waveguide. The substrate is an x-cut LiNbO3 and typically there
is a thin dielectric buffer layer (e.g. ~200 nm thick SiO2) between the surface
electrodes and the substrate to separate the electrodes away from the waveguide.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Integrated optics refers to the integration of various optical devices and

components on a single common substrate, for example lithium niobate,
just as in integrated electronics all the necessary devices for a given function
are integrated in the same semiconductor crystal substrate (chip). There is
a distinct advantage to implementing various optically communicated
devices, for example laser diodes, waveguides, splitters, modulators, and
photodetectors on the same substrate, as it leads to miniaturization and
also to an overall enhancement in performance and usability (typically).
 Integrated transverse Pockels cell phase Modulator

V(t)
Coplanar strip electrodes Thin buffer layer

Polarized d
input
light
L
Ea LiNbO 3
LiNbO 3 EO Substrate x Waveguide Cross-section
z
y

Integrated tranverse Pockels cell phase modulator in which a waveguide is diffused

into an electro-optic (EO) substrate. Coplanar strip electrodes apply a transverse
field E a through the waveguide. The substrate is an x-cut LiNbO3 and typically there
is a thin dielectric buffer layer (e.g. ~200 nm thick SiO 2) between the surface
electrodes and the substrate to separate the electrodes away from the waveguide.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
An integrated Mach–Zehnder ptical intensity modulator

V(t)

Electrode

C B
Out
B
In A D
A
Waveguide
LiNbO3 EO Substrate

An integrated Mach-Zender optical intensity modulator. The input light is

split into two coherent waves A and B, which are phase shifted by the
applied voltage, and then the two are combined again at the output.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 An integrated Mach–Zehnder ptical intensity modulator
V(t)

Electrode

B
C Out
B
In D
A A
Waveguide
LiNbO3 EO Substrate

An integrated Mach-Zender optical intensity modulator. The input light is

split into two coherent waves A and B, which are phase shifted by the
applied voltage, and then the two are combined again at the output.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

For example, if the applied voltage induces a phase change of >2 in arm
A, this will be ->2 in arm B so that A and B would be out of phase by .
These two waves will then interfere destructively and cancel each other at
D. The output intensity would be zero. Since the applied voltage controls
the phase difference between the two interfering waves A and B at the
output, this voltages also controls the output light intensity, though the
relationship is not linear.
 An integrated Mach–Zehnder ptical intensity modulator
V(t)

Electrode

B
C Out
B
In D
A A
Waveguide
LiNbO3 EO Substrate

An integrated Mach-Zender optical intensity modulator. The input light is

split into two coherent waves A and B, which are phase shifted by the
applied voltage, and then the two are combined again at the output.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 An integrated directional coupler

Waveguides
In Cross-section
V(t)
A B d
Lo
V(t)

Electrode A Ea B
LiNbO3

Coupled waveguides
Fibers LiNbO3

An integrated directional coupler. Applied field Ea alters the refractive indices of the
two guides and changes the strength of coupling.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Acousto-Optic Effect
Incident optical beam Diffracted optical beam Acoustic
A A' wave
x x
B B'

nmin  O 
nmax P Q
 Acoustic
nmin si n si n wave fronts
O'
nmax
vacoustic

n n
nmin nma x nmin nma x

Simplified Actual

Consider two coherent optical waves A and B being "reflected" (strictly,

scattered) from two adjacent acoustic wavefronts to become A' and B'. These
reflected waves can only constitute the diffracted beam if they are in phase. The
angle  is exaggerated (typically this is a few degrees).
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Acousto-Optic Effect
 Acousto-Optic Modulators

Acoustic absorber Induced diffraction

grating A simplified and
Diffracted light
Incident schematic
light illustration of a
 surface acoustic

Acoustic
wave wave (SAW)-
Through light
fronts based waveguide
AO modulator.
Piezoelectric The polarity of
crystal
the electrodes
Interdigitally electroded
shown is at one
Modulating RF voltage transducer instant, since the
applied voltage is
Traveling acoustic waves create a harmonic variation in the refractive index
and thereby create a diffraction grating that diffracts the incident beam through from an AC (RF)
an angle 2. source.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Faraday Rotation and Optical Isolators
y
Polarizer Faraday medium
E  E
Light
E B  E
Reflector

Reflected light
Source

The sense of rotation of the optical field E depends only on the direction of the
magnetic field for a given medium (given Verdet constant). If light is reflected
back into the Faraday medium, the field rotates a further  in the same sense to
come out as E with a 2 rotation with respect to E.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Faraday Rotation and Optical Isolators

y
Faraday medium
Polarizer
E  E
Light
E B  E
Reflector

Reflected light
Source

The sense of rotation of the optical field E depends only on the direction of the
magnetic field for a given medium (given Verdet constant). If light is reflected
back into the Faraday medium, the field rotates a further  in the same sense to
come out as E with a 2 rotation with respect to E.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Optoelectronic integration

Monolithic integrated transmitter circuits:

(a) GaAs/AlGaAs injection laser fabricated with a MESFET on a GaAs
substrate;
(b) InGaAsP/InP injection laser fabricated with a MISFET on a semi-
insulating InP substrate