Polarization

If two lightwaves are such that their respective electric field

directions are
mutually perpendicular,
the resultant wave may be either linearly or circularly or
elliptically polarized, depending on the
Phase difference between them.
 Application of Polarized Light
1.Photography and Filmography: Polarizing filters are used to reduce glare and
reflections from surfaces such as water, glass, and foliage, enhancing color
saturation and improving overall image quality.
2.LCD Screens: Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) use polarized light to control the
orientation of liquid crystal molecules, allowing for the creation of images on
screens like those in televisions, computer monitors, and smartphones.
3.Sunglasses and Eyewear: Polarized sunglasses reduce glare from sunlight,
particularly on surfaces like roads and water. They are widely used to enhance
visibility and comfort in bright outdoor conditions.
4.Microscopy: Polarized light microscopy is used to study the optical properties of
materials, including biological samples, crystals, and fibers. It provides valuable
information about the structure and composition of these materials.
5. 3D Movie Technology: Polarized light is utilized in 3D movie technology, where it
helps separate the images for the left and right eyes, creating a three-dimensional
visual effect.
6.Remote Sensing: Polarized light is used in remote sensing applications, such as
satellite imaging, to gather information about Earth's surface, atmospheric
conditions, and other environmental parameters.
7.Optical Stress Analysis: In engineering, polarized light is
used for stress analysis in materials, helping engineers
understand stress distribution and potential weak points in
structures.
8.Biomedical Imaging: Polarized light can be used in various
biomedical imaging techniques, such as polarized light
microscopy and polarized light spectroscopy, to study
biological tissues and structures.
9. Geology and Mineralogy: Polarized light is employed to
study the optical properties of minerals, aiding in the
identification and classification of minerals based on their
characteristic optical behaviors.
10.Communication and Optical Devices: Polarized light is
employed in optical communication systems, lasers, and
optical devices to transmit, receive, and manipulate light
signals efficiently.
 Types of Polarization
• Linear
• Circular
• Elliptical
 Linear Polarization/
Linearly Polarized or Plane
Polarized light

Linearly polarised light is the light wave in which the

vibration of electric field vectors
are confined
in one plane and
parallel to one unique direction.
Plane-of-vibration
Circular Polarization
Double refraction/ Birefringence
Double refraction, also called birefringence, an
optical property in which a single ray of
unpolarized light entering an anisotropic
medium is split into two rays, each traveling in a
different direction.
One ray (called
the extraordinary ray) is
bent, or refracted, at an
angle as it travels
through the medium;
the other ray (called
the ordinary ray) passes
through the medium
unchanged.
Birefringence: The ordinary ray will always experience a refractive
index of no, whereas the refractive index of the extraordinary ray will be
in between no and ne, depending on the ray direction. The magnitude of
the difference between no and ne is quantified as a measure of the
birefringence of the crystal, where ne is the refractive index of the
extraordinary ray normal to the optic axis.

(Birefringence)

Negative
uniaxial
crystal
(ne < no ) Positive
uniaxial
crystal
(ne > no )
Optic axis:
The simplest type of birefringence is an uniaxial
crystal, meaning that there is a single direction
governing the optical anisotropy whereas all
directions perpendicular to it (or at a given angle to
it) are optically equivalent. Thus rotating the
material around this axis does not change its
optical behaviour. This special direction is known
as the optic axis of the material. Light propagating
parallel to the optic axis (whose polarization is
always perpendicular to the optic axis) is governed
by a refractive index no (for "ordinary") regardless
of its specific polarization.
Uniaxial Crystal:

• Positive Uniaxial Crystal: Quartz, Calcite (ne>no)

• Negative Uniaxial Crystal: Rutile, Spinel (ne<no)
A point source of natural light embedded within one of these specimens
gives rise to both spherical o-wavelets and ellipsoidal e-wavelets.
\

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Wavelets in a negative uniaxial crystal:

• Dots represent E-filelds of the __ ordinary wave

• Arrows represent E-fields of the__ extraordinary wave.
• The E-field of the o-wave is everywhere__perpendicular_____
to the optic axis.
Biaxial Crystal:
Wave Plate/Retarder
The Quarter-Wave plate:
The Half-Wave plate:
The Full-Wave plate:
Wavelets in a positive uniaxial crystal:
 Optical activity
Optical activity is the ability of a substance to rotate the plane of polarization of a beam of
light that is passed through it.
(In plane-polarized light, the vibrations of the electric field are confined to a single plane.)
Phenomenological description of optical activity (proposed by Fresnel):

and
 and

Therefore,

where,
Laurent’s Half Shade Polarimeter

Construction: The polarimeter consists of a monochromatic source

S which is placed at focal point of a convex lens L. Just after the
convex lens there is a Nicol Prism which acts as a polariser. H is a
half shade device which divides the field of polarized light
emerging out of the Nicol Prism into two halves. T is a glass tube in
which an optically active solution is filled. The light, after passing
through T, is allowed to fall on the analyzing Nicol A which can be
rotated about the axis of the tube. The rotation of the analyzer can
be measured with the help of a scale.
Working principle of half-shade polarimeter:
• To understand the need of a half-shade device, let us suppose that it is not
present. The position of the analyzer is adjusted so that the field of view is dark
when the tube is empty. The position of the analyzer is noted on the circular scale.
• Now the tube is filled with the optically active solution and it is set in its proper
position. The optically active solution rotates the plane of polarization of the light
emerging out of the polarizer P by some angle, so the light is transmitted by
analyzer A and the field of view of the telescope becomes bright.
• Now the analyzer is rotated by a finite angle so that the field of view of the
telescope again becomes dark. This will happen only when the analyzer is rotated
by the same angle by which the plane of polarization of light is rotated by the
optically active solution.
• The position of the analyzer is again noted. The difference of the two readings will
give the angle of rotation of the plane of polarization.
A difficulty faced in the above procedure is that when analyzer is rotated for
the total darkness, then it is attained gradually and hence it is difficult to find
the exact position correctly for which complete darkness is obtained. To
overcome the above difficulty, the half-shade device is introduced between
polarizer P and the glass tube T.
Half shade device: It consist of two semicircular
plates. One half is made of glass while other
half is made of quartz. Both halves are
cemented together. The quartz is cut parallel to
the optic axis. Thickness of the quartz is selected
in such a way that it introduces a path difference
of λ /2 between ordinary and extraordinary ray.
The thickness of the glass is selected in such a
way that it absorbs the same amount of light as
is absorbed by the quartz half.
• Suppose the plane of vibration of the plane polarized light Incident
on the half shade plate is along AB. the vibrations of the beam
emerging out of the glass plate will be along AB.

• The vibrations of the beam emerging out of quartz will be along CD .

• If the analyzer N2 has its principal plane or section along YY’ , the
amplitudes of light incident on the analyser N2 from quartz half and
glass half will be equal.
Therefore, the field of view will be equally bright. The position of the
circular scale is read.
• In the case of sugar solution, AB and CD are rotated in the clockwise
direction. Therefore, the field of view is not equally bright
• The analyser is rotated in the clockwise direction and is brought to a
position so that the whole field of view is equally bright.
• The new positions of the circular scale is read.
Malus Law:
Malus’s Law
Scattering of unpolarized light by a molecule:
 Wollaston Prism
• A Wollaston prism is composed of two geometrically identical wedges of quartz
or calcite (birefringent, or doubly-refracting materials), cut in a way that their
optical axes are oriented perpendicular when they are cemented together to
form the prism.
• Wollaston prism separates light into two
separate linearly polarized outgoing beams
with orthogonal polarization.

• The two beams will be polarized according

to the optical axis of the two right angle
prisms.

• The beam component that is S-polarized (relative to the prism hypotenuse) will
experience a decrease in refractive index equal to the difference between ordinary and
extraordinary refractive indices for Calcite.
• Light that is P-polarized will experience an equal but opposite change, or an increase of
the index from the extraordinary index to the ordinary index.
• Thus, S- and P- polarized components of the incoming beam will diffract into opposite
directions.