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✓ Digital-to-analog Conversion:
▰ Course Title: Data Communication
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an
▰ Course Code: CSE-3525 analog signal based on the information in digital data.
▰ Credit Hours: 3
▰ Textbooks: 1. Data Communications AND Networking - 5th Edition by Behrouz A.
Forouzan
2. Computer Networks - 5th Edition by A. Tanenbaum

Conducted by: Engr. Muinul Islam

Fig. The relationship between the digital information, the digital-to-analog modulating
process, and the resultant analog signal.

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✓ Mechanisms for modulating digital data into an analog signal: ✓ Data Rate Vs Signal Rate:
a) Amplitude shift keying (ASK) The relationship between data rate (bit rate) and the signal rate (baud rate) is:
b) Frequency shift keying (FSK)
c) Phase shift keying (PSK) S = N X (1/r)

Combination of changing both the amplitude and phase called where N is the data rate (bps) and r is the number of data elements carried in one
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). signal element. The value of r in analog transmission is r =log2 L, where L is the type
of signal element.
Digital-to-analog
conversion
[Bit rate is the number of bits per second; Baud rate is the number of signal elements
per second. In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud rate is less than or
Amplitude shift Frequency shift Phase shift
keying (ASK) keying (FSK) keying (PSK) equal to the bit rate.]

Quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM)
Fig. Types of digital-to-analog conversion

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✓ Data Rate Versus Signal Rate (Math): ✓ Carrier signal:

1. Question: An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000 signal In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal that acts
elements are sent per second, find the bit rate. as a base for the information signal. This base signal is called the carrier signal or
carrier frequency.
Answer: Here, r = 4, S = 1000, and we need to find the value of N.
We know S = N X (1/r) The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it expects from
or, N = S X r = 1000 x 4 =4000 bps the sender. Digital information then changes the carrier signal by modifying one or
more of its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase). This kind of modification is
2. Question: An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000
called modulation (shift keying).
baud. How many data elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need? Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Answer: S = 1000, N =8000, and rand L are unknown. We find first the value of r then Amplitude Shift Keying is a digital modulation scheme where the amplitude of the
the value of L. carrier signal is varied to create signal elements.
We know, S = N X (1/r), or, r = N/S = 8000/1000= 8bits/boud Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
Again, r = log2L or, L = 2r = 256

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❑ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) (Contd.) ❑ Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK):
ASK has advantages in 5G systems due to its simplicity, power efficiency, and ease of The ASK when implemented considering only two levels, then that is referred to as
implementation. binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK). The peak amplitude of one signal
level is 0; the other is the same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency.

Fig. Binary amplitude shift keying

Fig. ASK modulation. (i) = Digital bit sequence, (ii) Carrier wave (iii) ASK modulated wave
The fig also shows the Bandwidth for ASK.

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❑ Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK) (Contd.) ❑ Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK) (Contd.)
Although the carrier signal is only one simple sine wave, the process of modulation Question: We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300
produces a nonperiodic composite signal. This signal has a continuous set of kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using
frequencies. ASK with d =I?
Solution: The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our
The bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate). However, there is normally
carrier frequency can be at fe =250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to find
another factor involved, called d, which depends on the modulation and filtering
the bit rate (with d =1 and r =1).
process. The value of d is between 0 and 1. This means that the bandwidth can be
expressed as shown, where 5 is the signal rate and the B is the bandwidth. The bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate). Here is another factor
involved, called d, which depends on the modulation and filtering process.
B =(1 + d) x S
B =(1 + d) x S
or (1+1) x [N x (1/r)] = 100 kHz [S = N x (1/r)]
or 2N = 100 kHz or, N = 50 kHz (Ans.)

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❑ Multilevel Amplitude Shift Keying (MASK) (Contd.) ❑ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) (Contd.):
The ASK when implemented considering more than two levels, then that is referred to The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is
as Multilevel Amplitude Shift Keying (MASK). low in frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and
Space frequencies.
In this modulation, many amplitudes like 4,8, 16, or more different amplitudes can be
used for the signal and modulate the data using 2, 3, 4, or more bits at a time. In these
cases, r = 2, r = 3, r =4, and so on.
[this is not implemented with pure ASK, it is implemented with QAM]

❑ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

Frequency Shift Keying is a digital modulation scheme where the frequency of the
modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal element, but changes for the
next signal element if the data element changes.
Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.
Fig. The diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform along with its input

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❑ Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) (Contd.): ❑ Bandwidth for Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK):
If only two carrier frequency is considered, then that modulation technique is called We can think of FSK as two ASK signals, each with its own carrier frequency f1 or f2. If
BFSK. We can consider two carrier frequencies,f1 and f2 where the first carrier is the difference between the two frequencies is 2∆f, then the required bandwidth is
considered if the data element is 0; and the second carrier is considered if the data
element is 1. B=(1+d) x S + 2∆f
[Usually, the carrier frequencies are very high, and the difference between them is very
small.]

Fig. Bandwidth of BFSK

Fig. Binary frequency shift keying

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❑ Bandwidth for Binary Frequency Shift Keying (Maths): ❑ Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
Question: We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 different signal elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the
kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by phase changes.
using FSK with d =1?
Solution: The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2∆f to be 50 kHz; this means
B = (1 + d) x S + 2∆f =100
or, (1 + 1) x S + 50 = 100
or, 2S = 100 – 50
or, 2S = 50
or, S = 25 kbaud

Fig. The phase shift keying (BFSK)

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❑ Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) : ❑ Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) :
A type of phase shift keying where we have only two signal elements, one with a phase The modulation scheme, that uses two separate BPSK modulations; one is in-phase,
of 0°, and the other with a phase of 180°. the other quadrature (out-of-phase) is called QPSK. Here, the incoming bits are first
Advantage: passed through a serial-to-parallel conversion that sends one bit to one modulator
1) BPSK is less susceptible to noise. In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the and the next bit to the other modulator.
amplitude of the signal; in PSK, it is the phase. Noise can change the amplitude easier If the duration of each bit in the incoming signal is T, the duration of each bit sent to
than it can change the phase. In other words, PSK is less susceptible to noise than the corresponding BPSK signal is 2T. This means that the bit to each BPSK signal
ASK. PSK is superior to FSK because we do not need two carrier signals. has one-half the frequency of the original signal.
2) The bandwidth is the same as that for binary ASK, but less than that for BFSK.
No bandwidth is wasted for separating two carrier signals. Below fig depicts BPSK. According to the fig, depicted in the next page, the two composite signals created by
each multiplier are sine waves with the same frequency, but different phases. When
they are added, the result is another sine wave, with one of four possible phases: 45°,
-45°, 135°, and -135°. There are four kinds of signal elements in the output signal (L =
4), so we can send 2 bits per signal element (r =2).

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❑ Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) (Contd.): ❑ Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) (Math):
Question: Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps for QPSK. The
value of d =0.

Solution: For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element.

This means that r =2.
2/1 So, the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N x (1/r)
converter
= 12 x (1/2) Mbaud
900
= 6 Mbaud

With a value of d =0, we have B =S =6 MHz.

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❑ Constellation Diagram: ❑ Constellation Diagram (Contd.):
A constellation diagram helps to define the amplitude and phase of a signal element, The length of the line (vector) that connects the point to the origin is the peak
particularly when two carriers (one in-phase and one quadrature) are used. amplitude of the signal element (combination of the X and Y components); the angle
the line makes with the X axis is the phase of the signal element.
❖ The diagram is useful when we are dealing with multilevel ASK, PSK, or QAM. In a
constellation diagram, a signal element type is represented as a dot. The bit or All the information we need, can easily be found on a constellation diagram. Figure
combination of bits it can carry is often written next to it. below shows a constellation diagram.

❖ The diagram has two axes. The horizontal X axis is related to the in-phase carrier;
the vertical Y axis is related to the quadrature carrier.

Q component
Amplitude of
❖ For each point on the diagram, four pieces of information can be deduced. The
projection of the point on the X axis defines the peak amplitude of the in-phase
component; the projection of the point on the Y axis defines the peak amplitude of
the quadrature component.
Amplitude of X
component

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❑ Constellation Diagram (Contd.): ❑ Constellation Diagram (Contd.):
The constellation diagrams for an ASK (OOK), BPSK, and QPSK signals.
b. BPSK also uses only an in-phase carrier. However, we use a polar NRZ signal for
Let us analyze each case separately:
modulation. It creates two types of signal elements, one with amplitude 1 and the
a. For ASK, we are using only an in-phase carrier. Therefore, the two points should other with amplitude -1. This can be stated in other words: BPSK creates two different
be on the X axis. Binary 0 has an amplitude of 0 V; binary 1 has an amplitude of 1 V signal elements, one with amplitude I V and in phase and the other with amplitude 1V
(for example). The points are located at the origin and at 1 unit. and 1800 out of phase.

c. QPSK uses two carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature. The point
representing 11 is made of two combined signal elements, both with an amplitude of
1 V. One element is represented by an in-phase carrier, the other element by a
quadrature carrier. The amplitude of the final signal element sent for this 2-bit data
element is 2112, and the phase is 45°.

Fig. The constellation diagrams

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❑ Constellation Diagram (Contd.): ❑ Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):
The argument is similar for the other three points. All signal elements have an Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of ASK and PSK.
amplitude of 2112, but their phases are different (45°, 135°, -135°, and -45°). Of Here two carriers are used, one in-phase and the other quadrature, with different
course, we could have chosen the amplitude of the carrier to be 1/(21/2) to make the amplitude levels for each carrier.
final amplitudes 1V.
Figure below shows the simplest 4-QAM scheme (four different signal element types)
using a unipolar NRZ signal to modulate each carrier. This is the same mechanism
we used for ASK .

Fig. Constellation diagrams for some QAMs

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❑ Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) (Contd.): ❑ Analog-to-Analog Conversion (or Analog modulation):
Part b in the figure shows another 4-QAM using polar NRZ, but this is exactly the Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the representation of analog
same as QPSK. information by an analog signal.
Part c shows another QAM-4 in which we used a signal with two positive levels to
modulate each of the two carriers. ➢ Necessity: Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a
bandpass channel is available to us.
Finally, that figure shows a 16-QAM constellation of a signal with eight levels, four
positive and four negative. An example is radio. The government assigns a narrow bandwidth to each radio
station. The analog signal produced by each station is a low-pass signal, all in the
❑ Bandwidth for QAM same range. To be able to listen to different stations, the low-pass signals need to
The minimum bandwidth required for QAM transmission is the same as that required be shifted, each to a different range. That’s why analogue modulation is needed.
for ASK and PSK transmission.
QAM has the same advantages as PSK over ASK.

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❑ Types of analog-to-analog modulation: ❑ Types of analog-to-analog modulation:

Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways: (a) Amplitude modulation (AM)
(a) Amplitude modulation (AM) (b) Frequency modulation (FM), and (c) Phase In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with
modulation (PM) the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the
carrier remain the same; only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the
Analog-to-analog information.
conversion

Phase modulation
Amplitude modulation Frequency modulation

Fig. Amplitude modulation

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❑ Types of analog-to-analog modulation (Contd.):

❑ Types of analog-to-analog modulation (Contd.):
(b) Frequency modulation (FM):
(a) Amplitude modulation (AM) (Contd.)
In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
As Figure shows, AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and
the amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be changed according to the amplitude of
phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information
the modulating signal.
signal changes, the frequency of the carrier changes correspondingly.
In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with
the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal.
➢ AM Bandwidth
Figure shows the bandwidth of an AM signal. The modulation creates a bandwidth
that is twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal and covers a range centered
on the carrier frequency.
The total bandwidth required for AM can be determined from the bandwidth of the
audio signal: BAM =2B. Fig. Frequency modulation

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❑ Types of analog-to-analog modulation (Contd.): ❑ Types of analog-to-analog modulation (Contd.):

(b) Frequency modulation (FM) (Contd.): (c) Phase modulation (PM):
In Phase modulation, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
❖ Figure shows the relationships of the modulating signal, the carrier signal, and the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
resultant FM signal.
❖ FM is usually implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as with FSK.
The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input voltage which is the
amplitude of the modulating signal.

➢ Frequency Bandwidth:
The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from the bandwidth of the
audio signal:
BFM = 2(1 + ꞵ)B.
Fig. Phase modulation

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❑ Types of analog-to-analog modulation (Contd.): ❑ Types of analog-to-analog modulation (Contd.):

(c) Phase modulation (PM) (Contd.): (c) Phase modulation (PM) (Contd.):
➢ The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant, but as ➢ PM Bandwidth:
the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrier Figure also shows the bandwidth of a PM signal.
changes correspondingly.
➢ It can prove mathematically that PM is the same as FM with one difference. In The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from the bandwidth
FM, the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the and maximum amplitude of the modulating signal:
amplitude of the modulating signal.
BpM = 2(1 + ꞵ)B.
➢ In PM the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the
derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal.
➢ The figure shows the relationships of the modulating signal, the carrier signal,
and the resultant PM signal.

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Thanks
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