COMPUTER AIDED

DESIGN
Dr. K. Vivekananda
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechatronics Engineering,
IFHE University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
 Geometric modeling
The three types of geometric models,
a) Wireframe (curve)
b) Solids
c) Surfaces
 Wireframe Models
 A wireframe model of an object is the simplest, but most verbose,
geometric model that can be used to represent it mathematically
in the computer.
 It is sometimes referred to as a stick figure or an edge
representation of the object.
 Typically wireframe model consists entirely of points, lines, arcs,
conics and curves.
 Wireframe Models
 Wireframe modeling technique developed 1960 were strictly 2D and were
designed to automate drafting and simple NC.

 Later in the early 1970s, the centralized association data base concept
enabled modeling of 3D objects as wire frame models that can be
subjected to 3D transformations.

 Creating geometry in one view is automatically projected and displayed in

other views.

• The software converts data into a mathematical representation which it

stores in the model database for later use.

• The user may retrieve and/or modify the model during the design and/or
manufacturing process.

• The need to study the mathematical basis of geometric modeling is

important.
 Wireframe Models
• The major advantage of wireframe modeling is its simplicity to construct. It
does not require as much computer time and memory as does surface or solid
modeling. Wireframe modeling is considered a natural extension of
traditional methods of drafting.
• Thedisadvantages of wireframe models are manifolds. Primarily, wireframe
models are usually ambiguous representations of real objects and rely heavily
on human interpretation.
• Models of complex designs having many edges become very confusing and
perhaps even impossible to interpret Moreover, as shown in Figure it is often
difficult to display objects with curve surfaces using wireframe.

No edge displayed One edge displayed User-created edges

 Wireframe Entities
Analytics entities:
 Points,
 Lines,
 Arcs,
 Circles,
 Fillets,
 Chamfers
 Conics (ellipses, parabolas and
hyperbolas)
Synthetic entities:
• Cubic spline,
• B-spline,
• Beta-spline,
• Nu-spline,
• Bezier curves
 Wireframe Entities
Methods of defining lines

The most common method

utilized by CAD/CAM systems
to create wire frame entities.
 Wireframe Entities
Methods of defining Circles and Arcs
 Wireframe Entities
Methods of defining Ellipses and Parabolas
 Wireframe Entities
Methods of defining Splines
 Wireframe Entities
Wireframe entities in Creo Software
Practiced in Creo Software
 Wireframe Entities
Creating g 3D Model from wire frame entities in CAD
For the guide bracket shown in
below figure (All dimensions are
in inches)

•Create the model database

utilizing a CAD/CAM
system.
•Obtain the orthogonal views
of the model.
•Obtain a final drawing of
the model.
 Creating a 3D Model from
wire frame entities in CAD
Step 1: Define an isometric view
to begin constructing the model.

Step 2: Begin by constructing the right face using a line

command with the following sequence of point input.

Step 3: Project that face a distance of 2 inches in the direction X-axis

 Creating a 3D Model from wire
frame entities in CAD

Step 4: Construct the top part of the front face of the model as shown
below: (trimming, offsetting, circle, cylindrical input is need to create
the line 45)

Step 5: Project the entities labeled by digitizes d1 to d5 a distance of

0.25 inches in the direction z-axis.
Creating a 3D Model from wire
frame entities in CAD

Step 6: Create the slot in the top facing using a line command with
the point sequence shown below.

Step 7: Project the entities labeled by d1 to d9 a distance of 2.25 inches

in z-direction.
Creating a 3D Model from wire
frame entities in CAD

Step 8: Construct the top surface right flange of the bracket. As shown
below.

Step 9: Project that face a distance of 0.25 inch in the direction shown Z-
axis
Creating a 3D Model from wire
frame entities in CAD

Step 10: Construct the front face of right support using a line
command with the following point sequence.

Step 11: Project that face a distance of 0.2 inch in the direction x-axis
 Wireframe Entities
Step 12: Using the mirror command

Step 13: File the model save it.

 Solid Models
Solid Model is based on informationally complete (or spatial
addressability), valid, and unambiguous representation of objects and
stores geometric data as well as topological information of associated
objects.

This representation permits automation and integration of tasks such as

Interference analysis,
Mass property calculation,
Finite element modeling,
CAPP (computer-aided process planning),
Machine vision and
NC machining.

It is very easy to define an object with a solid model than other two
previous modeling techniques (curves and surfaces) because solid models
do not need individual locations as with wireframe models.
Solid Models
Geometry deals with shapes and
relative positions and sizes of
figures, and properties of space
such as curvature.

Topology studies the properties of

space that are preserved under
continuous deformations, this
means stretching and bending but
not cutting or gluing.

From a user point of view,

geometry is visible and topology is
considered to be non-graphical
relational information that is stored
in solid model databases and are not
visible to users.
 Constructive solid
geometry (CSG)
Solid entities
A CSG model is based on the
topological notion that a
physical object can be divided
into a set of primitives (basic
elements or shapes) that can
be combined in a certain
order following a set of rules
(Boolean operations) to form
the object
 Constructive solid geometry
(CSG)
• Objects are represented as a combination of simpler solid
objects (primitives).

• The primitives are such as cube, cylinder, cone, torus, sphere

etc.

• Copies or “instances” of these primitive shapes are created and

positioned.

•A complete solid model is constructed by combining these

“instances” using set specific, logic operations (Boolean)
 Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
boolean operation
Union

– The sum of all points in each of two defined sets. (logical “OR”)
– Also referred to as Add, Combine, Join, Merge
 Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
boolean operation
Difference

– The points in a source set minus the points common to a second set.
(logical “NOT”)
– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as subtraction, remove, cut
 Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
boolean operation
Intersection

– Those points common to each of two defined sets (logical “AND”)

– Set must share common volume
– Also referred to as common, conjoin
 Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
Boolean operation
 More than one procedure (and hence database) can be used to
arrive at the same geometry.

Object Possible solid model of the solid

Alternative solid model of an solid

 Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
data structure
 Data structure does not define model shape explicitly but
rather implies the geometric shape through a procedural
description
– E.g: object is not defined as a set of edges & faces but by the
instruction : union primitive1 with primitive 2

 This procedural data is stored in a data structure referred to as

a CSG tree

 The data structure is simple and stores compact data easy to

manage
Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
CSG tree
 Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
CSG tree
 CSG tree stores the history of applying
boolean operations on the primitives.

 Stores in a binary tree format.

 The outer leaf nodes of tree represent

the primitives

 The interior nodes represent the

Boolean operations performed.
 Constructive solid geometry (CSG)-
CSG tree
Create the 3D CAD model of the guide bracket shown in below Figure.

Branch 1

Branch 2

Branch 3 Branch 4
Constructive solid geometry (CSG) -
advantage
 CSG is powerful with high level command.

 Easy to construct a solid model – minimum step.

 CSG modeling techniques lead to a concise database and less

storage.

Complete history of model is retained and can be altered at any

point.

 Can be converted to the corresponding boundary representation.

 Constructive solid geometry (CSG) -
disadvantage
CSG representation is unevaluated – Faces, edges, vertices not defined in
explicit

 CSG model are always valid – Since built from solid elements.

 CSG models are complete and unambiguous

 Only Boolean operations are allowed in the modeling process with Boolean
operation alone, the range of shapes to be modeled is severely restricted not
possible to construct unusual shape.

 Requires a great deal of computation to derive the information on the

boundary, faces and edges which is important for the interactive display/
manipulation of solid.
 Boundary representation (B-Rep)
 Solid model is defined by their enclosing
surfaces or boundaries.
 This technique consists of the geometric
information about the faces, edges and
vertices of an object with the topological
data on how these are connected.

 The data base of a boundary model

contains both its topology and geometry.

 Topology is created by performing Euler

operations and geometry is created by
performing Euclidean calculations.

 Euler operations are used to create,

manipulate and edit the faces, edges, and
vertices of a boundary model as the set
(Boolean) operations create, manipulate
and edit primitives of CSG models.
 Boundary
representation
(B-Rep)
 Boundary representation- validity
o Topology Validity also checked through mathematical evaluation
o Evaluation is based upon Euler’s Law (valid for simple
polyhedra – no hole)
V–E+F=2
Here: V-vertices
E- edges
F- face loops
 Boundary representation- validity
Expanded Euler’s law for complex polyhedrons (with holes)
Euler-Poincare Law:
V-E+F-H=2(B-P)
Here: H – number of holes in face,
P- number of passages or through holes,
B- number of separate bodies.
 Boundary representation- validity
 B-Rep System must validate topology of created solid.

 B-Rep has to fulfill certain conditions to disallow self-intersecting and

open objects

 This condition include:

 Each edge should adjoin exactly two faces and
have a vertex at each end.
 Vertices are geometrically described by point
coordinates
 At least three edges must meet at each vertex.
 Faces are described by surface equations
 The set of faces forms a complete skin of the solid with no missing parts.
 Each face is bordered by an ordered set of edges forming a closed loop.
 Faces must only intersect at common edges or vertices.
 The boundaries of faces do not intersect themselves
 B-Rep data structure
B-Rep graph store face, edge and vertices as nodes, with pointers, or
branches between the nodes to indicate connectivity.
Boundary representation- advantages
• Capability to construct unusual shapes that would not be possible
with the available CSG such as aircraft fuselages, swing shapes
• Less computational time to reconstruct the image

Boundary representation disadvantages

• Requires more storage
• More prone to validity failure than CSG
• Model display limited to planar faces and linear edges
• Complex curve and surfaces only approximated
/Creo
 CAD/CAM data exchange
 Computer database are now replacing paper blueprints in defining
product geometry for all phases of product design and
manufacturing.
 It becomes increasing important to find effective procedure for
exchanging these database.
 Fundamental incompatibilities among entity represents greatly
complicate exchanging modeling data among CAD/CAM systems.
 The database exchange problem is complicated further by the
complexity of CAD/CAM systems.
 Example, for Finite Element analysis required IGES file or STEP
file formats; similarly for 3D Printing required STL file etc.
 Transferring data between dissimilar CAD/CAM systems much
embrace the complete product description stored in its data base.
 CAD/CAM data exchange
Four types of modeling data make up these description, they are

 Shape data: both geometric and topological information, part or form

features. Fonts, color, annotation are considered part of the geometric
information.

 Non-shape data: graphics data such as shaded images, and model

global data as measuring units of the database and the resolution of
storing the database numerical values.

 Design data: information that designers generate from geometric

models for analysis purposes. Mass property and finite element mesh
data belong to this type of data.

 Manufacturing data: information as tooling, NC tool paths, tolerance,

process planning, tool design, and bill of materials (BOM).
 CAD/CAM data exchange
 There is always the demand to be able to tie two or more of these
systems to form an application that shares common data.
 These demand exists either internally within a single organization or
externally as in the case of subcontract manufactures or components
suppliers.
 Where similar CAD/CAM systems are operated by both parties, no
difficulty of exchange exists as the files that store modeling data are
compatible and therefore can be transferred directly.
 This problem has two solutions:
o The direct solution entails translating the modeling data stored in a
product database directly from one CAD/CAM system format to
another.
o The indirect solution is more general and adopts the philosophy of
creating a neutral database structure (also called a neutral file)
which is independent of any existing of future CAD/CAM system.
 CAD/CAM data exchange
Direct translators Indirect translators

IEGS, STEP, etc.

Creo, SolidWorks, AutoCAD, etc. Creo, SolidWorks, AutoCAD, etc.

CAD/CAM data exchange
 The Reverse Engineering process

Start Idea

Concept
design

Detail design
CAD / CAM 3D Digitizing
CNC programme

Manufacturing

Start Finished product

46
Reverse Engineering
 Reverse Engineering
 The engineering design supported by CAD/CAE techniques allows
optimizing the product concept before manufacturing with assistance of
CAM, in management for rapid product development and rapid set-up
production in advance.
 For some product development processes RE (Reverse Engineering)
allows to generate surface models by 3D-scanning technique, and
consequently this methodology permits to manufacture different parts and
tools in a short development period.
 The whole Reverse Engineering process can be divided into four steps:
1. Scanning – Digitizing
2. Processing captured data
3. Surface creation (*.stl or CAD-surface)

4. 3D Printing/Machining
Reverse Engineering Work Flow

49
 Reverse Engineering
 Engineered objects would normally be scanned using laser-scanning or touch
probe technology.

 In this context, RE is the process of capturing geometric data from another

object.

 These data are usually initially available in what is termed “point cloud” form,
meaning an unconnected set of points representing the object surfaces.

 These points need to be connected together using RE software like Geomagic,

which may also be used to combine point clouds from different scans and to
perform other functions like hole-filling and smoothing.

 3D Printing can be used to reproduce the articles that were scanned, which
essentially would form a kind of 3D facsimile (3D Fax) process.
Why do you need 3D Digitizing?
 Old product with no drawings
 A competitor’s product needs to be analyzed
 New design based on existing model
 Spare parts are not available from original system
makers
 Internal defects of castings or forgings need to be
analyzed
 A part is first modeled in Clay, Wood or Foam and
needs to be transferred in to a CAD format
Computer assisted process planning
 Computer assisted process planning (CAPP) is a method by which
the planning function can be implemented by computers.
 It also helps in determining the steps and sequence of operations
required to make a product/part from the CAD drawing and model.
 It facilitates looking at the operation comprising several complex
steps as an integrated system so that all the operations and steps
involved in the manufacture of parts can be coordinated with others.
 Hence, all the activities are carried out efficiently and effectively.
 Computer assisted process planning
 Since conventional methods are not highly reliable, the need of customer
requirements, shorter lead times on the product variety and optimum and
effective use of manufacturing and machining facilities force many
manufacturing industries to rely on automated functions in the product life cycle.
 The following Figure illustrates the simple logic in CAPP.

 In the structure of the process-planning software, the input might be a component

drawing generated either through AutoCAD software or any other CAD software
such as Pro-E or CATIA.

 When this information is fed into the computer system loaded with process-
planning software, it starts generating the sequence of operation and related
instructions which can be printed out either from a printer or from a plotter.
 Computer assisted process planning
 CAPP integrates most of the tools of both CAD and CAM and process planning
is an important step in product development.

 In a process plan, it is very important to structure the data concerning the part
design, operations, manufacturing facilities and capabilities into categories and
logical relationships.

 The output received from the process-planning software is known as route sheet
or routing sheet or process-planning sheet or operations instruction sheet.

 A process-planning sheet will have information about the machine tools and set-
up time and operation time. It is the outcome of converting the component
drawing with dimensions and sizes into a complete listing of various operations
 performed on the component.

 Moreover, the route sheet gives the best sequence of operation or it produces
the optimized result, which means no further correction on the route sheet is
necessary after its generation.
Benefits of Computer assisted process
planning
 The conventional process-planning procedure is time consuming and
inaccurate. But in CAPP, once the route sheet is generated for a particular
component, the rest of the work to be done by the process planner gets
lessened.
 In a conventional system, the time taken is more but in CAPP, the routing
sheets are computer generated and hence the time taken is relatively less.
 CAPP ultimately reduces the cost involved in the generation of routing
sheets which would be more in the case of a conventional method.
 Since the routing sheet is computer generated, the sequence of operations is
always consistent in nature. For the same component drawing, no deviation
will be found.
 All the outputs generated from the CAPP system are accurate in their
quality.
Because of the reason that CAPP reduces time, skill of the planner, cost, etc.,
manufacturing efficiency and productivity are high.
 After completing the process planning, the next step is manufacturing. Now a
days industries are using Computer Aided Manufacturing techniques.
Text Book for Computer Aided Design Chapter
Ibrahim Zeid, R Sivasubramanian, CAD/CAM: Theory and
Practice, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2nd Edition, 2011